From Heaven to Hell: The Cultural Evolution of Owls in Ancient China

Today, we’ll talk about a pair of owl-shaped wine vessels unearthed in the tomb of Fu Hao, China’s first female general, as well as the cultural significance of owls throughout Chinese history.

Transcript

From Heaven to Hell: The Cultural Evolution of Owls in Ancient China

Today, we’ll talk about a pair of owl-shaped wine vessels unearthed in the tomb of Fu Hao, China’s first female general, as well as the cultural significance of owls throughout Chinese history.

When one thinks of owls, wisdom often comes to mind. No wonder there’s an English saying describing someone as “wise as an owl.”

This saying likely has ancient roots. In Greek culture, the owl serves as a symbol of Athena, the Greek goddess of wisdom. It is believed that the nocturnal nature of owls led the ancient Greeks to believe in the bird’s ability to foresee the future. Subsequently, the owl became associated with Athena, embodying wisdom, reason, and justice. In the mid-5th century, the coin of the city-state of Athens, one of the era’s most significant regional, if not international currencies, featured Athena on the front side and an owl on the back – symbolic of the city’s values.

This positive image has persisted through the ages. In contemporary Western culture, the cartoon depiction of an owl in children’s books often portrays it wearing black-framed glasses, adorned with a doctoral cap, and holding a cane or book – embodying a scholarly appearance.

In the Chinese culture, the image of the owl has undergone a transformation from positive to negative, signifying a profound reflection of the cultural and historical changes in ancient China.

The worship of owls may trace its origins as far back as the Stone Age. Archaeological discoveries in southwestern China’s Shaanxi Province, such as owl-headed pottery sculptures from the Yangshao Culture, reveal artifacts with distinct owl features. Similar representations appear in pottery bird heads from the Yangshao Culture in central China. Furthermore, among the artifacts of the Hongshan Culture in northeastern Liaoning Province, small jade ornaments featuring carvings resembling flying owls have been unearthed. Rock paintings portraying owls, dating back to the Neolithic period, have been found in Lianyungang of east China’s Jiangsu Province. During this time, the owl was considered a symbol of strength and military prowess.

The owl, characterized by its swift and efficient hunting capabilities, exceptional vision, and a unique ability to capture prey at night, was revered by ancient people as a messenger of the divine. Some even believe that the name of the legendary “God of War,” Chi You – an ancient tribal leader and weapon smith – originated from the term “chi xiao,” meaning owl in ancient Chinese, due to their phonetic similarity.

The apex of owl worship occurred during the Shang Dynasty, lasting from 1600 to 1046 BCE, evidenced by the discovery of numerous owl-shaped bronzeware and patterns. The Fu Hao Bronze Wine Vessel stands out as the epitome of such artifacts.

In 1976, a pair of owl-shaped wine vessels were unearthed from the tomb of Fu Hao in Anyang, Central China’s Henan Province. Today, one is housed in the National Museum, while the other resides in the Henan Museum. These vessels were originally the possessions of Fu Hao, a queen during the reign of King Wu Ding, the twenty-second ruler of the Shang Dynasty. 

Now, back to the owl-shaped bronze vessels, standing at about 46 centimeters tall, they are consistent with the size of real-life owls. Notably, they rank among the largest owl-shaped bronze vessels ever unearthed in China.

Each owl vessel includes a lid atop a robust body and presents itself with raised head, piercing eyes, a lofty crown, a subtly protruding chest, emanating an aura of heroism and dominance. Supreme artistic skill was demonstrated in the crafting of sturdy legs and a broad downward-curving tail, thus forming a triangular support that ensures the stability of the vessel.

The owl vessel also incorporates several auspicious patterns, underscoring its imperial status. Decorative cicada patterns adorn the hook-shaped beak and chest of the owl, symbolizing ancestral resurrection and the belief in the revival of ancestral spirits. Bird patterns grace the sides of the owl, extending from the beak to the wings.

The possessor of this vessel, Fu Hao, was the wife of King Wu Ding in the Shang Dynasty. However, as you may recall from our previous podcast on Fu Hao, she wore multiple hats, being not only a queen but also a landed lady and a priestess. Most notably, Fu Hao was a distinguished general who led almost half of the Shang troops into battle against invaders. Winning numerous battles, some of which were fought alongside her husband, she played a crucial role in safeguarding Shang territory from enemy occupation.

The profound respect King Wu Ding had for Fu Hao is evident in the burial of the owl-shaped statues alongside her, symbolizing her victorious military role. This act unmistakably mirrors the Shang people’s deep admiration for owls as symbols of war and triumph. The question then arises: from where did this admiration originate?

This reverence can be traced back to the totem worship of the Shang people, who believed that their ancestors were born from a dark bird. While the exact identity of this dark bird has been a subject of debate – some proposing it to be a swallow while others associate it with the owl – the Shang people universally held birds in high esteem. Birds were revered as tribal totems by their ancestors, emphasizing their cultural significance.

Throughout the Shang period, frequent wars with neighboring tribes meant that life was a constant struggle for survival. Shang kings, in a bid to avoid invasions, relocated the country’s capital several times. In the harsh living conditions of this tumultuous era, reverence for all raptors, including the owl, became a significant aspect of worship.

The psychological need for communication with the divine likely contributed to the heightened worship of owls among the Shang people. Living in a superstitious society, the Shang sought guidance from gods and ancestors. Owls, being active at night, appeared as spirits of darkness. This characteristic easily led the nature-worshipping Shang people to perceive owls as messengers communicating with underworld deities.

