{"version":"1.0.0","segments":[{"startTime":0.3,"endTime":1.8,"body":"- Hello, my name is Aida Andres,"},{"startTime":1.8,"endTime":4.77,"body":"and I'm an associate professor"},{"startTime":1.8,"endTime":4.77,"body":"at the UCL Genetics Institute"},{"startTime":4.77,"endTime":7.08,"body":"at University College London,"},{"startTime":7.08,"endTime":9.33,"body":"and my work aims to help us understand"},{"startTime":9.33,"endTime":11.733,"body":"how populations adapt"},{"startTime":9.33,"endTime":11.733,"body":"to their environment."},{"startTime":12.63,"endTime":15.027,"body":"This is populations that adapt"},{"startTime":12.63,"endTime":15.027,"body":"to a particular environment,"},{"startTime":15.027,"endTime":19.5,"body":"and how species evolve to"},{"startTime":15.027,"endTime":19.5,"body":"adapt to where they live."},{"startTime":19.5,"endTime":20.67,"body":"And we're also very interested"},{"startTime":20.67,"endTime":23.73,"body":"in understanding how these"},{"startTime":20.67,"endTime":23.73,"body":"past evolutionary events"},{"startTime":23.73,"endTime":25.98,"body":"influence individuals living today,"},{"startTime":25.98,"endTime":27.54,"body":"because those adaptations, of course,"},{"startTime":27.54,"endTime":29.013,"body":"remain in our genomes."},{"startTime":30.45,"endTime":32.73,"body":"I'm going to talk about humans today,"},{"startTime":32.73,"endTime":34.47,"body":"and just try to understand"},{"startTime":34.47,"endTime":37.56,"body":"how did humans appear"},{"startTime":34.47,"endTime":37.56,"body":"and colonize the world."},{"startTime":37.56,"endTime":39.99,"body":"And this is an interesting"},{"startTime":37.56,"endTime":39.99,"body":"question for a number of reasons."},{"startTime":39.99,"endTime":42.24,"body":"Human evolution is interesting because,"},{"startTime":42.24,"endTime":44.883,"body":"well it's interesting for"},{"startTime":42.24,"endTime":44.883,"body":"us, we care about humans,"},{"startTime":45.96,"endTime":49.33,"body":"it's always nice to know"},{"startTime":45.96,"endTime":49.33,"body":"something about our origins"},{"startTime":50.19,"endTime":51.69,"body":"and our evolution,"},{"startTime":51.69,"endTime":54.0,"body":"but also, humans are a"},{"startTime":51.69,"endTime":54.0,"body":"very interesting species"},{"startTime":54.0,"endTime":55.5,"body":"within the animal kingdom,"},{"startTime":55.5,"endTime":56.94,"body":"we are pretty unique,"},{"startTime":56.94,"endTime":59.79,"body":"we have traits that no other species have,"},{"startTime":59.79,"endTime":60.66,"body":"like, for starters,"},{"startTime":60.66,"endTime":62.01,"body":"we have cognitive abilities"},{"startTime":62.01,"endTime":65.22,"body":"that allow us to present some work"},{"startTime":65.22,"endTime":67.41,"body":"or listen to presentations,"},{"startTime":67.41,"endTime":68.91,"body":"and that is really unique."},{"startTime":68.91,"endTime":71.1,"body":"So it is very interesting"},{"startTime":71.1,"endTime":74.11,"body":"to understand how did these"},{"startTime":71.1,"endTime":74.11,"body":"characteristics come to live"},{"startTime":75.09,"endTime":77.19,"body":"what were the evolutionary events"},{"startTime":77.19,"endTime":78.96,"body":"that allowed us to just have"},{"startTime":78.96,"endTime":81.183,"body":"all of these amazing capabilities."},{"startTime":82.41,"endTime":84.87,"body":"Also, humans are pretty unique"},{"startTime":84.87,"endTime":89.87,"body":"in that we have colonized"},{"startTime":84.87,"endTime":89.87,"body":"basically the whole world."},{"startTime":89.88,"endTime":93.03,"body":"Most species live in particular regions,"},{"startTime":93.03,"endTime":95.31,"body":"and there are very species"},{"startTime":93.03,"endTime":95.31,"body":"that are cosmopolitan,"},{"startTime":95.31,"endTime":97.08,"body":"meaning that they live"},{"startTime":95.31,"endTime":97.08,"body":"everywhere in the world,"},{"startTime":97.08,"endTime":98.16,"body":"like we do."},{"startTime":98.16,"endTime":101.01,"body":"Even within the primates, this is unique,"},{"startTime":101.01,"endTime":103.23,"body":"we are the only primates"},{"startTime":101.01,"endTime":103.23,"body":"that live everywhere,"},{"startTime":103.23,"endTime":105.06,"body":"and even other human forms"},{"startTime":105.06,"endTime":107.88,"body":"that lived before modern"},{"startTime":105.06,"endTime":107.88,"body":"humans, before us,"},{"startTime":107.88,"endTime":110.07,"body":"they also lived in particular areas,"},{"startTime":110.07,"endTime":112.02,"body":"so we are the only primates, actually,"},{"startTime":112.02,"endTime":113.22,"body":"that live everywhere."},{"startTime":113.22,"endTime":114.81,"body":"And what is interesting to me"},{"startTime":114.81,"endTime":117.54,"body":"is to think that, somehow,"},{"startTime":117.54,"endTime":122.31,"body":"our evolution probably"},{"startTime":117.54,"endTime":122.31,"body":"allowed us to have traits"},{"startTime":122.31,"endTime":125.55,"body":"that allowed us, or even compelled us"},{"startTime":125.55,"endTime":127.44,"body":"to migrate, and migrate, and migrate,"},{"startTime":127.44,"endTime":130.983,"body":"and explore, find new"},{"startTime":127.44,"endTime":130.983,"body":"territories, and colonize them."},{"startTime":131.94,"endTime":133.44,"body":"And at the same time,"},{"startTime":133.44,"endTime":135.12,"body":"the fact that we have moved around"},{"startTime":135.12,"endTime":137.58,"body":"and live in all of these different places"},{"startTime":137.58,"endTime":140.91,"body":"has meant that we had to"},{"startTime":137.58,"endTime":140.91,"body":"adapt to those environments,"},{"startTime":140.91,"endTime":142.38,"body":"and that, in turn,"},{"startTime":142.38,"endTime":144.81,"body":"has influenced our own evolution."},{"startTime":144.81,"endTime":148.95,"body":"So the characteristic of living everywhere"},{"startTime":148.95,"endTime":150.9,"body":"is not only a consequence"},{"startTime":148.95,"endTime":150.9,"body":"of our evolution,"},{"startTime":150.9,"endTime":154.533,"body":"but also causes evolutionary events."},{"startTime":155.37,"endTime":158.64,"body":"And I would argue that"},{"startTime":155.37,"endTime":158.64,"body":"besides being interesting,"},{"startTime":158.64,"endTime":161.46,"body":"understanding our own"},{"startTime":158.64,"endTime":161.46,"body":"evolution is important"},{"startTime":161.46,"endTime":162.293,"body":"because, of course,"},{"startTime":162.293,"endTime":165.57,"body":"those past adaptations"},{"startTime":162.293,"endTime":165.57,"body":"live today in our genomes,"},{"startTime":165.57,"endTime":166.65,"body":"and because our genomes"},{"startTime":166.65,"endTime":169.29,"body":"encode everything that we are, almost,"},{"startTime":169.29,"endTime":170.613,"body":"our physical traits,"},{"startTime":172.68,"endTime":177.57,"body":"then those adaptations live"},{"startTime":172.68,"endTime":177.57,"body":"today in the genomes of people,"},{"startTime":177.57,"endTime":181.53,"body":"they make us how we are,"},{"startTime":181.53,"endTime":185.19,"body":"they define how we live"},{"startTime":181.53,"endTime":185.19,"body":"in this environment,"},{"startTime":185.19,"endTime":186.54,"body":"how we metabolize food,"},{"startTime":186.54,"endTime":188.43,"body":"how we fight pathogens,"},{"startTime":188.43,"endTime":190.95,"body":"how we respond to cold weather,"},{"startTime":190.95,"endTime":194.37,"body":"and also, they influence our disease risk,"},{"startTime":194.37,"endTime":197.67,"body":"so anything that has to do with"},{"startTime":194.37,"endTime":197.67,"body":"the evolution of our traits"},{"startTime":197.67,"endTime":199.246,"body":"is potentially linked"},{"startTime":199.246,"endTime":203.19,"body":"to the present risk"},{"startTime":199.246,"endTime":203.19,"body":"susceptibility differences"},{"startTime":203.19,"endTime":206.79,"body":"that there are between individuals"},{"startTime":203.19,"endTime":206.79,"body":"and between populations,"},{"startTime":206.79,"endTime":209.61,"body":"or between individuals that"},{"startTime":206.79,"endTime":209.61,"body":"live in different populations."