Shifting Targets: The Evolution of Archery Rites in Ancient China

Today, we’ll talk about the evolution of archery rites in ancient China that became understood through a bronze artifact in the shape of an arrow-pierced turtle, highlighting how archery transformed from a martial art essential for kings into a politically significant ritual.

Transcript

Shifting Targets: The Evolution of Archery Rites in Ancient China

Today, we’ll talk about the evolution of archery rites in ancient China that became understood through a bronze artifact in the shape of an arrow-pierced turtle, highlighting how archery transformed from a martial art essential for kings into a politically significant ritual.

What qualities define a good king? In ancient China, aspiring rulers had to master a plethora of skills before ascending the throne, and included among these essential skills was archery. Mastery of the bow was not merely a display of martial prowess but also a source of honor. In fact, failure to excel in archery could bring shame upon a prince.

An intriguing artifact housed in the National Museum of China sheds light on the significance of archery in ancient Chinese culture. Known as Zuoce Ban Yuan, this bronze piece depicts how proficiency in archery evolved from a practical skill to a politically significant ritual.

Standing approximately 10 cm tall, 21.4 cm long and 16 cm wide, and weighing 1.6 kilograms, the artifact depicts a turtle with four arrowheads embedded in its shell. More precisely, three arrows are depicted as having struck the outer shell, while the fourth – the kill shot – pierces the turtle’s upper neck just under the shell. Whoever might have made such an incredible shot would no doubt have won the contest. 

This bronze item was commissioned by Zhou, the last king of the Shang Dynasty, which spanned 1600 to 1046 BCE, to commemorate a hunting or archery ritual. The production of the piece was overseen by an official named “Ban”. In this context, “Zuoce” refers to Ban’s official title, denoting the historian responsible for recording the words and deeds of the Shang king.

The turtle, known as “yuan” in ancient China, belongs to the family of soft-shelled turtles, which are now a nationally protected species. They are the largest freshwater turtles, and can grow to more than a meter in length and weigh up to 100 kilograms.

During the Shang period, hunting typically targeted prey such as rabbits, deer and wild boar, as well as larger beasts like wolves, leopards, tigers and bears. So, why would the capture of a large turtle excite King Zhou enough to commission a bronze artifact to commemorate it?

Such a turtle was not only large in size but also possessed considerable strength and was capable of inflicting harm to humans with its powerful jaws. Ancient people, who held nature in reverence, regarded it as a mystical and potent creature.

Furthermore, such turtles were considered a delicacy, reserved for consumption only by kings and the wealthy elite. Therefore, for King Zhou, the act of capturing a large turtle symbolized both his prowess as a warrior and a favorable blessing from heaven.

The inscription on the back of the turtle offers a detailed account of the hunting expedition, which provides valuable insights into ancient practices. It reads:

“On the day of Bing Shen, the Shang king hunted at the Huan River and captured a large turtle. The king shot one arrow at the turtle, and afterward, his attendants shot three arrows, all without missing. Pleased with the hunt, the king commanded his court official, ‘Kuai’, to present the captured turtle to the official ‘Ban’, instructing him to record this event in bronze as a treasure.”

While the hunting experiences of Shang kings are extensively documented on oracle bones, the inscription on the Zuoce Ban Yuan offers rich detail. It suggests that this expedition was not a typical hunting excursion, but possibly a ceremonial event, serving as a prototype for what would later be recognized as “archery rites”.

Several indications support the notion that this hunting expedition could be the first recorded archery rite in China.

The involvement of the king’s attendants in shooting the arrows appears to be more than just a practical necessity. It likely carried symbolic significance. Although King Zhou could have continued shooting on his own after the initial arrow, his decision to allow his attendants to take subsequent shots demonstrated a gesture of benevolence and shared joy in the hunt. 

Some scholars suggest, based on the sequence of events in the inscription, that the turtle was captured first, then restrained and suspended for the king to shoot. This practice resembles later royal archery ceremonies, where controlled prey is symbolically targeted by nobles.