However, the perception of owls in China took a negative turn rather swiftly. If you were to inquire about the impression of owls among the Chinese today, it would not be surprising to find many regarding them as ominous birds, often labeled as “unfilial birds” or “harbingers of mourning.”

So, when did this shift occur? Archeological artifacts hold the key.

From the Stone Age to the Shang Dynasty, artifacts featuring owl images were prevalent, mainly in the form of ritual vessels, projecting a positive image of the owl.

However, during the subsequent Western Zhou period, lasting from 1046 to 771 BCE, following the Shang era, the number of owl-shaped artifacts sharply declined. By the conclusion of the Eastern Zhou period from 770 to 221 BCE, the owl’s image shifted primarily to burial items, transforming into objects exclusively associated with funerary rites. The Zhou people began portraying the owl on coffins, considering it a messenger guiding the deceased into the underworld – a role that established the owl as a revered “tomb guardian.”

In the Han Dynasty, lasting from 202 BCE to 220 CE, the owl’s image continued to feature prominently in tomb paintings. During this period, the owl’s symbolism underwent a notable transformation – from a ritual object to a funerary one. The cultural connotations gradually shifted from its initial victorious and majestic aura to an ominous and evil symbolism.

This transformation is further evident in literary works, confirming a turning point in owl culture during the Western Zhou period. In the Book of Poetry, a collection primarily consisting of poems from the Western Zhou era, there are two mentions of owls – one portraying a positive image and the other a negative one.

The poem titled “Pan Water” celebrates the victory of the King of the Lu State over the Huai barbarians and lauds the owl with a praising tone:

“The graceful flying owl resides in the Pan forest near the Pan water. After consuming our mulberries, it returns our sweet sounds with gratitude.”

In this context, the owl’s call symbolized a favorable omen in warfare. The presence or call of the owl was seen as an auspicious sign foretelling victory in battle.

By contrast, the poem “Chi Xiao”, or The Owl, written during the Western Zhou period, depicts a mother bird defending its nest after an owl seizes its chicks. The poem showcases the pain, resilience, and determination of the mother bird, and the owl is portrayed as a symbol of cruelty and greed. Some lines of the poem go as follows: 

“Oh! Owl, you have already taken my child. Please do not ruin my abode. So poor I, with care and pain, to raise children.

I, with my hands, gather straw; I, with my effort, pluck the wild barley. I, with these things, want to make my abode stronger.

I, with my feathers, am thin and scanty; I, with my tail, am ragged and torn. My abode is tilting, rocked by wind and rain; I can do nothing but continue my mournful cries!”

This poem marks one of the initial instances where the owl is depicted as a negative character in Chinese literature.

Subsequently, during the Eastern Zhou period from 770 to 221 BCE, the literary portrayal of owls took an even more negative turn. The Taoist philosopher Zhuang Zi, in a metaphor, likened the prime minister of the Wei State to an owl, describing it as small-minded and protective of its rotten food.

In the Han Dynasty, the owl earned the title of “unfilial bird.” In a dictionary compiled by the scholar Xu Shen, “xiao”, meaning owl, was defined as an unfilial bird, with a belief that young owls would eat their own mothers. Ancient observers, not understanding the owl’s feeding habits, mistakenly thought that the expelled feathers and bones came from the mother bird, leading to this erroneous belief. In reality, owls lack teeth and often swallow their prey whole, regurgitating undigestible bones, fur, and other residue in the form of pellets.

It was also during the Han Dynasty that the owl gradually became synonymous with “death, greed, cunning, darkness, and ill luck.” However, this transformation in perception did not happen overnight. Owl-shaped vessels continued to exist as daily utensils for containing food, particularly believed to be effective as a deterrent against rats due to the owl’s prowess as a mouse hunter.

This nuanced transition is evident in recent archaeological findings. In 2020, a Han Dynasty pottery five-owl-shaped jar was unearthed in Guangzhou, Guagndong Province. It was considered a utensil for holding fruits or seasonings, indicating that owl imagery persisted in practical daily use. These examples suggest that, owing to regional differences and the time lag of cultural transmission, the positive image of owls persisted until the Han Dynasty, although it was more associated with functionality than ritual worship.

Hence, it becomes evident that the transformation of the owl’s image commenced during the Western Zhou period. By the conclusion of the Eastern Zhou period and the early Han Dynasty, the owl had gradually fallen out of favor.

What prompted this shift in the owl’s image during the Western Zhou period?

With the Zhou Dynasty replacing the Shang through warfare, the new rulers sought to erase the cultural legitimacy of the Shang. An effective strategy involved denouncing the bird totem culture of the Shang. The owl, once highly respected by the Shang kings, found itself unwelcomed among the Zhou rulers.

With fewer military challenges from neighboring nations or tribes, the Zhou Dynasty had less need to assert power among the people. Emphasizing ritual, order, law, and peace became more crucial for the Zhou rulers. Consequently, the owl, once a symbol of military power, gradually lost its popularity.

In this context, the cultural evolution of the owl as a symbol is one indicator of how rulers of ancient China transitioned from focusing on survival and war to emphasizing peace and civilization.

Well, that’s the end of our podcast. Our theme music is by the famous film score composer Roc Chen. We want to thank our writer Lü Weitao, translator Du Guodong, and copy editor Pu Ren. And thank you for listening. We hope you enjoyed it, and if you did, please tell a friend so they, too, can understand The Context.