Episode 2: The Eastern Steppe

In this episode, we explore the geography of the eastern Eurasian steppe, an area encompassing modern day Mongolia and southeastern Siberia.  

Transcript

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“At the beginning there was a blue-grey wolf, born with his destiny ordained by Heaven Above. His wife was a fallow doe. They came across the Tengis [the waters of Lake Baikal]. After they had settled at the source of the Onan River on Mount Burqan Qaldun, Bataciqan was born to them.” 

These are the first lines of the great work, The Secret History of the Mongols, a primary source that chronicles the histories of the Mongol Empire. It is here, in these initial lines, where we get important details about the early Mongols. Although the true history of events is shrouded in mystery, myth, and legend, what emerges is a telling description of the Mongol’s contemporary reality. What these opening lines tell us are the key geographical features that underscored Mongol culture and tradition. Wrapped in folklorish accounts of a wolf and deer, we learn about the mountain of Burkhan Khaldun, of the waters of Lake Baikal, and the mighty flows of the great Onon River. In these lands, we will find the birthplace of great rulers and the homeland of steppe empires. 

The significance of this land, the eastern Eurasian steppe, is perhaps best encapsulated in these lines supposedly uttered by none other than Genghis Khan himself:

“I climbed the Burqan on a horse hobbled with the halter strap, following deer tracks; a shelter of elm twigs I made my home. Thanks to Burqan Qaldun I escaped with my life, a louse’s life.

Fearing for my life, my only life, I climbed the Qaldun on one horse, following elk tracks; a shelter of broken willow twigs I made my home. Thanks to Qaldun Burqan! My life, a grasshopper’s life, was indeed shielded! But I was greatly frightened. Every morning I will sacrifice to Burqan Qaldun, every day I will pray to it: the offspring of my offspring shall be mindful of this and do likewise!”

And welcome to the Nomads and Empires podcast and on today’s episode, we’re establishing some important context for the history of the Eurasian steppe. Although stereotypical presentations of the steppe paint a uniform area of flat grasslands that stretch from Ukraine to Mongolia, the reality is much more varied. Punctuated within the great steppes are forests, mountains, fertile valleys, and deep lakes. As we mentioned in the previous episode, we can generally divide the Eurasian steppe into three divisions, and each division is host to a number of diverse ecosystems and geographical structures. Today, we’re looking at the eastern portion, the lands to the east of the Altai Mountains stretching all the way to Manchuria and even the Korean Peninsula. For simplicity’s sake, we can roughly consider the eastern steppe to comprise Mongolia, China’s province of Inner Mongolia, and parts of southeastern Siberia. 

The best way to consider the eastern steppe is by first assessing the regions that surround it. Although the steppe is often given epithets like “the endless,” there are some roughly defined borders that bound the steppe into a sort of rectangle. Rather than stretching throughout Inner Asia, the eastern steppes are more boxed in than one may initially think. 

As we mentioned, the first boundary comes from the Altai Mountains. With an average elevation of 1,500-1,700 meters, this mountain range separates modern day Mongolia with Kazakhstan and has historically acted as a fluid border between nomadic groups of the eastern and western steppes. Some major peaks of the Altai Mountains include Khuiten Peak, which has an elevation of 4,357 meters or around 14,000 feet. The peak of Belukha stands even taller, with an elevation of 4,506 meters. The Altai Mountains would play key roles in the religious practices of nomadic steppe cultures. Fertile valleys and fresh water springs would be sites of religious significance, while many mountain peaks and forests had religious connotations. Of course, the Altai Mountains are not necessarily a hard border for nomadic groups. Indeed, a number of natural mountain passes like Tarbagatai, Ala-Tau, and Muzart have enabled many eastern Eurasian steppe peoples the ability to cross into Central Asia and beyond. 

Other mountain ranges straddle the northern edge of the Altai. These include the Sayan Mountains which create a mountainous border that separates the steppe from the Siberian taiga and stretches from the Altai to Lake Baikal in modern day Siberia. For a better understanding, the areas surrounding the Sayan Mountains include the modern day Russian administrative divisions of Altai Krai, the Altai Republic, and the Republic of Tuva. Like the Altai, the Sayan Mountains would also come to have important religious implications for various steppe groups. During the days of the Xiongnu and Rouran Khaganate, control over a mountain named Otuken was paramount for their control. The chanyus and khagans all gained legitimacy over their control of this mountain, and modern scholars believe Mount Otuken to reside along the Sayan range. As we can see, mountains will play an important role in the many sociocultural practices of steppe nomads.