Additionally, King Zhou and his attendants shot a total of four arrows at the turtle, mirroring later archery rituals, where each participant would shoot four arrows. Documents describing archery rites following the Shang period indicate that four arrows per person became a standard practice. This tradition likely evolved from the late Shang period.

Lastly, the phrase “without missing” in the inscription also holds unique significance. While it may seem redundant, it serves to praise the king’s exceptional archery skills, functioning as a form of flattery. In later archery rites, such praise is standard practice, with designated people announcing a hit when a target was struck. The inclusion of “without missing” could be considered one of the earliest recorded expressions of this.

Overall, these details suggest that King Zhou’s killing of the large turtle transcended a mere hunting expedition to become a politically significant archery rite, showcasing not only his prowess but also reinforcing his authority and benevolence as a ruler.

However, it is not suggested that King Zhou’s actions were solely for display. The skill required to accurately shoot an arrow, particularly one capable of piercing the turtle’s shell, indicates a level of proficiency beyond that of an average, unpracticed individual.

During the Shang Dynasty, which controlled a relatively small territory primarily in present-day central China’s Henan Province, the constant threats from neighboring tribes necessitated vigilant defense and occasional warfare. To effectively govern under such circumstances, a king could not afford to appear weak. For a Shang king, possessing martial skills, including archery, was essential to command respect and maintain authority.

However, as time progressed into the Zhou Dynasty, which ran from 1046 to 256 BCE, the significance of archery underwent a transformation.

As the Zhou Dynasty expanded its territorial reach and encountered diminished external military threats, its mode of governance underwent a notable shift from a predominantly martial focus, to one centered around civil administration. This transition prioritized rituals, order and the establishment of legal systems. Within this structured framework, archery rituals assumed a formalized, ethical and political significance.

The Zhou archery rites placed a strong emphasis on hierarchy, evident in the selection of targets known as “hou”. The choice of targets varied based on the participant’s rank: The Zhou king utilized bear skin targets adorned with white fabric, nobles used deer skin targets embellished with red fabric, senior officials targeted images resembling tigers or leopards, while commoners aimed at targets featuring deer or wild boar motifs.

Furthermore, the Zhou rulers meticulously categorized archery rites into four distinct levels to underscore the hierarchical structure inherent in these ceremonies. I’ll introduce them for you briefly starting from the upper echelons of society and working our way down. 

First, we have Grand Archery: This ceremonial ritual, usually overseen by the king, aimed to identify talented individuals for sacrificial purposes. It likely served to demonstrate loyalty and prowess, while also reinforcing social hierarchies.

Next, we have Guest Archery: During visits between nobles or when nobles visited the king, a guest archery rite would take place. This event symbolized hospitality and mutual respect, with the king participating alongside the visiting nobles to welcome them graciously.

And if the celebration went on long enough, there was Banquet Archery, or Feast Archery: Following a banquet, the king or nobles would engage in archery with their subordinates, envoys, or guests as part of the post-banquet festivities. This practice fostered camaraderie and provided an opportunity for leisurely competition.

The fourth and final category is Local Archery: This was a civilian archery ritual conducted during the spring and autumn seasons that brought together communities from various towns and states for archery practice. Emphasizing community engagement and skill development, it likely served as a means of fostering unity and preparedness among the populace.

And contrary to how you might imagine it, the process of conducting archery rites was quite intricate, involving several meticulously planned steps. Using local archery as an example, preparations included setting up the shooting range and welcoming guests. The formal opening marked the commencement of the rites, often accompanied by traditional rituals. Participants were paired and rules explained to ensure fair play. Skilled archers demonstrated proper technique, inspiring others. Shooting in three rounds allowed participants to showcase skill and accuracy. And sometimes the competition would be accompanied by music, which added to the festive atmosphere. 

The conclusion involved bidding a formal farewell to the guests and participants, and with a heartfelt expression of gratitude, one can reasonably conclude that community bonds would be well reinforced. This elaborate process highlighted the cultural significance and communal nature of archery rites.

During the Spring and Autumn Period, from 770 to 476 BCE, Confucius placed great emphasis on the ritualization of archery, considering it one of the six arts alongside general rites, music, charioteering, calligraphy and mathematics. Confucius himself was a skilled archery instructor, highlighting the use of archery not only to cultivate virtue, but also to learn proper etiquette, rather than focusing solely on competitive ability.