},{"startTime":209.61,"endTime":211.47,"body":"So let's start with the very beginning"},{"startTime":211.47,"endTime":213.72,"body":"of the origin of humans."},{"startTime":213.72,"endTime":215.46,"body":"I think if I ask you"},{"startTime":215.46,"endTime":220.46,"body":"what is the most closely"},{"startTime":215.46,"endTime":220.46,"body":"living species to humans,"},{"startTime":223.44,"endTime":227.19,"body":"I think most people would"},{"startTime":223.44,"endTime":227.19,"body":"correctly identify chimpanzees"},{"startTime":227.19,"endTime":228.87,"body":"as our closest living relatives."},{"startTime":228.87,"endTime":229.98,"body":"And this is true,"},{"startTime":229.98,"endTime":231.63,"body":"but it is a little more complicated,"},{"startTime":231.63,"endTime":234.84,"body":"there are two species that we"},{"startTime":231.63,"endTime":234.84,"body":"are very closely related to,"},{"startTime":234.84,"endTime":236.91,"body":"that is the chimpanzees and the bonobos."},{"startTime":236.91,"endTime":239.223,"body":"The bonobos are less known,"},{"startTime":240.12,"endTime":242.46,"body":"at least for the general public,"},{"startTime":242.46,"endTime":244.5,"body":"they have a small population size,"},{"startTime":244.5,"endTime":246.39,"body":"and they're really interesting"},{"startTime":246.39,"endTime":247.68,"body":"mostly because of their behavior."},{"startTime":247.68,"endTime":249.57,"body":"So the bonobos,"},{"startTime":249.57,"endTime":251.49,"body":"even though they are very,"},{"startTime":249.57,"endTime":251.49,"body":"very similar to chimpanzees,"},{"startTime":251.49,"endTime":254.49,"body":"they live in female-dominated societies"},{"startTime":254.49,"endTime":256.62,"body":"with very low levels of violence,"},{"startTime":256.62,"endTime":259.92,"body":"and with a peaceful relationship"},{"startTime":259.92,"endTime":261.33,"body":"between individuals largely,"},{"startTime":261.33,"endTime":263.1,"body":"not completely, but largely."},{"startTime":263.1,"endTime":265.83,"body":"And that's in sharp contrast"},{"startTime":263.1,"endTime":265.83,"body":"with the chimpanzees,"},{"startTime":265.83,"endTime":266.76,"body":"maybe with humans,"},{"startTime":266.76,"endTime":269.34,"body":"depending on how you think about it."},{"startTime":269.34,"endTime":273.69,"body":"So humans share a common ancestor"},{"startTime":273.69,"endTime":275.43,"body":"with the bonobos and the chimpanzees"},{"startTime":275.43,"endTime":277.53,"body":"only 4 to 6 million years ago,"},{"startTime":277.53,"endTime":279.33,"body":"that is a really short amount of time"},{"startTime":279.33,"endTime":281.13,"body":"in evolutionary terms."},{"startTime":281.13,"endTime":285.33,"body":"We share most of our biology,"},{"startTime":281.13,"endTime":285.33,"body":"most of our physiology,"},{"startTime":285.33,"endTime":287.97,"body":"and actually, 99% of our genomes."},{"startTime":287.97,"endTime":289.493,"body":"So if you sequence the genome of a human"},{"startTime":289.493,"endTime":292.23,"body":"and the genome of a chimpanzee,"},{"startTime":292.23,"endTime":295.11,"body":"and you compare the bases, the letters,"},{"startTime":295.11,"endTime":297.75,"body":"99% of them are identical."},{"startTime":297.75,"endTime":300.66,"body":"In many branches of life,"},{"startTime":300.66,"endTime":302.46,"body":"two subspecies from the same species"},{"startTime":302.46,"endTime":306.03,"body":"are more different than we are"},{"startTime":302.46,"endTime":306.03,"body":"to chimpanzees and bonobos,"},{"startTime":306.03,"endTime":306.863,"body":"but of course,"},{"startTime":306.863,"endTime":308.91,"body":"we're not considered the same species."},{"startTime":308.91,"endTime":311.19,"body":"Beyond chimpanzees and bonobos,"},{"startTime":311.19,"endTime":313.38,"body":"the other great apes, which is our family,"},{"startTime":313.38,"endTime":315.93,"body":"are the gorillas and the orangutans."},{"startTime":315.93,"endTime":320.7,"body":"And one interesting aspect"},{"startTime":315.93,"endTime":320.7,"body":"of the relationships"},{"startTime":320.7,"endTime":322.59,"body":"that matters for my talk today"},{"startTime":322.59,"endTime":325.5,"body":"is that while humans live"},{"startTime":322.59,"endTime":325.5,"body":"everywhere, cosmopolitan,"},{"startTime":325.5,"endTime":326.94,"body":"all of the other great apes"},{"startTime":326.94,"endTime":329.16,"body":"live in really restricted areas,"},{"startTime":329.16,"endTime":330.57,"body":"and that is partly, now,"},{"startTime":330.57,"endTime":335.28,"body":"because humans are just"},{"startTime":330.57,"endTime":335.28,"body":"reducing their habitat,"},{"startTime":335.28,"endTime":337.29,"body":"but it has always been"},{"startTime":335.28,"endTime":337.29,"body":"the case, we believe,"},{"startTime":337.29,"endTime":340.413,"body":"they live in relatively limited areas."},{"startTime":341.43,"endTime":342.27,"body":"All the subspecies"},{"startTime":342.27,"endTime":344.79,"body":"of all of the species of the great apes,"},{"startTime":344.79,"endTime":345.66,"body":"except for humans,"},{"startTime":345.66,"endTime":346.86,"body":"are endangered,"},{"startTime":346.86,"endTime":349.833,"body":"so we are really bringing"},{"startTime":346.86,"endTime":349.833,"body":"them to extinction, actually."},{"startTime":350.94,"endTime":351.773,"body":"And actually,"},{"startTime":351.773,"endTime":354.06,"body":"there are other great apes"},{"startTime":351.773,"endTime":354.06,"body":"that have gone extinct before,"},{"startTime":354.06,"endTime":358.32,"body":"some of them very close to us, actually."},{"startTime":358.32,"endTime":363.32,"body":"Neanderthals are a very close"},{"startTime":358.32,"endTime":363.32,"body":"relative to modern humans,"},{"startTime":364.5,"endTime":367.02,"body":"so it's another form of humans,"},{"startTime":367.02,"endTime":371.04,"body":"that lived for many thousands"},{"startTime":367.02,"endTime":371.04,"body":"of years in Eurasia."},{"startTime":371.04,"endTime":372.03,"body":"We know a lot about them"},{"startTime":372.03,"endTime":374.22,"body":"because they left a lot of remains,"},{"startTime":374.22,"endTime":376.95,"body":"so we have a very good sense"},{"startTime":374.22,"endTime":376.95,"body":"about where they lived,"},{"startTime":376.95,"endTime":381.95,"body":"and we know that they"},{"startTime":376.95,"endTime":381.95,"body":"coexisted with humans."},{"startTime":382.41,"endTime":384.96,"body":"There are other forms of humans"},{"startTime":382.41,"endTime":384.96,"body":"that are less well known,"},{"startTime":384.96,"endTime":386.852,"body":"and my favorites are the Denisovans."},{"startTime":386.852,"endTime":387.685,"body":"The Denisovans,"},{"startTime":387.685,"endTime":389.52,"body":"we didn't know that they existed"},{"startTime":389.52,"endTime":391.59,"body":"until some geneticist"},{"startTime":391.59,"endTime":395.91,"body":"sequenced a pinky bone that they found,"},{"startTime":395.91,"endTime":399.48,"body":"and then they identified a"},{"startTime":395.91,"endTime":399.48,"body":"completely new family of humans"},{"startTime":399.48,"endTime":400.77,"body":"that we didn't know existed."