The next key border comes from the south, and we find ourselves moving downward both in terms of latitude and in terms of elevation. Shielded by mountains on all sides, deserts like the Gobi and Taklamakan form an important transitional region between the steppe and the fertile lands of China. 

The most immediate of these regions is the Gobi Desert. The Gobi Desert can be found in southern Mongolia and parts of Inner Mongolia. With the great Tibetan Plateau to the south, little precipitation is able to pass northward, thereby creating a rainshadow that has led to this arid land. As such, the Gobi is an immense desert, stretching over 1500 kilometers. It is also an incredibly inhospitable place in terms of temperature, with average temperatures consistently below freezing. Needless to say, the Gobi Desert has acted as an important environmental border between the eastern Eurasian steppes and China. 

However, the Gobi is not the only important desert. As we mentioned, the Taklamakan has also had a huge amount of historical significance. Located to the Gobi’s west, the Taklamakan is a large desert that exists as part of the wider Tarim Basin located in modern day Xinjiang. This area is nestled between two great mountain ranges: the Kunlun Mountains of the south which are part of the wider Tibetan Plateau, and the Tian Shan Mountains of the north which connect to the aforementioned Altai Mountain range.

The Tarim Basin would be incredibly beneficial for steppe nomads, as a number of key mountain passes cross through this region. Although the Tarim Basin is dominated by the Taklamakan Desert, a number of oasis cities have developed over time, such as Kashgar and Lop Nur. This of course was great as the Tarim Basin and the Gansu Corridor came together to create a vital artery of the Silk Road. Groups like the Sogdians and various others would be instrumental in facilitating trade and connections between China and the wider world. This was also an area of connection between the eastern steppe and the Tibetan Plateau, and as we’ll see later in history, religious connections between these two areas would grow immensely. 

For steppe nomads, the lands of the Tarim Basin were an opportunity for wealth. Steppe nomads would often engage in trade in these cities, selling horses and other goods. Other times, military force was used to subject the oasis cities of the Tarim Basin to pay tribute. And in other instances, steppe nomads would invade these lands and become sedentarized, like the case of the Uighur Khanate in the 800s.

To the north of the Tarim Basin and between the Altai and Tian Shan Mountains is the region of Dzungaria. While the Tarim Basin was a main highway for Silk Road merchants, the region of Dzungaria is often noted as being a highway for steppe nomads. Here, a combination of mountains, forests, and deserts, coincided with grasslands that connected to the wider steppe. Of significant interest is the geographic feature known as the Dzungaria Gate, which is a mountain pass that has historically enabled steppe nomads from the east to cross into the western steppes. 

Moving along… The eastern edge of the Eurasian steppe is not the Pacific Ocean. As one gets to Manchuria, the steppe slowly transitions away from flat grasslands into forests. Further east are a number of mountain ranges that include the Greater and Lesser Khingan Mountains, as well as the Changbai Mountains. This mountainous area conveniently protects the Korean Peninsula from the wider steppe populace, and in parts of Manchuria, this ecosystem created more semi-nomadic and even fully sedentary populations to emerge. Turkic and Mongolic cultures gave way to Tungusic ones. It is this mix of environments that gave rise to the Manchus of Jurchen descent. The Manchus were not a steppe confederation, and instead were semi-nomadic with a rather large agricultural base. 

This discussion of the eastern borders of the steppe coincides well with the northern frontiers. Although every region we’ve discussed so far has been important to the steppe, I think the north is actually the most important of them all. Sure, this is a subjective opinion, one not based on academic rigor or historical assessment, but let me explain. To the north of the eastern Eurasian steppe lies the virtually endless land of the Siberian Taiga. Larch, pine, spruce, and other types of trees dominate the landscape, stretching endlessly for a total area of 3.9 million kilometers squared. In fact, parts of the Manchurian forest system we’ve talked about connect with the Siberian Taiga, creating a contiguous, nearly impenetrable tract of land.