Confucius emphasized that “the way of the archer is the way of benevolence”. According to Confucius, after a contest, the winner should pour drinks for the loser, fostering goodwill among all participants.

Additionally, he stressed that, in archery rites, hitting the target was more significant than penetrating it, highlighting the importance of accuracy over strength. This shift exemplified the ceremonial nature of archery rites.

With the rise of Confucianism, archery rites gained popularity attracting attention from imperial families, the wealthy and the scholarly. However, actual archery practice remained primarily a military pursuit.

Archery rites eventually evolved into a more casual form known as “tou hu”. In this activity, participants, including intellectuals and scholars, competed by throwing arrows into pots instead of using bows. Reminds me of throwing darts in an Irish pub. 

For emperors who had a genuine passion for archery and horsemanship, the standardized archery rites often fell short of satisfying their desire for adventure and excitement. In addition to the formalities of ceremonial archery, the tradition of field hunting persisted throughout the various dynasties.

One of the most renowned hunting events in Chinese history was the “mulanshou” of the Qing Dynasty, which lasted between 1644 and 1911, that took place an impressive 105 times, with each event lasting approximately a month. Emperor Kangxi, in particular, held a strong fondness for this pursuit. He established the Mulan Hunting Grounds in Chengde, Hebei Province, spanning over 14,000 square kilometers. To put its vastness into perspective, it was more than twice as large as Shanghai, making it the world’s largest royal hunting ground.

The “mulanshou” transcended the mere enjoyment of the thrill of hunting. It served as a crucial opportunity for training the coordination and organizational abilities of princes and military officers within the Qing Dynasty. Beyond the imperial court, Mongolian tribes were also invited to participate, turning the event into a significant political affair. These hunts thus became multifaceted events, blending elements of military training with political and cultural exchange, further solidifying the Qing Dynasty’s authority and influence in the region.

Indeed, orchestrating such large-scale hunting expeditions demanded immense resources and substantial financial investment. Mobilizing tens of thousands of troops, gathering vast quantities of supplies, and maintaining them during peacetime were monumental undertakings that showcased the wealth and power of the ruling dynasty. Even today, remnants of this legacy endure in the outskirts of Beijing, where villages bear names such as Dayingwa and Haijingluo. These villages once served as hubs for keeping and training hunting birds such as falcons, a crucial component of imperial hunts.

Throughout history, the initial generations of emperors in unified dynasties often displayed adept skills in archery and horsemanship, showcasing their considerable talent in military leadership. However, as periods of peace became more prevalent, succeeding rulers tended to adopt a more peaceful ruling style, shifting their focus from martial prowess to governance through culture and education. 

This transition reflected changing priorities and societal needs, with emperors recognizing the importance of stability, prosperity, and the cultivation of intellectual and artistic pursuits. As a result, real archery and horsemanship, once symbols of military might, gradually gave way to ritualized archery, which is more political and scholarly. While those rulers may have still engaged in archery and horsemanship as a means of honoring their ancestors, those activities were primarily symbolic in nature. 

This encapsulates the essence of archery rites: while never forgetting the historical significance and power of archery, there is a greater emphasis placed on ceremony and tradition. Peace, rather than war, has long been valued more by the Chinese people.

In his seminal work, The Art of War, Sun Tzu, the renowned Chinese military strategist, emphasizes the importance of achieving victory through peaceful means other than direct conflict. He famously states, “The supreme art of war is to subdue the enemy without fighting.” 

This timeless wisdom underscores the value of diplomacy, strategy and the avoidance of unnecessary bloodshed. Archery rites serve as a reminder of this principle, honoring the martial tradition, while advocating for the pursuit of peace and prosperity.

Well, that’s the end of our podcast. Our theme music is by the famous film score composer Roc Chen. We want to thank our writer Lü Weitao, translator Du Guodong, and copy editor Pu Ren. And thank you for listening. We hope you enjoyed it, and if you did, please tell a friend so they, too, can understand The Context.