},{"startTime":400.77,"endTime":401.603,"body":"And actually,"},{"startTime":401.603,"endTime":405.903,"body":"there are not very many"},{"startTime":401.603,"endTime":405.903,"body":"known remains of Denisovans,"},{"startTime":405.903,"endTime":407.52,"body":"but we know they existed"},{"startTime":405.903,"endTime":407.52,"body":"because, genetically,"},{"startTime":407.52,"endTime":409.56,"body":"we can see that it's a population"},{"startTime":409.56,"endTime":412.2,"body":"that is close to"},{"startTime":409.56,"endTime":412.2,"body":"Neanderthals, but different."},{"startTime":412.2,"endTime":413.55,"body":"And actually,"},{"startTime":413.55,"endTime":415.25,"body":"even though they are both extinct,"},{"startTime":416.34,"endTime":419.13,"body":"they coexisted with humans temporarily,"},{"startTime":419.13,"endTime":423.84,"body":"so they lived at the same time"},{"startTime":419.13,"endTime":423.84,"body":"in some of the same areas,"},{"startTime":423.84,"endTime":425.37,"body":"we know they met,"},{"startTime":425.37,"endTime":429.09,"body":"and we know that they liked"},{"startTime":425.37,"endTime":429.09,"body":"each other enough to mate"},{"startTime":429.09,"endTime":430.53,"body":"and actually have babies,"},{"startTime":430.53,"endTime":433.08,"body":"so there has been"},{"startTime":430.53,"endTime":433.08,"body":"interbreeding between them too,"},{"startTime":433.08,"endTime":436.23,"body":"so many, many, many modern humans"},{"startTime":436.23,"endTime":438.6,"body":"now have segments of the genome"},{"startTime":438.6,"endTime":440.79,"body":"of Neanderthal or Denisovan origin,"},{"startTime":440.79,"endTime":444.03,"body":"so some part of your genome that, one day,"},{"startTime":444.03,"endTime":447.15,"body":"was either in a Neanderthal"},{"startTime":444.03,"endTime":447.15,"body":"or in a Denisovan."},{"startTime":447.15,"endTime":448.02,"body":"This is really fascinating,"},{"startTime":448.02,"endTime":451.23,"body":"but I won't go into the details of this,"},{"startTime":451.23,"endTime":452.61,"body":"but they've also disappeared,"},{"startTime":452.61,"endTime":453.513,"body":"so right now,"},{"startTime":455.55,"endTime":460.23,"body":"the only human form"},{"startTime":455.55,"endTime":460.23,"body":"existing is modern humans."},{"startTime":460.23,"endTime":461.703,"body":"So focusing on them,"},{"startTime":462.75,"endTime":464.94,"body":"let's think a little"},{"startTime":462.75,"endTime":464.94,"body":"bit about our evolution."},{"startTime":464.94,"endTime":468.57,"body":"We know that humans evolved in Africa."},{"startTime":468.57,"endTime":470.52,"body":"This map suggests in South Africa,"},{"startTime":470.52,"endTime":472.2,"body":"but it's not clear,"},{"startTime":472.2,"endTime":473.94,"body":"very likely to be East Africa,"},{"startTime":473.94,"endTime":475.62,"body":"but we know that humans,"},{"startTime":475.62,"endTime":478.41,"body":"from that common ancestor"},{"startTime":475.62,"endTime":478.41,"body":"with chimps and bonobos,"},{"startTime":478.41,"endTime":481.35,"body":"we evolved in Africa,"},{"startTime":481.35,"endTime":483.18,"body":"with a lot of movement within Africa,"},{"startTime":483.18,"endTime":487.89,"body":"and only in the last"},{"startTime":483.18,"endTime":487.89,"body":"50,000 to 100,000 years,"},{"startTime":487.89,"endTime":490.95,"body":"humans successfully colonized"},{"startTime":487.89,"endTime":490.95,"body":"non-African environments."},{"startTime":490.95,"endTime":491.97,"body":"So they started moving,"},{"startTime":491.97,"endTime":494.43,"body":"probably small groups of humans moving,"},{"startTime":494.43,"endTime":496.83,"body":"and then migrating a bit, and"},{"startTime":494.43,"endTime":496.83,"body":"then migrating a bit more,"},{"startTime":496.83,"endTime":498.84,"body":"and over thousands of years,"},{"startTime":498.84,"endTime":501.0,"body":"they ended up colonizing the whole world."},{"startTime":501.0,"endTime":503.25,"body":"This is actually a very quick process"},{"startTime":503.25,"endTime":504.45,"body":"even though it's thousands of years,"},{"startTime":504.45,"endTime":506.82,"body":"but this is a really quick process."},{"startTime":506.82,"endTime":508.98,"body":"So this African origin,"},{"startTime":508.98,"endTime":511.62,"body":"and out-of-Africa migration,"},{"startTime":511.62,"endTime":515.16,"body":"that's the name of this migration process,"},{"startTime":515.16,"endTime":516.03,"body":"it's really important"},{"startTime":516.03,"endTime":521.03,"body":"because it has a lot of"},{"startTime":516.03,"endTime":521.03,"body":"effects on our population"},{"startTime":521.64,"endTime":524.97,"body":"in genetic differentiation"},{"startTime":521.64,"endTime":524.97,"body":"between populations."},{"startTime":524.97,"endTime":529.97,"body":"The first is that the origins"},{"startTime":524.97,"endTime":529.97,"body":"of all humans is Africa,"},{"startTime":531.06,"endTime":536.06,"body":"we all have ancestors"},{"startTime":531.06,"endTime":536.06,"body":"that lived in Africa."},{"startTime":536.94,"endTime":538.51,"body":"The second one is that"},{"startTime":539.864,"endTime":543.6,"body":"genetic and phenotypic variation in Africa"},{"startTime":543.6,"endTime":545.64,"body":"is larger than outside of Africa,"},{"startTime":545.64,"endTime":546.473,"body":"and the reason for this"},{"startTime":546.473,"endTime":550.05,"body":"is because you have a whole"},{"startTime":546.473,"endTime":550.05,"body":"bunch of individuals in Africa,"},{"startTime":550.05,"endTime":551.25,"body":"they have some variation,"},{"startTime":551.25,"endTime":553.29,"body":"then you have small pockets of those"},{"startTime":553.29,"endTime":554.517,"body":"moving outside of Africa,"},{"startTime":554.517,"endTime":557.76,"body":"and they are taking the"},{"startTime":554.517,"endTime":557.76,"body":"genetic variation with them,"},{"startTime":557.76,"endTime":559.62,"body":"but a lot of the variation"},{"startTime":557.76,"endTime":559.62,"body":"that doesn't move"},{"startTime":559.62,"endTime":560.58,"body":"stays in Africa."},{"startTime":560.58,"endTime":561.78,"body":"So for example,"},{"startTime":561.78,"endTime":565.65,"body":"it is not unlikely that"},{"startTime":561.78,"endTime":565.65,"body":"there's more genetic difference"},{"startTime":565.65,"endTime":567.45,"body":"between two villages in Africa"},{"startTime":567.45,"endTime":572.16,"body":"than between two people,"},{"startTime":567.45,"endTime":572.16,"body":"or two populations"},{"startTime":572.16,"endTime":573.93,"body":"in different continents out of Africa,"},{"startTime":573.93,"endTime":576.87,"body":"and that's because a lot of"},{"startTime":573.93,"endTime":576.87,"body":"the variation is in Africa."},{"startTime":576.87,"endTime":581.87,"body":"And the third effect, maybe,"},{"startTime":582.36,"endTime":585.06,"body":"or an important effect"},{"startTime":585.06,"endTime":588.36,"body":"is that humans are highly homogeneous,"},{"startTime":588.36,"endTime":591.75,"body":"because this is a very recent event"},{"startTime":591.75,"endTime":593.037,"body":"of just colonizing the world,"},{"startTime":593.037,"endTime":596.34,"body":"and it is of relatively recent origin,"},{"startTime":596.34,"endTime":597.78,"body":"as a species,"},{"startTime":597.78,"endTime":600.93,"body":"compared to many other species,"},{"startTime":600.93,"endTime":603.51,"body":"and even compared to"},{"startTime":600.93,"endTime":603.51,"body":"many other great apes,"},{"startTime":603.51,"endTime":605.46,"body":"we're highly homogeneous."