Guan Yu: The Immortal Legend of Loyalty and Righteousness

Today, we’ll talk about Guan Yu, the legendary general whose unwavering loyalty, courage, and righteousness transformed him from a historical figure into an enduring cultural and spiritual icon deeply revered across China and the world.

Transcript

Guan Yu: The Immortal Legend of Loyalty and Righteousness

Today, we’ll talk about Guan Yu, the legendary general whose unwavering loyalty, courage, and righteousness transformed him from a historical figure into an enduring cultural and spiritual icon deeply revered across China and the world.

On June 10, the fifth joint meeting for the “Historic Sites of Guan Sheng Culture” joint application for World Cultural Heritage status was held in the city of Zhangzhou, Fujian Province. In order to further strengthen intergovernmental and heritage site collaboration, representatives from the Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage and heritage sites across six locations in four provinces – Shanxi, Henan, Hubei, and Fujian – gathered in the city to jointly advance the World Heritage application for the “Historic Sites of Guan Sheng Culture.”

In China, whether nestled between the skyscrapers of bustling metropolises or beside the curling smoke of remote rural kitchens, you may come across a particularly sacred space: red walls, yellow tiles, and swirling incense. Upon entering, a commanding statue often takes center stage. The details may vary, but in each case you will see what is traditionally described as a face like a ripe jujube with painted lips, phoenix-shaped eyes, silkworm-shaped brows, and a long, flowing beard that hangs past the chest. The impressive figure is often clad in a green robe and always wielding his Green Dragon Crescent Blade. Thusly, he emanates majesty without anger. 

This is Guan Yu, also known as Guan Sheng or Saint Guan. Though this famed general of the Three Kingdoms period passed away more than 1,800 years ago, his influence has transcended time and history, elevating him to divine status. Revered as “Emperor Guan” and “Great Emperor Who Assists Heaven,” he is venerated as the supreme “Martial Sage” of the Chinese people, standing alongside Confucius, the “Sage of Letters.” 

But what has allowed an ancient military general to command such reverence, even beyond that granted to emperors? The answer lies deeply rooted in a legendary tale centered on the values of loyalty and righteousness – an enduring story that continues to embody the spirit of the Chinese nation.

Let’s travel back in time to the late 2nd century, when the once-mighty Han Dynasty was struggling to stay above water. Eunuchs held unchecked power, imperial in-laws meddled in politics, and the flames of the Yellow Turban Rebellion raged across the land. Warlords exerted influence in every corner of the kingdom, vying for control of the Central Plains.

It was in this era of chaos that Guan Yu – a man from Yuncheng in present-day Shanxi – was forced into exile for righteously standing up against evil. Fate took a pivotal turn in Zhuozhou, Hebei, where he encountered Liu Bei, a descendant of the fallen imperial family who had grand ambitions to restore the Han, and Zhang Fei, a fiery butcher known for his fierce courage and blunt temperament.

According to the historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms, the three men found themselves kindred spirits, forming a bond “as close as brothers.” In the peach garden behind Zhang Fei’s manor, they offered a black ox and a white horse in sacrifice, bowed reverently to heaven and earth, and made a vow that would echo through the ages:

“Though Liu Bei, Guan Yu, and Zhang Fei are of different surnames, we pledge to be brothers, united in heart and purpose. We shall aid the distressed, serve the nation above, and bring peace to the people below. We do not ask to be born on the same day, month, and year, but we wish to die on the same day, month, and year.”

That oath not only sealed a bond of life and death but also laid the foundation for the lifelong loyalty and righteousness that would define Guan Yu’s legacy.

Guan Yu’s valor soon shone amid the chaos of war. He followed Liu Bei and struggled to survive in the brutal power struggles between warlords. Between 190 and 193 AD, 18 regional warlords formed a coalition to overthrow the tyrannical Dong Zhuo. At the battlefront of Sishui Pass, Dong Zhuo’s fierce general Hua Xiong decapitated several allied commanders in succession, throwing the coalition into fear and disarray. At this critical moment, the low-ranking Guan Yu stepped forward to volunteer. Before the wine in his cup had cooled, he returned with Hua Xiong’s head and cast it before the commanders’ tent – a legendary feat forever remembered as “Slaying Hua Xiong While the Wine Was Still Warm.” From that moment on, Guan Yu’s reputation as a warrior who could face ten thousand enemies resounded across the Central Plains.

Yet in a time of turmoil, fortune was fickle. Liu Bei’s power base was once dangerously fragile. In 200 AD, after a crushing defeat by Cao Cao’s forces, Liu Bei fled eastward to seek refuge with Yuan Shao. Meanwhile, Guan Yu was left in Xiapi, protecting Liu Bei’s family, only to be surrounded by Cao Cao’s troops. In order to ensure the safety of his brother’s wives and preserve their strength, Guan Yu – at the urging of the general Zhang Liao – agreed to what became known as the “Three Conditions of Mount Tu”: He would surrender to the Han, not to Cao Cao personally; Liu Bei’s two wives must be treated with dignity and receive their due allowances; As soon as he learned of Liu Bei’s whereabouts, he would leave, no matter how far the journey. Cao Cao, who deeply admired Guan Yu’s talent, agreed to these conditions.