Within the Siberian Taiga, right on the border of the steppe, lies the great waters of Lake Baikal. Lake Baikal is an incredibly beautiful body of water. It has a depth of 1,700 meters and according to UNESCO, contains around 20% of the world’s fresh water reserves. For thousands of years, Lake Baikal would have major religious significance for many steppe nomad groups. Even today, one can find many pictures of Buryat shamans performing services on the shores of this lake. Indeed, Lake Baikal was so often associated with the steppe nomads of eastern Eurasia that in Chinese folklore, Lake Baikal is known as the “North Sea” and was ruled by the Xuanlong, the Dragon of Mystery and patron lord of winter. 

However, connections between the steppe and taiga extended beyond this border of Lake Baikal. The forests of Siberia have been home to a number of important ethnic groups with significant ties to the steppe. Often, some Siberian groups engaged in semi-nomadic lifestyles that led to direct interactions with the fully nomadic steppe peoples. Furs and other goods were traded to some regular frequency. The modern day lands of the Tuvan Republic are a great example of this confluence. Tuva lies to the north of Mongolia and is covered in mountains and forests. The Tuvans are a Turkic people who have had historic relations with steppe groups like the Mongols. Some Tuvans even engaged in steppe nomadic lifestyles, while others like the Dukhans practiced reindeer herding and resided in the Siberian forests. A sort of reverse trend would happen as well, with some nomadic steppe families retreating to the forests in times of upheaval and tragedy. The most famous case of this was that of Genghis Khan when as a boy, he and his family were casted out of their clan and forced to live in the Siberian woods. 

I know, we’ve gone through a lot of names and a lot of places. I strongly recommend looking at a map to see where exactly we’re looking at, but I can quickly recap for us in case anyone got lost. I’m certainly no Google Maps, but I can do my best to orient us in the right direction. So far, we’ve been looking at the boundaries of the eastern Eurasian steppe. To the west, there were the Altai Mountains, which acted as a small border with the great steppes of Kazakhstan and the Pontic region. To the immediate south was the region of Dzungaria, which has long existed within the orbit of steppe empires. Next to Dzungaria are the deserts of the Taklamakan and Gobi. The Taklamakan was a major part of the wider Tarim Basin and the region as a whole played a key role in Silk Road trade. The Gobi, on the other hand, was a border that separated the steppe from the fertile lands of China. To the east, we looked at the forests and mountains of Manchuria which housed a number of semi-nomadic and sedentary populations. Finally, we have the north, the lands of the great Siberian Taiga and the bountiful waters of Lake Baikal. All of these territories, from north to south, east to west, would play key roles in shaping the history of the steppe. 

But now? Finally, let’s ride through the lands of the eastern Eurasian steppe. As we mentioned before, we can think of the eastern Eurasian steppe as comprising of the modern day territories of Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and parts of Russian Siberia. Within this vast territory are a number of diverse ecosystems and geographical features. I want to start this section off with a quote by renowned historian Rene Grousset, who in his monumental work The Empires of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, explained that “in their physical manifestation, the high plateaus of Asia bear witness to the most tremendous geological drama in the history of this planet… Because of their altitude and their great distance from the sea, these regions experience a continental climate of great extremes, with excessive heat in the summer and bitter cold in the winter.”

Indeed, the most defining characteristic that separates the eastern grasslands from their western counterparts is in their elevation. As we’ve noted previously, the area here is raised by a number of mountain ranges which ultimately form the Mongolian Plateau. Average elevation here is between 1,000-1,500 meters, but other areas are higher up and the mountains on both ends of the plateau extend well above 3,000 meters. This height means that much of the area is more arid and prone to extreme temperature changes, and as a whole is generally rougher to live in than say the grasslands of Kazakhstan or Ukraine. 

As a whole, the climate of this plateau has greatly influenced the historical trajectory of the peoples living here. The annual mean temperature is between -8 C and 6 C, or between -17 to 42 degrees F, which is strikingly cold. That said, the average is not the only story. In Ulaanbaatar, temperatures can vary wildly, with temperatures shifting between -42 C to 38 C in a single year. Annual monsoons also affect the steppe climate. This means that there are wetter and dryer seasons. When conditions align perfectly and there’s drought, lots of snow, and freezing temperatures, something magical happens, or rather something terrifying. This is the Mongol dzud, a harsh climate condition that can decimate herds of animals, thereby ruining the livelihoods of many nomads. The deadliest of the dzud is the tsagaan dzud, which means “white death,” and its destructive capacity is utterly immense. In fact, between 1999-2002, Mongolia lost over 11 million animals due to this weather phenomenon. 