},{"startTime":605.46,"endTime":608.31,"body":"So we are genetically and"},{"startTime":605.46,"endTime":608.31,"body":"phenotypically similar,"},{"startTime":608.31,"endTime":611.49,"body":"this means both in our"},{"startTime":608.31,"endTime":611.49,"body":"genes and in our traits,"},{"startTime":611.49,"endTime":612.39,"body":"we are very similar,"},{"startTime":612.39,"endTime":614.22,"body":"even though we do see differences,"},{"startTime":614.22,"endTime":615.84,"body":"and we will leave that"},{"startTime":614.22,"endTime":615.84,"body":"there, very important,"},{"startTime":615.84,"endTime":617.55,"body":"but quantitatively,"},{"startTime":617.55,"endTime":618.6,"body":"they are really not,"},{"startTime":618.6,"endTime":622.2,"body":"and this is both within"},{"startTime":618.6,"endTime":622.2,"body":"and across populations."},{"startTime":622.2,"endTime":624.6,"body":"So if you take, for example,"},{"startTime":624.6,"endTime":627.36,"body":"the genome of two people and compare it,"},{"startTime":627.36,"endTime":631.41,"body":"on average, only 1 of every 1,000 bases,"},{"startTime":631.41,"endTime":633.15,"body":"so the letters of the genome,"},{"startTime":633.15,"endTime":635.91,"body":"differ between any pair of individuals."},{"startTime":635.91,"endTime":637.23,"body":"So at the genetic level,"},{"startTime":637.23,"endTime":638.063,"body":"we're extremely similar,"},{"startTime":638.063,"endTime":638.896,"body":"and of course,"},{"startTime":638.896,"endTime":643.47,"body":"the phenotype is no more"},{"startTime":638.896,"endTime":643.47,"body":"than an expression of that."},{"startTime":643.47,"endTime":645.57,"body":"Another interesting statistic is that,"},{"startTime":645.57,"endTime":648.33,"body":"of those differences that"},{"startTime":645.57,"endTime":648.33,"body":"we see between populations,"},{"startTime":648.33,"endTime":650.82,"body":"90% vary within populations,"},{"startTime":650.82,"endTime":653.1,"body":"and only 10% between them."},{"startTime":653.1,"endTime":655.17,"body":"So if we compare people"},{"startTime":653.1,"endTime":655.17,"body":"within the same population"},{"startTime":655.17,"endTime":656.003,"body":"or in two populations,"},{"startTime":656.003,"endTime":659.25,"body":"the vast majority of the"},{"startTime":656.003,"endTime":659.25,"body":"diversity that we have,"},{"startTime":659.25,"endTime":662.46,"body":"you have it between people that"},{"startTime":659.25,"endTime":662.46,"body":"live in the same population,"},{"startTime":662.46,"endTime":665.52,"body":"and there's only a few differences"},{"startTime":665.52,"endTime":667.86,"body":"that are different between them."},{"startTime":667.86,"endTime":669.783,"body":"So if we were to represent this,"},{"startTime":670.77,"endTime":672.21,"body":"this would be the level of diversity"},{"startTime":672.21,"endTime":673.62,"body":"that we see within populations,"},{"startTime":673.62,"endTime":674.46,"body":"and there's a little bit,"},{"startTime":674.46,"endTime":676.77,"body":"there are differences between"},{"startTime":674.46,"endTime":676.77,"body":"populations, obviously,"},{"startTime":676.77,"endTime":677.92,"body":"but they're a minority."},{"startTime":678.96,"endTime":680.79,"body":"And just a tiny, little point"},{"startTime":680.79,"endTime":683.85,"body":"to say that even these 10%"},{"startTime":683.85,"endTime":685.95,"body":"do not represent biological differences"},{"startTime":685.95,"endTime":688.05,"body":"among what people would consider races."},{"startTime":688.05,"endTime":689.85,"body":"Races are a social construct,"},{"startTime":689.85,"endTime":690.87,"body":"we're not going to discuss them,"},{"startTime":690.87,"endTime":693.03,"body":"but they are not biological entities,"},{"startTime":693.03,"endTime":694.71,"body":"and even this 10%"},{"startTime":694.71,"endTime":695.85,"body":"doesn't correspond at all"},{"startTime":695.85,"endTime":698.043,"body":"with what people would consider a race."},{"startTime":699.54,"endTime":701.55,"body":"So the final point that I want to say"},{"startTime":701.55,"endTime":706.55,"body":"that is a strong effect"},{"startTime":701.55,"endTime":706.55,"body":"of our demographic history"},{"startTime":706.68,"endTime":709.5,"body":"is that because, as a species,"},{"startTime":709.5,"endTime":711.421,"body":"we evolved in Africa,"},{"startTime":711.421,"endTime":714.51,"body":"we're very well adapted to living there."},{"startTime":714.51,"endTime":716.82,"body":"So we have evolved for"},{"startTime":714.51,"endTime":716.82,"body":"millions of years in Africa,"},{"startTime":716.82,"endTime":718.56,"body":"adapted very well to that environment,"},{"startTime":718.56,"endTime":720.12,"body":"and then, very quickly,"},{"startTime":720.12,"endTime":722.73,"body":"we moved outside of Africa."},{"startTime":722.73,"endTime":725.46,"body":"What that means is that all"},{"startTime":722.73,"endTime":725.46,"body":"of these new environments,"},{"startTime":725.46,"endTime":726.63,"body":"they differ drastically,"},{"startTime":726.63,"endTime":730.86,"body":"so they have different"},{"startTime":726.63,"endTime":730.86,"body":"temperatures, different pathogens,"},{"startTime":730.86,"endTime":732.69,"body":"they have different diets,"},{"startTime":732.69,"endTime":736.23,"body":"you have to do things"},{"startTime":732.69,"endTime":736.23,"body":"differently in order to get food,"},{"startTime":736.23,"endTime":739.223,"body":"and humans had a very strong pressure"},{"startTime":743.58,"endTime":746.4,"body":"to adapt to those different environments."},{"startTime":746.4,"endTime":748.95,"body":"We know that culture has been important,"},{"startTime":748.95,"endTime":751.47,"body":"because of course we are"},{"startTime":748.95,"endTime":751.47,"body":"unique, we have culture,"},{"startTime":751.47,"endTime":754.89,"body":"and culture has allowed us to"},{"startTime":751.47,"endTime":754.89,"body":"adapt to those environments,"},{"startTime":754.89,"endTime":759.66,"body":"but we also know that there"},{"startTime":754.89,"endTime":759.66,"body":"has been strong pressure"},{"startTime":759.66,"endTime":761.28,"body":"to adapt biologically,"},{"startTime":761.28,"endTime":763.78,"body":"and we know that humans"},{"startTime":761.28,"endTime":763.78,"body":"have adapted biologically,"},{"startTime":764.85,"endTime":766.14,"body":"and this is just, actually,"},{"startTime":766.14,"endTime":769.44,"body":"what I wanted to discuss today."},{"startTime":769.44,"endTime":772.56,"body":"So how do humans adapt"},{"startTime":769.44,"endTime":772.56,"body":"to the local environment,"},{"startTime":772.56,"endTime":774.21,"body":"how does this process work,"},{"startTime":774.21,"endTime":776.76,"body":"and how do we learn"},{"startTime":774.21,"endTime":776.76,"body":"about those adaptations?"},{"startTime":776.76,"endTime":778.47,"body":"Adaptation happens by natural selection,"},{"startTime":778.47,"endTime":781.35,"body":"which is a very old concept from Darwin"},{"startTime":781.35,"endTime":783.36,"body":"that is based on the idea of fitness,"},{"startTime":783.36,"endTime":784.35,"body":"and the idea is that"},{"startTime":784.35,"endTime":787.05,"body":"individuals that are better"},{"startTime":784.35,"endTime":787.05,"body":"fit for their environment,"},{"startTime":787.05,"endTime":788.46,"body":"meaning, typically,"},{"startTime":788.46,"endTime":791.58,"body":"that they are better able to"},{"startTime":788.46,"endTime":791.58,"body":"survive in that environment,"},{"startTime":791.58,"endTime":794.22,"body":"or better able to reproduce, or both,"},{"startTime":794.22,"endTime":795.27,"body":"those that are better fit"},{"startTime":795.27,"endTime":797.97,"body":"are going to have more offspring."