Cao Cao held Guan Yu in the highest regard. Historical records state that Cao Cao appointed him as a “General of the Vanguard” and treated him with great honor. He hosted small banquets every three days, grand feasts every five; bestowed him gold when he mounted his horse, and silver when he dismounted; and gifted him the legendary red hare steed along with fine robes in abundance. He even attempted to reward Guan Yu with Lady Du, the wife of the defeated general Qin Yilu. Through these unprecedented gestures of favor, Cao Cao tried to win Guan Yu’s loyalty and persuade him to remain in his service.

Despite the lavish treatment from Cao Cao, Guan Yu never forgot the Peach Garden Oath nor wavered from his principle of “serving the Han, not Cao Cao.” Though physically in Cao Cao’s camp, his thoughts constantly lingered with his sworn brother Liu Bei. Guan Yu carefully sealed away all the gold and treasures bestowed upon him and returned the offered beauty. As for the fine robes gifted by Cao Cao, he wore them beneath the old green robe Liu Bei had once given him. When Cao Cao asked him why, Guan Yu replied, “This old robe was a gift from my elder brother. Seeing it is like seeing him. I dare not forget my brother’s past kindness for the sake of the Chancellor’s new favor.” Moved by such unwavering loyalty, even Cao Cao sighed in admiration, saying, “A man who never forgets his true lord – he is a righteous hero of the realm!”

At last, the opportunity came. In April of the year 200, just before the Battle of Guandu, a battle fought between the warlords Cao Cao and Yuan Shao, Guan Yu learned that Liu Bei had joined Yuan Shao’s army. Without hesitation, he sealed up all the official seals and wealth given by Cao Cao, and left behind a letter of farewell. Escorting Liu Bei’s two wives, he set out on the perilous journey of a thousand miles in search of his sworn brother.

Many of Cao Cao’s generals viewed Guan Yu’s departure as betrayal and urged that he be pursued and captured. But Cao Cao stopped them, saying, “He serves his lord with loyalty. Let him go.” After traversing a thousand miles alone, passing five checkpoints and slaying six generals, Guan Yu endured countless hardships before finally reuniting with Liu Bei and Zhang Fei. His unwavering loyalty in “serving the Han, not Cao Cao” and his heroic feat of “riding solo for a thousand miles” elevated Guan Yu’s loyalty and righteousness to their highest expression – becoming a lasting moral monument revered throughout the ages.

Once reunited with Liu Bei, Guan Yu became a pillar of strength in the expansion of the Shu Han regime based in Sichuan Province. After Liu Bei seized control of Jingzhou, he appointed Guan Yu as Governor of Xiangyang and General Who Quells Bandits, entrusting him with full authority over Jingzhou. Strategically located, Jingzhou served as a buffer – resisting Cao Cao in the north and checking Sun Quan in the east. Bearing this heavy responsibility, Guan Yu rose to the challenge: training elite forces on both land and water while also working to maintain the fragile alliance with Eastern Wu.

In 219 AD, Liu Bei defeated Cao Cao in Hanzhong and declared himself King of Hanzhong. To support Liu Bei’s broader strategic goals, Guan Yu launched the legendary Battle of Xiangyang and Fancheng, shaking the entire realm. Leading the elite troops of Shu, he besieged the key northern outposts of the Wei kingdom – Xiangyang and Fancheng. In the early stages of the campaign, Guan Yu demonstrated exceptional military acumen and unmatched bravery. During the autumn floods, he took advantage of the swelling Han River and brilliantly executed the tactic known as “Flooding the Seven Armies,” breaching the riverbanks and inundating the enemy forces. According to historical records, “Guan Yu’s might shook all of China.” Cao Cao was even said to have considered relocating the capital to avoid his onslaught.

However, it was Guan Yu’s unyielding pride and the strategic sensitivity of Jingzhou that combined to lay the foundation for tragedy. He underestimated the threat from Eastern Wu and failed to recognize Sun Quan’s determination to seize Jingzhou. At the same time, his harsh treatment of colleagues created internal unrest.

Sensing an opportunity, Eastern Wu’s commander Lü Meng launched the cunning strategy “White-Clad Crossing of the River”, in which soldiers disguised as merchants secretly crossed the river to strike the rear of Jingzhou. Simultaneously, Cao Cao dispatched his general Xu Huang with elite reinforcements to relieve Fancheng. Guan Yu found himself attacked from both front and rear. Even worse, his subordinates Mi Fang and Fu Shiren – charged with guarding the vital cities of Jiangling and Gong’an – harbored resentment against him and, facing strained military supplies and lacking confidence, surrendered to Eastern Wu without a fight. In a single stroke, the key cities of Jingzhou fell, cutting off Guan Yu’s retreat and demoralizing his forces.

