A Century of Change: The Forbidden City’s Journey to the Palace Museum

In the first installment of what will be a two-part feature, we’ll talk about the transformation of the Forbidden City into the Palace Museum, focusing on China’s last emperor Puyi’s expulsion in 1924, the Qing imperial family’s financial struggles, and the founding of the museum in 1925.

Transcript

A Century of Change: The Forbidden City’s Journey to the Palace Museum

In the first installment of what will be a two-part feature, we’ll talk about the transformation of the Forbidden City into the Palace Museum, focusing on China’s last emperor Puyi’s expulsion in 1924, the Qing imperial family’s financial struggles, and the founding of the museum in 1925.

2025 marks the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Palace Museum. In 1925, exactly 100 years ago, the Forbidden City began to be known as the Palace Museum. However, it was no longer entirely an imperial palace. The transformation started in 1912, and it took another 13 years to become the Palace Museum. 

After the Xinhai Revolution, or the 1911 Revolution that toppled the Qing Dynasty, the Qing emperor abdicated, marking the end of China’s more than 2,000-year-old autocratic monarchy. The “outer court” of the palace, which includes the three main halls and surrounding imperial buildings, was taken over by the Republic of China government. However, the “inner court” to the north of the three halls, which housed the imperial harem, continued to serve as the residence of Puyi, the last emperor of the Qing Dynasty, which lasted from 1644 to 1911. 

Within half of the Forbidden City, Puyi still held the title of emperor, maintaining a number of officials and eunuchs, and even preserving a so-called “small court.” According to the Special Privileges for the Qing Royal Family, the Qing imperial family received privileges from the Republican government, along with an annual allowance of 4 million taels of silver.

After this, the first person to use the Three Great Halls as a ceremonial venue was a woman, Empress Dowager Longyu, who is not very well-known in Chinese history. She signed the abdication decree on behalf of the young Emperor Puyi, ushering in the first republican government in Chinese history – the Republic of China. After her death, Yuan Shikai, the interim president of the Republic of China, bestowed upon her an extraordinarily high status and evaluation, setting up her memorial hall in the largest hall of the Forbidden City – the Hall of Supreme Harmony.

In the previous 500 years of history, although 24 emperors had lived in the Forbidden City, none of them were afforded the same honor as Empress Dowager Longyu.

Before becoming Empress Dowager, Longyu had been the Empress of the Guangxu Emperor. As an empress, she was not particularly beautiful, and she even had a slight hunchback. She was chosen as the empress because she was the niece of Empress Dowager Cixi, who trusted her more than others. However, after their marriage, Longyu was not favored by her husband, the Guangxu Emperor. The Guangxu Emperor was infatuated with another concubine, Consort Zhen, who was later tragically killed under orders from Cixi. The unfortunate girl was thrown into a well, and it has since become one of the most visited sites within the Forbidden City, known as Zhenfei Well.

After the failure of the Hundred Days’ Reform, the Guangxu Emperor was nearly deposed and lived like a prisoner. Empress Longyu became a spy for Empress Dowager Cixi, tasked with monitoring the Guangxu Emperor’s every move, which further estranged her from him.

After both the Guangxu Emperor and Empress Dowager Cixi passed away, nearly simultaneously, this otherwise ordinary, indecisive, and practically powerless former empress was elevated in status, becoming the Empress Dowager. In fact, she became the pillar of the Qing Dynasty. It was her influence that allowed China to peacefully transition to its first republican government, which could have otherwise been born in bloodshed and conflict. Therefore, after the Forbidden City ceased to be an imperial palace, Empress Dowager Longyu became the first and only person in Chinese history to have her memorial hall set up in the Hall of Supreme Harmony. This remains a unique event in Chinese history.

Ultimately, however, Empress Dowager Longyu’s frail shoulders could hardly bear the immense burden of the Qing Empire. After being forced to sign the abdication decree of the Qing emperor, she passed away just a year later at the age of 46, a victim of deep sorrow and emotional distress. Yuan Shikai, who had used various tactics to coax her into signing the decree, sought to honor the late empress dowager by hanging a complimentary banner.