},{"startTime":797.97,"endTime":802.86,"body":"If the trait that is"},{"startTime":797.97,"endTime":802.86,"body":"beneficial is heritable,"},{"startTime":802.86,"endTime":804.69,"body":"so for example, if it's genetic,"},{"startTime":804.69,"endTime":806.73,"body":"then that offspring,"},{"startTime":806.73,"endTime":807.9,"body":"it's going to have that trait,"},{"startTime":807.9,"endTime":809.37,"body":"they're going to also be better fit,"},{"startTime":809.37,"endTime":810.87,"body":"they have more offspring, and so on,"},{"startTime":810.87,"endTime":811.703,"body":"so over time,"},{"startTime":811.703,"endTime":814.89,"body":"you're increasing the"},{"startTime":811.703,"endTime":814.89,"body":"frequency of beneficial traits."},{"startTime":814.89,"endTime":816.12,"body":"And the other way around,"},{"startTime":816.12,"endTime":817.98,"body":"if there are traits that are deleterious,"},{"startTime":817.98,"endTime":819.99,"body":"that reduce the fitness of individuals,"},{"startTime":819.99,"endTime":822.39,"body":"slowly, they're going to reduce"},{"startTime":819.99,"endTime":822.39,"body":"in frequency in a population,"},{"startTime":822.39,"endTime":824.49,"body":"and that is how populations adapt."},{"startTime":824.49,"endTime":826.71,"body":"There are different types"},{"startTime":824.49,"endTime":826.71,"body":"of natural selection,"},{"startTime":826.71,"endTime":830.64,"body":"but this very classical type"},{"startTime":826.71,"endTime":830.64,"body":"is called positive selection,"},{"startTime":830.64,"endTime":832.41,"body":"because it's a positive effect,"},{"startTime":832.41,"endTime":834.09,"body":"where you're increasing the frequency"},{"startTime":834.09,"endTime":835.38,"body":"of a beneficial allele."},{"startTime":835.38,"endTime":838.98,"body":"So let's very quickly go"},{"startTime":835.38,"endTime":838.98,"body":"over what you expect to see"},{"startTime":838.98,"endTime":842.52,"body":"if you have a trait"},{"startTime":838.98,"endTime":842.52,"body":"where you have two forms."},{"startTime":842.52,"endTime":846.48,"body":"We have an orange form"},{"startTime":842.52,"endTime":846.48,"body":"here and a green one,"},{"startTime":846.48,"endTime":847.89,"body":"and let's say this is neutral,"},{"startTime":847.89,"endTime":850.397,"body":"neutral means it doesn't"},{"startTime":847.89,"endTime":850.397,"body":"affect the fitness"},{"startTime":852.99,"endTime":854.283,"body":"of the individuals,"},{"startTime":854.283,"endTime":857.76,"body":"so it won't be under natural selection"},{"startTime":857.76,"endTime":859.41,"body":"because it has no effect on fitness."},{"startTime":859.41,"endTime":860.79,"body":"It can have noticeable effects,"},{"startTime":860.79,"endTime":862.41,"body":"but it doesn't affect fitness."},{"startTime":862.41,"endTime":865.56,"body":"So what's going to happen from"},{"startTime":862.41,"endTime":865.56,"body":"one generation to the next?"},{"startTime":865.56,"endTime":867.57,"body":"These individuals are going to reproduce,"},{"startTime":867.57,"endTime":869.49,"body":"and then they reproduce, and so on,"},{"startTime":869.49,"endTime":870.36,"body":"and there's some variation,"},{"startTime":870.36,"endTime":871.89,"body":"it's not that, always,"},{"startTime":871.89,"endTime":873.84,"body":"everybody has the same"},{"startTime":871.89,"endTime":873.84,"body":"number of offspring,"},{"startTime":873.84,"endTime":876.21,"body":"so in some generation,"},{"startTime":876.21,"endTime":878.703,"body":"maybe there are two greens,"},{"startTime":880.23,"endTime":882.39,"body":"and because we're keeping"},{"startTime":880.23,"endTime":882.39,"body":"the population size stable,"},{"startTime":882.39,"endTime":884.64,"body":"there are going to be only three oranges,"},{"startTime":884.64,"endTime":885.96,"body":"but then in the next generation,"},{"startTime":885.96,"endTime":887.19,"body":"this might change, and so on."},{"startTime":887.19,"endTime":888.138,"body":"So over time,"},{"startTime":888.138,"endTime":891.0,"body":"there is change in frequency,"},{"startTime":891.0,"endTime":893.79,"body":"but it's not very much, or very quick."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":895.62,"endTime":900.36,"body":"imagine that the green"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":895.62,"endTime":900.36,"body":"trait is beneficial,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":900.36,"endTime":901.65,"body":"it increases the fitness,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":901.65,"endTime":903.3,"body":"well it's going to have more offspring,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":903.3,"endTime":904.38,"body":"so in the next generation,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":904.38,"endTime":906.987,"body":"there are going to be"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":904.38,"endTime":906.987,"body":"more green individuals,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":906.987,"endTime":909.06,"body":"and in the next one,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":906.987,"endTime":909.06,"body":"more green individuals,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":909.06,"endTime":909.96,"body":"and so on,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":909.96,"endTime":910.793,"body":"up until a point"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":910.793,"endTime":912.87,"body":"where either almost all of the individuals"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":912.87,"endTime":913.703,"body":"in the population,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":913.703,"endTime":915.09,"body":"or actually, often,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":915.09,"endTime":917.28,"body":"all of the individuals of"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":915.09,"endTime":917.28,"body":"the population, are green."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":917.28,"endTime":920.46,"body":"And now we've gone from a situation where,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":920.46,"endTime":921.87,"body":"under neutral evolution,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":921.87,"endTime":925.35,"body":"you are in a situation that's"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":921.87,"endTime":925.35,"body":"very similar to the old one,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":925.35,"endTime":926.4,"body":"under positive selection,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":926.4,"endTime":928.353,"body":"almost everybody is green."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":929.25,"endTime":931.98,"body":"If this trait is encoded in our genes,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":931.98,"endTime":933.63,"body":"this is exactly the same thing"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":933.63,"endTime":936.36,"body":"if we think about the"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":933.63,"endTime":936.36,"body":"variance in the genome."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":936.36,"endTime":937.86,"body":"So if you have a variant"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":937.86,"endTime":941.97,"body":"that determines whether"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":937.86,"endTime":941.97,"body":"you are orange or green,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":941.97,"endTime":943.14,"body":"under neutrality"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":943.14,"endTime":946.8,"body":"it's not going to change very"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":943.14,"endTime":946.8,"body":"much in frequency over time,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":946.8,"endTime":948.24,"body":"but under positive selection,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":948.24,"endTime":951.18,"body":"the variant that encodes"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":948.24,"endTime":951.18,"body":"for the beneficial allele"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":951.18,"endTime":953.55,"body":"is going to increase in"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":951.18,"endTime":953.55,"body":"frequency very, very much,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":953.55,"endTime":955.85,"body":"so you're going to see"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":953.55,"endTime":955.85,"body":"this difference over time."