The great general was eventually defeated at Maicheng – near present-day southeast Dangyang in Hubei Province. In the winter of 219 AD, Guan Yu and his son Guan Ping were captured by Wu commander Pan Zhang’s subordinate, Ma Zhong. Refusing to surrender, they met a martyr’s death. 

Guan Yu’s death triggered Liu Bei’s massive retaliatory campaign – the Battle of Yiling – in which he mobilized nearly the entire state of Shu Han, only to suffer a devastating defeat. This not only weakened Shu’s national strength but also irreversibly disrupted the tripartite balance of power among the Three Kingdoms of Wei, Shu, and Wu.

Though Guan Yu’s body perished, his spirit gave rise to an immortal legend. His tragic end did not diminish his image; on the contrary, it heightened the nobility of his character. His willingness to sacrifice his life for righteousness and die for his ideals added a layer of tragic grandeur, further elevating the revered values of loyalty and righteousness that he embodied. Among the people, stories and legends about him spread rapidly, evolving and enriching over time.

By the Tang Dynasty, Guan Yu had already begun to be worshipped in Buddhist temples as a Dharma protector. During the Song Dynasty – an era marked by threats from northern invaders – the imperial court especially promoted the ideals of loyalty and valor. Emperor Zhezong conferred upon him the title of “Prince of Manifest Valor,” and Emperor Huizong granted him a series of noble titles, culminating in “Prince of Loyalty, Bravery, Martial Power, and Peace.” Guan Yu thus transcended his identity as a mere general and entered the realm of state-sponsored worship.

In the late Yuan and early Ming dynasties, Luo Guanzhong’s monumental novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms burst onto the literary scene. Based on historical events but enriched with vivid fiction and dramatic embellishments, the novel portrayed Guan Yu as an almost flawless figure: slaying Hua Xiong while the wine was still warm, the three brothers fighting Lü Bu, killing Yan Liang and Wen Chou, passing five passes and slaying six generals, attending a banquet with a single blade, scraping poison from his bone without flinching… Each episode was gripping, vividly capturing Guan Yu’s courage, loyalty, pride, and even his hubris.

The unprecedented success of Romance of the Three Kingdoms made Guan Yu a household name, known by all, from scholars to children. It significantly accelerated his transformation from a historical figure to a national icon – and eventually to a deified figure in religion.

During the Ming and Qing dynasties, Guan Yu’s posthumous titles rose to the level of emperors. The Qing rulers – being a non-Han ethnic group who had seized control of the Central Plains – placed particular emphasis on the loyalty to the sovereign that Guan Yu symbolized, using his image as a spiritual tool to consolidate their rule. 

The imperial court undertook large-scale construction of Guan Di Temples across the empire and mandated that the rites of worship for Guan Yu be equivalent to those used for Confucius. At this point, the divine status of “Lord Guan the Sage Emperor” was fully established. Guan Di Temples and Confucian Temples could be found side by side across towns and cities throughout the nation.

The enduring and deeply rooted reverence for Guan Yu lies in the core values he embodies – loyalty, righteousness, benevolence, and courage – which align closely with the fundamental moral ideals of the Chinese nation and have been continuously reinterpreted across different eras.

Guan Yu has come to represent an idealized figure of moral perfection. For successive rulers, his veneration served as a vehicle to promote patriotism and loyalty to the throne . For the common people, he was admired as a symbol of trustworthiness and martial valor, believed to protect communities, ward off evil, and bring peace. For martial brotherhoods and secret societies, he stood as the eternal paragon of righteous brotherhood and loyalty. Merchants worshipped him as the God of War and Wealth, not only to guard their property but also because his integrity embodied ethical business practices.

Today, Guan Yu’s influence extends far beyond China’s borders. Wherever Chinese communities exist, the incense of Guan Di temples is likely to be found. In Southeast Asia, Japan, Korea, and even across Europe and North America, statues of Guan Yu are venerated in temples and by Chinese associations. From Hong Kong’s police stations to Japanese corporations, from the Chinatowns of San Francisco to temples in Malaysia, the image of Guan Gong serves as a cultural bridge uniting the global Chinese diaspora, and stands as one of the most powerful and visible embodiments of the Chinese values of loyalty, righteousness, benevolence, and courage.

His story has been brought to countless stages, movie screens, and TV series. His image appears in New Year paintings, paper cuttings, sculptures, and video games. Scholars study his historical, literary, and religious significance, while ordinary people pray before his statues for peace, wealth, and success in their careers. Guan Yu, this warrior from over 1,800 years ago, is no longer merely a historical figure – he has long since transcended history to become an immortal monument in the spiritual world of the Chinese nation.

Well, that’s the end of our podcast. Our theme music is by the famous film score composer Roc Chen. We want to thank our writer Lü Weitao, translator Wang Yuyan, and copy editor Pu Ren. And thank you for listening. We hope you enjoyed it, and if you did, please tell a friend so they, too, can understand The Context.