This week, Monarch Madness meets Women’s History Month. Our battle is between two women who shared the island in the sixteenth century: Elizabeth I and Mary Queen of Scots. Both were disappointments when they were born, with their fathers desperate for a son.
Mary became Queen of Scotland before she was a week old and Queen Consort of France at age 17. By the time she was 25, her position of Queen Consort of France had ended with the death of her husband, and she had been forced to abdicate the Scottish throne. She fled to England in 1568 and spent the next 19 years as the Catholic alternative to be Queen of England. She married three times and had a son, who became King of Scotland as an infant and eventually became King of England as well. In a time of Kings, Mary was daughter of a King, wife of a King, mother of a King.
Elizabeth was born heir to the throne of England, a title she lost when her mother fell from favor. Elizabeth spent the rest of her father’s reign illegitimate and barred from the succession by Act of Parliament until the Third Succession Act in 1543 put her back in the succession—after her half-brother and half-sister. She was under suspicion during both of her siblings’ reigns, experiencing accusations of treason and time in the Tower of London. She came to the throne at age 25 and ruled England alone for 45 years—the only Queen of England to never marry. She held the throne in the face of rebellions at home and threats from abroad. However, she died without an heir and eventually left her throne to the son of her rival.
But that’s only the basics. Who were these women and what were their reigns like? What is success for a Queen? In a world that demanded men on the throne, how did Elizabeth and Mary make their own way and who, ultimately, was most successful?
Let’s take a look.
Mary Queen of Scots
Mary was born in a time of war and chaos. Her parents had two sons before Mary was born but lost both of them in April 1541. Mary’s father hoped for another son to replace the ones he had lost and was disappointed when the new baby was a girl. But that wasn’t the worst problem: Scotland had just been defeated at the Battle of Solway Moss, and James V was ill. The King was at Falkland Palace when he learned of Mary’s birth 8 December 1542 and is reported to have said, “it came wi a lass, it’ll gang wi a lass” (meaning the Stewart dynasty began with Marjorie Bruce and would end with Mary). In fact, the Stewart/Stuart dynasty did end with a woman, but it was Queen Anne in 1714.
So with his depression complete after a loss to England and birth of a daughter, James V died just six days after Mary’s birth. Scotland was vulnerable and agreed to a deal with England that baby Mary would marry Henry VIII’s son Edward. But Catholics in Scotland, including Mary’s mother Marie of Guise, opposed the marriage to the English heir. Henry embarked on the “rough wooing,” seeking to take the young Queen by force if necessary. But Marie arranged an engagement with the Dauphin of France and, and age 5, Mary went to the French court to prepare to become Queen Consort of France. It’s said that this was when the family began to use the French spelling Stuart.
Mary quickly adapted to the French court, picking up the language and customs. She charmed the French people and the royal family. At the elegant French court, Mary grew from child to young woman. Francois fell in love with his intended bride, and he and Mary developed a deep friendship. Henri II was aware of English politics, and as Catholic Mary I of England was nearing the end of her reign, he recognized an opportunity for his son and future daughter-in-law. Catholics didn’t recognize Elizabeth Tudor’s claim to the throne as valid, making Mary Stuart a possible heir. So Henri moved forward the marriage between the Dauphin and Mary. Francois was only 14 and Mary only 15 when they were married in a grand ceremony in Paris on 24 April 1558. A few days before the ceremony, Mary was tricked into signing an agreement that gave France all the advantages of the marriage, including bequeathing Scotland to France if Mary died first without children.
When Mary I of England died in 1558 and Elizabeth became Queen, Mary Stuart claimed the English throne. It’s said that as she progressed through the French court, she had her heralds cry “Make way for the Queen of England.” When she became Queen Consort of France the next year when Henri II died and Francois became King, Mary Queen of Scots included the arms of England in her coat of arms. On their coins, she and Francois were recognized as King and Queen of France, Scotland, and England. It was a claim she would return to throughout her life and never officially relinquish.
Francois, never in good health, died little more than a year after becoming King. Mary was now Queen Dowager, and the new power at court was her former mother-in-law and mother of the new King, Catherine de Medici. And when Catherine de Medici was not interested in Mary remaining in France, Mary was out. In 1561 Mary returned to Scotland to pick up her reign there.