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":958.47,"endTime":960.9,"body":"So how do we look at this in genomes?"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":960.9,"endTime":964.44,"body":"Well now, because of"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":960.9,"endTime":964.44,"body":"technical advancements,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":964.44,"endTime":967.95,"body":"we can sequence thousands"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":964.44,"endTime":967.95,"body":"and thousands of genomes"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":967.95,"endTime":970.62,"body":"very easily, and actually quite cheap."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":970.62,"endTime":973.65,"body":"So you can go and have a sample of genomes"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":973.65,"endTime":975.66,"body":"from whatever population you decide,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":975.66,"endTime":977.28,"body":"you extract the DNA,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":977.28,"endTime":979.23,"body":"you do some sequencing with them,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":979.23,"endTime":980.91,"body":"and you read the genome,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":980.91,"endTime":981.81,"body":"so you're going to read"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":981.81,"endTime":984.93,"body":"every single of the bases of the genome,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":984.93,"endTime":987.51,"body":"A, G, C, and T,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":987.51,"endTime":989.13,"body":"for every individual."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":989.13,"endTime":992.37,"body":"Now you have these thousands of sequences,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":992.37,"endTime":993.45,"body":"one next to the other,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":993.45,"endTime":995.73,"body":"and you can start identifying"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":993.45,"endTime":995.73,"body":"the genetic variants."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":995.73,"endTime":998.07,"body":"So here, what we have is"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":998.07,"endTime":1001.91,"body":"this individual has T in"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":998.07,"endTime":1001.91,"body":"his two chromosomes here,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1001.91,"endTime":1004.373,"body":"and the other individuals have a C."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1007.58,"endTime":1012.02,"body":"We're going to encode"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1007.58,"endTime":1012.02,"body":"that as a T chromosome."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1012.02,"endTime":1013.43,"body":"So this is a variant,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1013.43,"endTime":1015.11,"body":"it's a position in the genome where,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1015.11,"endTime":1016.52,"body":"if you compare individuals,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1016.52,"endTime":1018.77,"body":"some people have one letter"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1018.77,"endTime":1020.99,"body":"and some people have another one,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1020.99,"endTime":1023.36,"body":"and those are the two alleles,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1023.36,"endTime":1024.96,"body":"this is how we call the variant,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1026.21,"endTime":1029.81,"body":"so the two alleles are"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1026.21,"endTime":1029.81,"body":"allele C and allele T."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1029.81,"endTime":1031.01,"body":"And we can count"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1031.01,"endTime":1034.04,"body":"how many times we observe"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1031.01,"endTime":1034.04,"body":"this in our sample,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1034.04,"endTime":1036.683,"body":"we observe it 2 out of 10,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1039.511,"endTime":1042.02,"body":"so the frequency of the T allele is 20%."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1042.02,"endTime":1043.58,"body":"And because we are now able"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1043.58,"endTime":1045.83,"body":"to sequence lots and lots of genomes,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1045.83,"endTime":1046.85,"body":"and full genomes, actually,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1046.85,"endTime":1049.55,"body":"we can do this across the genome and say,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1049.55,"endTime":1052.37,"body":"we have the genetic variant,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1049.55,"endTime":1052.37,"body":"that has this frequency,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1052.37,"endTime":1056.93,"body":"and for every single"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1052.37,"endTime":1056.93,"body":"position in the genome"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1056.93,"endTime":1059.15,"body":"that is variable across humans,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1059.15,"endTime":1061.7,"body":"we can establish what is the"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1059.15,"endTime":1061.7,"body":"frequency in the population."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1061.7,"endTime":1063.29,"body":"And we could do this for this population,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1063.29,"endTime":1065.51,"body":"and we could do this for"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1063.29,"endTime":1065.51,"body":"a number of populations."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1065.51,"endTime":1067.01,"body":"So this is really helpful"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1067.01,"endTime":1070.28,"body":"in understanding evolutionary history,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1070.28,"endTime":1074.93,"body":"and almost necessary to"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1070.28,"endTime":1074.93,"body":"understand adaptations."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1074.93,"endTime":1075.763,"body":"And as I said,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1075.763,"endTime":1077.64,"body":"we have now thousands of genomes"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1078.83,"endTime":1080.42,"body":"from people across the world,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1080.42,"endTime":1081.47,"body":"and actually, it's so easy"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1081.47,"endTime":1083.63,"body":"that if I have a good internet connection,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1083.63,"endTime":1086.57,"body":"I can just download thousands"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1083.63,"endTime":1086.57,"body":"of genomes into my computer,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1086.57,"endTime":1088.58,"body":"they're freely available,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1088.58,"endTime":1091.28,"body":"and once you know how to deal with them,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1091.28,"endTime":1092.75,"body":"it's really easy."