Although freezing temperatures and harsh droughts are constant concerns, the steppe has provided enough natural resources to sustain human populations. In more typical climates, the eastern steppe is dominated by grasses like the feather grass and the wild rye. Supporting this grassland are a number of water sources. Water, as we may know, is vitally important for the survival of any human and it was especially so for those living here on the steppes with herds of animals. According to Professor Hiroshi Sato of Chuo Gakuin University, Mongolia contains around “5,300 rivers, 7,800 springs, 3,600 lakes, and 362 mineral springs.” Of these water sources, rivers are immensely key. We already saw in the Secret History of the Mongols a few important names, like the Onon River. Other important rivers include the Selenga RIver, which connects Mongolia to Lake Baikal, the Orkhon River which shoots off from the Selegna, and the Kherlen River which heads to China. In fact, most rivers from Mongolia either head north to Siberia or south to China. 

With such resources, many on the eastern steppe have managed to survive and even thrive. Nomadic herders here raised sheeps and horses, with the sheep having particular significance. This is because the steppes here, save for the lands near the northern taiga, are treeless, and so timber is rare. As such, animal products would be vital. Sheeps not only provided food and milk. Their wool could be used to make clothes and, even more importantly, the felt tents we know today as yurts or gers. Livestock also provided dung, which could be converted into fuel for fire. Such animal products worked well against the cold temperatures of the eastern steppe. However, as we noted earlier, the sheer variety of climate conditions could pose significant challenges. Herds of animals were vulnerable to the dzud and various droughts, and so surpluses of goods were generally limited. To mitigate these potential disastrous conditions, nomads, by definition, moved around, and in the case of the eastern steppe, Mongols and Turkic tribes moved around seasonally. These and many other adaptations enabled eastern Eurasian nomads to survive and even thrive in such difficult conditions. 

Finally, the last bit of geography that I want to touch on is the mountains that exist within the Mongolian plateau. Mountains of course border all sides of this region, but there are a few mountains within the area that we should examine. As we’ll see later on, control over strategic mountains would play key roles in cementing the legitimacy of a nomadic ruling dynasty. In Mongolia, one of the most important sites is the Khan Khentii mountains. This mountain range located to the north of Ulaanbaatar contains the great spire of Burkhan Khaldun, an important site for Genghis Khan and an area that still holds significance today. Another key range are the Khangai Mountains which are located just to the west of Ulaanbaatar. Within the Khangai is the mountain of Otgontenger, another area of significance. The Khangai area in general is known to be a cradle of steppe civilizations. As we can see, mountains like Otgontenger and Burkhan Khaldun are considered to be important sites. In 1778, these two mountains and the peak of Bogd Khan were given official designation as being sacred religious places. In more modern times, similar has happened. On May 16, 1995, for instance, Mongolia enacted a presidential decree “supporting initiatives to revive the tradition of worshiping Bogd Khan Khairkhan, Burkhan Khaldun (Khan Khentii), and [the] Otgontenger Mountains.”

This discussion on important mountains is a good segue. At this point, we should briefly touch on the religious nature of the eastern steppe, as geography would play a key role in this. Although we typically portray the entire Eurasian steppe as being a blanket of Tengrists and shamans, this is of course misleading and offbase. Located near the epicenters of religions like Buddhism and Nestorian Christianity, much of this area would be a confluence of different belief systems. In general, yes, many Mongols and Turkic peoples living in the area did have indigenious beliefs. Worship of Tengri, the Eternal Blue Sky, was central to many steppe groups. For those that believed in the traditional polytheistic religion, there were a number of other deities that should be mentioned as well. Among Turkic groups like the Gokturks, there was the fertility goddess Umay. For the Mongols, there was Jayaci, guardian of flocks and livestock. A whole pantheon of gods and goddesses existed for these groups, not to mention a number of unnamed spirits for various rivers, woods, and mountains. As other religions like Buddhism entered the steppes, we don’t necessarily see a supplanting of these older beliefs. Indeed, the religious practices of this area morphed and changed over time. For instance, a being known as Dayan Deerh may have once been a Mongol deity but over time, Deerh’s position shifted to that of a Buddhist shaman. Meanwhile, female deities from Tibetan Buddhism soon became staple figures in Mongol religious practices. The key takeaway here is that the religious makeup of the eastern grasslands is defined by syncretism, a trait that we’ll see embodied by many groups from these lands. 