So before Mary Queen of Scots turned 20 years old, she had been crowned Queen of Scotland, claimed the crown of England, and crowned Queen Consort of France. She had been married and widowed. She had seen religious chaos play out in France. Now she was returning to a very different Scotland than she had left, preparing to take rule a country that had experienced years of religious violence and had become, effectively, a Protestant nation following the reforms led by John Knox.
Mary was initially welcomed warmly. Her half-brother, Earl of Moray, had been ruling as Regent. He assured Mary she would be allowed to practice her Catholic faith. Her people were fascinated by the young Queen and willing to give her a chance. Along with Moray, William Maitland of Lethington, a diplomat who was able to work well with various factions, supported Mary. The Protestant nobles, or “lords of the congregation,” were initially suspicious of Mary, but as she traveled through the country and agreed to forbid anyone holding the mass in public, she made progress with them as well.
Unfortunately for Mary, her next big decision would lead to disaster. Mary always intended to marry again; she didn’t wish to rule or live alone. Her choice of Henry Lord Darnley turned people against the Queen. As Darnley was English and of royal blood (like Mary, Darnley was a grandchild of Margaret Tudor), he was required to seek Queen Elizabeth’s permission to marry, which she did not. Darnley was disliked by the Lords as well, who considered him arrogant and self-serving. Mary ignored all the counsel and married Darnley.
Within a few months, Mary was pregnant. But the marriage had fallen apart. As her husband’s dissolute behavior worsened, Mary withdrew from him and surrounded herself with favorites. Darnley was furious when Mary refused to make him King of Scotland. He resented the people Mary preferred, particularly her musician-turned-secretary David Rizzio.
The night of 9 March 1566, about 80 men gathered at Holyrood House, where the Queen was entertaining friends. Darnley entered the Queen’s chamber, soon followed by others. They targeted Rizzio, dragging him away from the Queen and stabbing him 56 times. Mary later said that the lords threatened her and her unborn child as well. The Queen was taken prisoner, and Darnley again demanded more power in their marriage.
Faced with such dramatic danger, Mary proved herself a superior strategist. She managed to convince Darnley to align himself with her instead of the rebels. She managed to reach out for support, feigning a miscarriage to get letters to her supporters. With the help of Lord Bothwell and Lord Huntly, she managed to escape, riding 5 hours through the night to Dunbar.
Rizzio’s murder was a turning point for Mary. She realized the very real danger she was in and took steps to protect herself, her reign, and her child. And even though there was some kind of reconciliation, she probably never trusted Darnley again. Less than a year later, he would be dead as well. Darnley was murdered 10 February 1567 when the house he was staying in blew up and he was found strangled in the yard. Bothwell was immediately under suspicion, and given Mary’s history with him, she came under suspicion as well.
Either by force or choice, Mary married Bothwell, leading to a complete break with the lords. With James Douglas, Earl of Morton in the lead, the barons defeated the followers of Mary and Bothwell and took them prisoner. Mary was forced to abdicate her throne on 24 July 1567 in favor of her baby son, who became James VI of Scotland. Less than a year later, Mary escaped her imprisonment and fled to England, arriving in 1568. It was 10 years since Elizabeth had been crowned Queen and Mary had claimed the crown of England.
Before we address what happened over the years Mary and Elizabeth spent together in England, let’s catch up with Elizabeth’s life up to this point.
Elizabeth I of England
Elizabeth was born 7 September 1533. That was a big year for Henry VIII—he married Anne Boleyn in secret, knowing she was pregnant. He broke with the Catholic Church and the Pope. His friendly Archbishop of Canterbury approved his annulment from first wife Katherine of Aragon and his marriage to second wife Anne Boleyn. Anne was crowned in a grand ceremony in June. In a way, Elizabeth was crowned as well, since Anne was pregnant at the time. As he counted down to the birth of his heir, Henry waited to prove to everyone that his actions were right. Once his son was born, resistance to his leaving Katherine and the Church of England would, of course, end. He would be proven right in everything.
So the birth of Elizabeth was a blow. Two legitimate daughters and one illegitimate son after nearly 25 years on the throne. Still, Elizabeth was healthy and Anne had become pregnant quickly. There was still time. Elizabeth was made Henry’s heir in the Act of Succession of 1534. It would turn out to be one of the three Acts of Succession that would shape Elizabeth’s life.