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1092.75,"endTime":1094.94,"body":"We also have hundreds of genomes"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1094.94,"endTime":1096.83,"body":"from old human remains,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1096.83,"endTime":1098.96,"body":"these are remains from dead people"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1098.96,"endTime":1102.29,"body":"from a few hundred to"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1098.96,"endTime":1102.29,"body":"many thousand years old"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1102.29,"endTime":1104.78,"body":"that we can also sequence from the bones,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1104.78,"endTime":1106.73,"body":"and we can also analyze,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1106.73,"endTime":1110.72,"body":"and we have also genomes"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1106.73,"endTime":1110.72,"body":"from archaic humans,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1110.72,"endTime":1113.0,"body":"so the Neanderthals and"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1110.72,"endTime":1113.0,"body":"the Denisovans I told you,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1113.0,"endTime":1114.89,"body":"well people got that pinky, as I said,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1114.89,"endTime":1117.26,"body":"and you have the genome,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1114.89,"endTime":1117.26,"body":"and you can analyze it."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1117.26,"endTime":1119.18,"body":"So we use all of this information"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1119.18,"endTime":1122.48,"body":"in order to infer evolutionary history."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1122.48,"endTime":1124.43,"body":"So let's just look at the toy example"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1124.43,"endTime":1126.56,"body":"of our green and orange,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1126.56,"endTime":1129.787,"body":"let's imagine that we are looking"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1126.56,"endTime":1129.787,"body":"at a population in Africa,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1129.787,"endTime":1130.723,"body":"it doesn't matter where it is,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1130.723,"endTime":1132.89,"body":"this is just a toy example,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1132.89,"endTime":1137.18,"body":"where we have this green"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1132.89,"endTime":1137.18,"body":"allele that is neutral,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1137.18,"endTime":1139.76,"body":"and then it has a certain"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1137.18,"endTime":1139.76,"body":"frequency in the population."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1139.76,"endTime":1141.8,"body":"Humans migrate around the world,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1141.8,"endTime":1142.633,"body":"if this is neutral,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1142.633,"endTime":1144.32,"body":"it's not going to change"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1142.633,"endTime":1144.32,"body":"in frequency very much"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1144.32,"endTime":1145.19,"body":"across populations,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1145.19,"endTime":1147.08,"body":"but there's going to be some difference."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1147.08,"endTime":1148.07,"body":"And now let's imagine"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1148.07,"endTime":1150.41,"body":"that the green allele is highly beneficial"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1150.41,"endTime":1152.39,"body":"in the British and Irish islands,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1152.39,"endTime":1154.94,"body":"so it has increased in frequency very much"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1154.94,"endTime":1156.5,"body":"in this population"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1156.5,"endTime":1161.5,"body":"because it encodes for some"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1156.5,"endTime":1161.5,"body":"trait that is beneficial there,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1161.69,"endTime":1162.95,"body":"but it's not beneficial anywhere else,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1162.95,"endTime":1165.47,"body":"so it only increases in frequency there."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1165.47,"endTime":1166.91,"body":"So what we would say"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1166.91,"endTime":1168.26,"body":"is that this population"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1168.26,"endTime":1170.69,"body":"is genetically adapted"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1168.26,"endTime":1170.69,"body":"to its local environment,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1170.69,"endTime":1173.18,"body":"so this is what we mean"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1170.69,"endTime":1173.18,"body":"by local adaptation."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1173.18,"endTime":1174.86,"body":"Not all humans carry that trait,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1174.86,"endTime":1177.5,"body":"all these populations have"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1174.86,"endTime":1177.5,"body":"it at very low frequencies,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1177.5,"endTime":1179.42,"body":"but it's really common in this population,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1179.42,"endTime":1181.61,"body":"and that's because that trait is adaptive."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1181.61,"endTime":1183.8,"body":"We usually use pie charts"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1183.8,"endTime":1185.96,"body":"because it's easier to see,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1185.96,"endTime":1188.42,"body":"and you can see that there's"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1185.96,"endTime":1188.42,"body":"a very strong difference"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1188.42,"endTime":1189.32,"body":"between these two."