However, one key trend that would emerge for the empires of the steppe would be reverence to great peaks and mountains. I bring back this topic because it is so important. Such reverence could have manifested as religious worship or perhaps just as traditional rites of respect. Either way, it is perhaps this control over such peaks and mountain ranges that contributed to a curious phenomenon on the eastern steppes. Scholars such as Carter Findley have identified a general trend that has emerged. Groups from the eastern steppes seem to be the predominant players in creating organized, steppe empire structures. Having united the disparate clans and tribes of the east, this united polity of the eastern grasslands then rides westward, first subjugating the tribes of the western steppe before ultimately taking on the sedentary kingdoms and empires in the surrounding regions. Control over mountains like Otuken and Burkhan Khaldun may have acted as a politically legitimizing force.

This, of course, is incredibly general, broad, misleading, and has many caveats. That said, we can sort of see this overarching development in the histories of groups like the Xiongnu, the Gokturks, and of course the Mongols. All three of these groups gained prevalence in modern day Mongolia and eastern Siberia before fanning out westward. We know that mountains are prevalent religious symbols in many steppe cultures, and it may be that there is a relationship between empire formation and control over such important ranges. 

I want us to keep this broad point in mind as we go through the different groups that would emerge in this area. As we can kind of surmise, much of the eastern Eurasian steppe would be dominated by Mongol and Turkic groups. However, that’s not the complete story. The geography we’ve described, and thus the close proximity of the steppes to the Siberian Taiga and Central Asia, mean that Indo-European, Yeniseian, and Tungusic peoples also played an important role here. This isn't even mentioning the influx of Persian and Chinese influences. Indeed, let’s now pivot to a brief summary of the history of the eastern Eurasian steppe. We’ll cover each of these groups in detail later on, but I think it’s helpful for us to have a broad overview of things to come. 

First, there were the peoples of prehistory. These were the proto-Mongol and the proto-Turkic groups, who in turn gave rise to cultures like the Slab Grave. As we approach to the 300s and 200s BCE, we start to see more organized polities emerge, such as the Indo-European Yuezhi. The most famous of these entities would be the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu would unite a number of disparate steppe groups and engage in raids and wars against Han China. In some instances, the Xiongnu were wildly successful. Under their leaders, the Chanyus, the Xiongnu were even able to exact an agreement that resulted in tribute payments and imperial marriages. Over time, the Xiongnu would lose power and become challenged both by the Han and by internal factions. The Tiele, a tribal confederation of different Turkic groups, would be one such to emerge from the ruins of the Xiongnu. Another, the Xianbei, would come to take the mantle of leadership on the eastern steppes. However, the Xianbei were less organized than their Xiongnu counterparts and did not exert as dominant of a position. 

Following the Xianbei, who had mostly migrated further south into China [find citation], was the Rouran Khaganate. This is where arguably we find the first instance of the term khagan. Like the Xiongnu, the Rouran were incredibly powerful and controlled a confederation of many different peoples. They extorted Chinese tribute and gained many imperial marriages. However, the Rouran would then be wracked by internal crises. In 508 and 521, groups of the Tiele Turkic peoples revolted against the Rouran, which would signal monumental changes for the years to come. This would be the political emergence of the Turks. In fact, in 552, a Turkic leader named Bumin defeated the Rouran Khagan. This would result in the emergence of the First Turkic Khaganate. The Turkic Khaganate would then expand out westward, controlling both the eastern and western steppes. This of course was not tenable and in 603, the Turkic Khaganate split into western and eastern halves.

Internal disunity and Chinese ascendancy under the Tang dynasty saw the fall of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate in 630, though a Second Turkic Khaganate would emerge in 682. A rebellion in 742 would lead to the rise of the Uyghur Khaganate. Like their predecessors, the Uyghurs would play key roles in Chinese politics, assisting the emperor Suzong during the An Lushan rebellion. The Uyghurs would fall to the Kyrgyz Khanate, a polity that lived to the north in Siberia along the Yenisei River. This Kyrgyz state in the eastern steppe would be short lived, as in 920, they were thrown back to Siberia by the Mongolic Khitans. The Khitans would last for a while, ruling from 920 to 1125. In time, they would become sinicized, establishing the Liao dynasty. However, in 1125, the Jurchen of the Jin dynasty would destroy the Liao. Many Khitan exiles fled westward, creating the Kara-Khitan state in Central Asia. Around the same time as this, the various Mongol tribes of the eastern steppe were coalescing around Khabul Khan, grandfather of Genghis. This Khamag-Mongol confederation would be the predecessor to an even greater political entity. 