In January 1536, Anne miscarried. In May, she fell out of favor with terrifying speed and violence. She was arrested May 2, charged with treasonous relationships with five men including her brother. Her household was broken up. She was tried and found guilty. She was beheaded inside the Tower of London May 19. The next day, Henry was officially betrothed to Jane Seymour, whom he married May 30. And Elizabeth? She was no longer Princess or heir to the throne. The Second Succession Act declared Elizabeth to be illegitimate and removed her from the line of succession.
It’s reported that Elizabeth recognized the change in her status. She reportedly asked a member of her household why “yesterday my Lady Princess, and today but my Lady Elizabeth?” She was kept from her father’s sight and her governess had to beg for money to buy her clothes. Still, she received an extraordinary education, with tutors such as scholars William Grindal and Roger Ascham. She did go to court occasionally, visiting her father and meeting the series of women who were her step-mothers. In particular, she developed a relationship with Anne of Cleves that long outlasted Anne’s marriage to Henry VIII and with Katherine Parr.
It was during his marriage to Katherine Parr that Henry VIII enacted his final Succession Act, which brought both daughters back into the succession. So in the final years of her father’s reign, Elizabeth spent more time at court and was recognized as an heir. Still, she and Mary remained illegitimate.
That status was what Edward VI used to try to deny them his crown. Edward’s “Device for the Succession,” which named Jane Grey and her male children as his heirs, focused on the illegitimate status of his two sisters. Even so, the people rallied around Mary and Elizabeth, and Mary took the throne in 1553 without an actual battle. People on Jane’s side saw the way the tide was turning and turned with it, defecting to the daughter of Henry VIII.
Elizabeth faced many challenges during the reigns of both her half-siblings. The arrest of Thomas Seymour, who had married Katherine Parr and joined the household where Elizabeth was living at the time, created a danger of Elizabeth being implicated in Seymour’s charge of treason. Seymour’s behavior toward Elizabeth while they were living in the same household, and her possible interest in marrying Seymour after Katherine Parr’s death, were used against her. Despite hours of questioning, Elizabeth was not found guilty of anything that could be used against her.
When Protestants rebelled against Mary I and her marriage to Philip of Spain, Elizabeth was again implicated by association. Wyatt had planned to remove Mary and put Elizabeth on the throne instead. After the rebellion, Elizabeth was sent to the Tower of London and imprisoned in the same rooms her mother had stayed in before her execution nearly 20 years before. When Mary I was eventually persuaded to release Elizabeth from the Tower, she did so on 19 May—the anniversary of Anne Boleyn’s execution. That fact would not have escaped either of them.
Mary believed she was pregnant twice. Mary’s child would have effectively ended Elizabeth’s chances of inheriting the throne. But Mary was deceived, either by phantom pregnancies or an illness that convinced her she was with child. Mary’s main priority had always been to re-establish the Catholic faith in England. She knew Elizabeth would not carry on that work. Even so, she could do nothing to prevent her sister inheriting the throne upon her death.
Elizabeth became Queen of England in November 1558. She learned from her sister’s mistakes and tread carefully around the subject of religion. After her coronation in January 1559, she had her first Parliament pass the Act of Supremacy, which reestablished the Church of England and the Act of Uniformity, which created a Common Prayer Book. But she took a more moderate approach to religious reform than her siblings had. She expected her people to obey the laws of the land. She maintained she had no wish to make windows into her people’s minds and hearts. This approach was generally successful for the first ten years of her reign. But then Mary Stuart moved in.
Two Queens, One Crown
A series of events happened after Mary came to England in 1568. She asked Elizabeth to give her an army to regain her Scottish throne. Elizabeth agreed with Mary that subjects should NOT be able to force the monarch to abdicate the throne. Certainly, Elizabeth didn’t want behavior like that out there! But…as far as an army…or fighting for Mary’s throne…that was a different story. Elizabeth’s government actually preferred working with the new government running in behalf of James VI. They were dedicated to Protestantism, and that a much safer neighbor to the north. Elizabeth didn’t want to offer troops against them.
And then there was the question of Darnley’s murder. He was, after all, an English subject and Mary had been implicated in his death. Elizabeth didn’t want the responsibility of finding Mary guilty and punishing her or the necessity to allow her to roam freely in England.