In the year following Empress Dowager Longyu’s death, the Hall of Supreme Harmony and several other halls in the Outer Court were converted into the Museum of Antiquities, which can be considered China’s first museum and a precursor to what would later become the Palace Museum. The idea of turning a royal palace into a museum had already become a common practice around the world. However, Yuan Shikai still wanted to retain the Hall of Supreme Harmony for himself. He invested considerable time, effort, and money into renovations, even renaming it the “Chengyun Hall,” meaning “Endorsed by Heaven’s Mandate,” to reflect his belief that he was acting in accordance with the divine will, taking over the vast empire of China.

On December 12, 1915, Yuan Shikai declared himself emperor, becoming the Hongxian Emperor, and he planned a grand coronation ceremony to be held in the Hall of Supreme Harmony (or Chengyun Hall) on January 1, 1916. Unfortunately, just days before the ceremony, General Cai E began organizing the “Protect the Republic Movement” in the southwest, calling for a rebellion against Yuan Shikai. This sparked nationwide resistance, forcing Yuan to cancel his coronation. His reign lasted only 83 days, and on March 22, 1916, with public outcry growing, he was forced to abdicate. Not long after, he also passed away in sorrow.

Yuan Shikai used both coercion and persuasion to make Empress Dowager Longyu sign the abdication decree. While Longyu lost the Qing Empire in her lifetime, she left behind a trace of honor after her death. In contrast, Yuan Shikai gained the throne and the empire, but he is remembered posthumously as a “thief of the nation.” Whether during his lifetime or after his death, he never succeeded in using the Hall of Supreme Harmony. for his coronation.

More than a year later, the Hall of Supreme Harmony, which had been quiet for so long, was briefly filled with bustle again, as there were still those who longed to step into the hall. On July 1, 1917, the “Braid General” Zhang Xun entered Beijing with his troops and restored the 12-year-old Puyi to the throne, holding a restoration ceremony in the Hall of Supreme Harmony. Zhang Xun, who kept his long queue, the traditional Manchu hairstyle, and his troops, known as the “Queue Army,” dreamed of restoring the Qing Dynasty. This restoration was not like Yuan Shikai’s; it was a real attempt to restore the Qing emperor.

Zhang Xun had originally been a guard at the Forbidden City’s eastern gate and had gained the favor of Empress Dowager Cixi, who promoted him to a local official. He was deeply grateful to her and, after the founding of the Republic, remained obsessed with restoring the Qing Dynasty. 

Alongside Zhang Xun, there was also a literary figure involved in the restoration, the famous reformist Kang Youwei. These two, one military and one civilian, helped Puyi ascend to the throne in the Hall of Supreme Harmony once again, making him sit in the imperial dragon chair. However, this restoration lasted only 12 days – shorter even than Yuan Shikai’s attempt – before it was easily overthrown by Duan Qirui, who had been preparing for it. 

Duan Qirui earned the reputation of being the “Third Proponent of the Republic.” The first was during the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, when he advocated for peace talks and the establishment of a republic. The second was during Yuan Shikai’s restoration, when he called for the protection of the republic. The third time, Duan didn’t just send a telegram but actually led troops to overthrow the restoration. Zhang Xun’s “Queue Army” of a few thousand soldiers was easily scattered or forced to surrender; Zhang Xun sought refuge in the Dutch Legation. Kang Youwei, once a renowned leader of the reformist movement, ended up becoming a “laughingstock” after this failed restoration. And as for Puyi, being a child, he bore no responsibility and returned to the Forbidden City’s “inner palace,” continuing to play the role of the “little emperor” of his “small court.” 

Although the Three Great Halls of the Forbidden City no longer served as the solemn court of the empire, they still stood silently, watching the “jokes” of those who tried to “turn history backward,” like smoke drifting past the halls. The Palace Museum may no longer be a royal palace, but it remains like a mirror, reflecting the masks and true faces of everyone who enters and exits.

The true turning point for the Forbidden City, when it officially became the Palace Museum, occurred with the 1924 “Beijing Coup” initiated by Feng Yuxiang. Feng Yuxiang, originally a high-ranking military officer, secretly coordinated with several other generals to launch an attack on the warlord Zhang Zuolin in northeast China. During this time, he also turned against his former leaders, including the “bribe-elected president” Cao Kun, and made his way back to Beijing. This event became known as the “Beijing Coup.”