As you may know, the Jin would be followed by the Mongols of Genghis Khan. The Mongols would do their thing of taking over much of Eurasia. After the death of Möngke Khan in 1259, the Mongol Empire collapsed into civil war, and the eastern steppes would be taken over by Kublai, who in turn created the wider Yuan Dynasty. The Yuan did not even last a century, collapsing in 1368 when the Ming succeeded in a great revolt. The remnants of the Yuan, including Kublai’s descendant Toghon Temür, fled back to the northern steppes. This rump state would be known as the Northern Yuan dynasty. 

Of course, by this point, the Northern Yuan was not the sole master of the eastern steppes. In the Tarim Basin, the lands were ruled by the Khans of Moghulistan, a successor state to the Chagatai Khanate. To the north of the Tarim Basin, in Dzungaria and the western end of the eastern steppes, a confederation known as the Four Oirats emerged. The Oirat groups eventually united in 1634 as the Dzungar Khanate, which is referred to by many as the last true steppe horde. The Dzungar waged bloody war with the ascendent Qing dynasty. The Qing had already essentially subjugated the Northern Yuan dynasty in a war in the early 1600s, and they in turn defeated the Dzungar in 1757 after decades of war and bloodshed. From here, the steppes of eastern Eurasia would be dominated by the Manchus of the Qing dynasty. Around this time, we should also note that the Russian Empire was beginning to encroach eastern Eurasia. 

This, however, isn’t the end of the story. Although Inner Mongolia would forever be a part of China, Outer Mongolia would have a separate history. In the wake of the Qing dynasty’s collapse in 1912, the Mongols of Outer Mongolia would achieve independence. This would be the Bogd Khanate, a theocratic and perhaps even feudal institution that lasted until the 1920s. In 1921, the Soviet Union assisted Mongol communists of the Mongolian People’s Party in a revolution. The Bogd Khanate fell and this would usher in the era of the Mongolian People’s Republic lasting from 1924-1992. This was a period in which the Mongols were essentially a satellite of the Soviets and where historical and nationalist symbols were prohibited. Finally, in the wake of Soviet Premier Mikhael Gorbachev’s reforms in the Soviet Union, discontent emerged in the Mongolian People’s Republic, culminating in the Revolution of 1990 and the formation of the modern day state of Mongolia. 

And that is where the story is today. But for us, this is only the beginning. As I said, we’re going to dive deeper and into more depth about many of the groups that we’ve mentioned so far and many that we haven’t mentioned yet. That summary above is broad and barely scratches the surface of the deep history in this region. 

And so with all of that said, we’ve seen today how the geographical situation of the Mongolian plateau would give rise to a number of different groups on the eastern Eurasian steppe. We then examined some overarching trends and then followed the general flow of history. Next time, we’re going to prepare a little more groundwork and examine the lands across the Altai. We’ll head into the grasslands of Kazakhstan and Ukraine, following the groups that emerged in the western Eurasian steppe. 

I want to end this episode by saying thanks to everyone that listened. Although we’re only setting the groundwork right now, I promise it’s going to be helpful for later episodes. Geography is a vital component of history and politics, quite literally shaping up demographic, religious, and cultural trends. To really finish this episode off, I just wanted to signal boost some places where you can find more details about this show and where you can find more content. You can find me at Twitter at the handle @NomadEmpiresPod or you can reach out to my email nomadsandempires@gmail.com. For episode scripts, sources, book reviews, and other articles on historical topics that I may not cover on the podcast, I’d suggest you follow my Substack, NomadsandEmpires.substack.com. And that’s pretty much all of it. Thank you again for listening, and see you next time on the windy plains of the steppe.

Music:
Quiet Colors - Gavin Luke (Epidemic Sound)
Fadfada - Ali Sabah (Epidemic Sound)
Min Wahi El-Lami - Ali Sabah (Epidemic Sound) 
Outro - Personal Work