Eventually, there was a trial where the so-called “Casket Letters” came into play. These were a group of eight letters, two marriage contracts, and 12 sonnets supposedly written by Mary and Bothwell that implicated both of them in Darnley’s murder. They were reviewed and compared to letters Mary had written and determined to be accurate. Still, many questions about their authenticity were raised then (and now). Mary still considered herself Queen of Scotland, so she didn’t recognize the English government had any authority over her. The inquiry determined nothing was proven for or against Mary. That meant that Mary would remain in England, living in palaces but unable to move freely, for the next 19 years.
Why did it matter Mary was in England? Her arrival in 1568 coincided with a series of rebellions and actions designed to remove Elizabeth from the throne and install Mary in her place. Her new availability to take Elizabeth’s throne seemed a key factor in kick starting these events.
· 1569: Northern Earls’ Rebellion—Catholic Earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland led a plot to break Mary out of her prison/palace and replace Elizabeth with Mary as Queen of England. They raised an army of more than 5,000 men who wanted to put Mary on the throne and return England to Catholicism. Elizabeth overcame the rebellion. Northumberland and Westmoreland fled. About 800 rebels were captured, tried, and executed.
· 1570: Pope Pius V issued the “Regnans in Excelsis,” which identified Elizabeth I as the “pretended queen of England,” excommunicated her, and called on loyal Catholics to not to obey her laws and to deprive her of her crown. This basically required English Catholics to choose the Pope over the Queen. By definition, then, Catholics were a direct threat to the Queen.
· 1571: Ridolfi Plot—Roberto Ridolfi was an Italian Catholic who set out to assassinate Elizabeth and put Mary on the Throne. The plan involved the Duke of Alba invading from the Netherlands, the support of Philip of Spain, Catholic nobles rising up and murdering Elizabeth, and Mary taking the throne and marrying the powerful Duke of Norfolk (who was Elizabeth’s relative). This plot was foiled by Francis Walsingham, Elizabeth’s so-called “Spymaster,” who was dedicated to protecting Elizabeth, England, and the Protestant church.
· 1583: Throckmorton Plot—Francis Throckmorton, who had traveled throughout Europe meeting people who wanted to get Mary on the English throne, organized a plot that involved a French army led by the Duke of Guise, backed again by Philip of Spain, invading England, drawing on the support of English Catholics in northern England, killing Elizabeth, and putting Mary on the throne. This plot was also broken up by Walsingham. Mary was incriminated and placed under tighter guard, but Elizabeth refused to have her put on trial.
· 1586: Babington Plot—Sir Anthony Babington was inspired by rescue Mary and put her on the throne, again supported by a foreign invasion and English Catholics. This situation was managed by Walsingham, who involved double agents, a beer brewer, and code breakers to monitor Mary’s letters. When she agreed to Elizabeth’s assassination, she was arrested, tried, and found guilty.
Elizabeth had resisted calls for Mary’s trial for years. After the Babington Plot, Elizabeth could no longer pretend Mary wasn’t directly involved. After nearly 20 years of plots and assassination attempts, Cecil and Walsingham were able to convince Elizabeth that the presence of Mary in England was a danger that must be eliminated. Months after Mary was found guilty, Elizabeth finally signed the death warrant. She said she never intended that it be carried out, but it was. Mary was executed for treason 8 February 1587.
Elizabeth’s reign went on until 1603. She reached a pinnacle in 1588 as England prevailed over Phillip’s attempt to invade England with the Spanish Armada. Despite repeated attempts, Philip was never ever to invade England and replace Elizabeth. As the years went on, Elizabeth’s popularity waned and people began to look to the next ruler, as she had always feared. Elizabeth died in March 1603. Like Mary, she was succeeded by Mary’s son, who in addition to being James VI of Scotland became James I of England.
Time to Choose
So, who was ultimately more successful? Both Mary Queen of Scots and Elizabeth I were succeeded by Mary’s son. He became King of England—carrying on Mary’s claim to the throne. But he succeeded as a Protestant, fulfilling Elizabeth’s goal of maintaining England as a Protestant nation. Both women achieved much, ruling in a world that thought women couldn’t rule. But which one was more successful?
Your vote determines the winner of Round Four!
And next time, we’re taking a look at the most famous 6-person team in Consort history: the Six Wives of Henry VIII!