The coup took place on October 23, 1924, and just a little over a week later, on November 5, Feng Yuxiang made a major decision – to expel Puyi from the Forbidden City to demonstrate his revolutionary stance and will. The previous attempts at restoring the monarchy had already stirred public anger regarding the continued existence of the “small court” within the “inner palace.” Another significant reason for this expulsion was economic: under the earlier “Privileges for the Qing Imperial Family” agreement, the Republic of China government was required to pay the Qing imperial family an annual subsidy of 4 million taels of silver. Although this was not such a large sum, it became unsustainable given the difficult financial situation of the newly established Republic of China. In fact, the government frequently defaulted on its payments to the Qing imperial family. From 1912 to 1924, the government was supposed to pay a total of 52 million taels, but the actual amount paid was less than 40%.

In this situation, successive governments found themselves in a difficult position, but the person in the most difficult spot was Puyi, who was gradually growing up in the deep palace. In the summer of 1922, Puyi expressed a desire to study abroad. However, the question of funding was a significant issue. To solve his financial shortfall, Puyi resorted to the simple method of pilfering from his own household.

From July to December 1922, Puyi secretly stole 1,285 scrolls of imperial documents under the pretext of rewarding his younger brothers Pujie and Pujia. These included calligraphy and paintings, 68 albums, 210 books, and 502 letters. A large number of precious cultural and artistic treasures from the inner palace were stolen by Puyi under the guise of granting rewards. Puyi kept these treasures with him, taking them first to Tianjin and later to Changchun in northeast China’s Jilin Province. During the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression, Changchun, the capital of the puppet state of Manchukuo, became the site where much of the stolen cultural property was either sold or lost during the chaos of war. 

Some of the most valuable items were confiscated by Soviet Red Army troops when Puyi tried to flee to Japan, and these were eventually returned to the Northeast Museum, now known as the Liaoning Provincial Museum. Thus, the Liaoning Provincial Museum holds a collection of calligraphy and paintings that are so rare they were never even seen in the Forbidden City in Beijing. The provenance of these treasures tells the story of their journey.

Puyi’s actions were primarily driven by the need to solve immediate financial problems and ease the survival crisis of his “small court.” Puyi had already realized that the Chinese public had shifted their allegiance to the republic, and he questioned how much longer he could maintain his “small court” under such circumstances. There were also doubts about whether the Nationalist government would ever pay the overdue allowance. More importantly, inside the palace, theft had already become rampant. To cover up the thefts, palace maids and eunuchs even set fire to the most treasure-laden palace, Jianfu Palace, burning it to the ground. It is unknown how many treasures were swapped or how many valuable items were lost to the flames.

As a young man of just seventeen or eighteen, Puyi truly didn’t know how to face this unprecedented personal situation. He was caught between the currents of history, unable to make a choice in the face of the nation’s turmoil. While his theft of family paintings, calligraphy, and cultural relics was a historical crime, it can be somewhat understood due to the prior debts of the Nationalist government, the widespread theft within the palace, and the lack of oversight. Therefore, in this context, Puyi’s pilfering can be seen as steeling from himself and somewhat understandable under the circumstances.

When Feng Yuxiang drove Puyi out of the Forbidden City, it can be viewed as a final solution to the issue of the unpaid allowances. And in fact, Feng didn’t eliminate Puyi entirely but merely reduced the annual allowance. However, even this reduced amount was never fully paid. 

Three days after Puyi was expelled from the Forbidden City, the government established a “Committee for the Aftercare of the Imperial Family” to inventory the palace’s public and private property, in preparation for the founding of the Palace Museum the following year. On October 10, 1925, the 14th National Day of the Republic of China, the Beijing Palace Museum was officially established, and the front three halls as well as the inner palace of the Forbidden City became national public property. And now we celebrate its 100th anniversary!

Well, that’s the end of our podcast. Our theme music is by the famous film score composer Roc Chen. We want to thank our writer Song Yimin, translator Wang Yuyan, and copy editor Pu Ren. And thank you for listening. We hope you enjoyed it, and if you did, please tell a friend so they, too, can understand The Context.