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1191.6,"endTime":1193.64,"body":"So what is happening here is,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1193.64,"endTime":1196.73,"body":"if I came to you, and I told you,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1196.73,"endTime":1198.47,"body":"I'm studying this genetic variant,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1198.47,"endTime":1200.297,"body":"we have been sequencing genomes,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1200.297,"endTime":1205.297,"body":"and we have been getting"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1200.297,"endTime":1205.297,"body":"genomes from existing databases,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1206.09,"endTime":1208.79,"body":"and we just calculated"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1206.09,"endTime":1208.79,"body":"the allele frequencies,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1208.79,"endTime":1210.41,"body":"and this is what we observe,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1210.41,"endTime":1212.96,"body":"after I just told you that"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1210.41,"endTime":1212.96,"body":"humans are so homogeneous,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1212.96,"endTime":1214.76,"body":"and that allele frequencies"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1212.96,"endTime":1214.76,"body":"don't change very much,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1214.76,"endTime":1215.99,"body":"you would probably tell me,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1215.99,"endTime":1218.813,"body":"Aida, there's something interesting here,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1220.28,"endTime":1221.51,"body":"and you would be right."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1221.51,"endTime":1223.91,"body":"So what we're doing is using the fact"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1223.91,"endTime":1225.32,"body":"that these genetic variants"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1225.32,"endTime":1227.51,"body":"show striking differences"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1225.32,"endTime":1227.51,"body":"in allele frequency"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1227.51,"endTime":1228.62,"body":"between populations"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1228.62,"endTime":1231.47,"body":"in order to say this is a hint"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1231.47,"endTime":1234.5,"body":"that this site has been mediating"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1234.5,"endTime":1235.64,"body":"adaptation to the environment,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1235.64,"endTime":1237.56,"body":"that's what we call a signature."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1237.56,"endTime":1241.19,"body":"So this is a pattern in the data"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1241.19,"endTime":1243.29,"body":"that you don't expect"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1241.19,"endTime":1243.29,"body":"under neutral evolution,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1243.29,"endTime":1244.73,"body":"and you expect under selection."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1244.73,"endTime":1246.71,"body":"So if you see one of these,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1246.71,"endTime":1250.07,"body":"well you may believe that"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1246.71,"endTime":1250.07,"body":"maybe you're into something."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1250.07,"endTime":1251.69,"body":"If you see several patterns"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1251.69,"endTime":1255.08,"body":"that you expect under"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1251.69,"endTime":1255.08,"body":"positive selection only,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1255.08,"endTime":1256.55,"body":"under local adaptation only,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1256.55,"endTime":1258.68,"body":"then you would become"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1256.55,"endTime":1258.68,"body":"more and more convinced"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1258.68,"endTime":1259.513,"body":"that, really,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1259.513,"endTime":1262.49,"body":"this particular variant has"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1259.513,"endTime":1262.49,"body":"been mediating adaptation"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1262.49,"endTime":1263.87,"body":"to this environment,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1263.87,"endTime":1266.69,"body":"and that is actually what we do every day,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1266.69,"endTime":1269.117,"body":"we use the signatures of local adaptation."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1269.117,"endTime":1270.68,"body":"And the reason we have to do this"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1270.68,"endTime":1273.68,"body":"is because we cannot observe the past,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1273.68,"endTime":1275.63,"body":"we don't know what happened."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1275.63,"endTime":1277.85,"body":"We're starting to have ancient DNA,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1277.85,"endTime":1281.63,"body":"but we really cannot"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1277.85,"endTime":1281.63,"body":"observe the processes,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1281.63,"endTime":1283.07,"body":"we cannot experiment in humans,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1283.07,"endTime":1285.86,"body":"we cannot see who has higher"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1283.07,"endTime":1285.86,"body":"fitness or lower fitness"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1285.86,"endTime":1287.0,"body":"in which environment,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1287.0,"endTime":1289.43,"body":"so we have to rely on these signatures"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1289.43,"endTime":1290.51,"body":"of positive selection,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1290.51,"endTime":1292.46,"body":"this footprint that selection leaves,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1292.46,"endTime":1294.23,"body":"in the same way that"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1292.46,"endTime":1294.23,"body":"if you go to the beach,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1294.23,"endTime":1297.29,"body":"and you see some footprints on it,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1297.29,"endTime":1298.49,"body":"you can make inferences"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1298.49,"endTime":1300.89,"body":"about whether somebody"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1298.49,"endTime":1300.89,"body":"has been walking here,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1300.89,"endTime":1302.48,"body":"in which direction they were going,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1302.48,"endTime":1304.94,"body":"how long ago, maybe, they have been here,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1304.94,"endTime":1306.17,"body":"how big their foot is,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1306.17,"endTime":1308.12,"body":"which maybe tells us"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1306.17,"endTime":1308.12,"body":"something about their size."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1308.12,"endTime":1309.414,"body":"In the same way,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1309.414,"endTime":1312.44,"body":"we use all of these"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1309.414,"endTime":1312.44,"body":"signatures of selection"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1312.44,"endTime":1313.88,"body":"in order to make inferences"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1313.88,"endTime":1315.71,"body":"about what has happened in the past,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1315.71,"endTime":1317.84,"body":"and then try to understand why,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1317.84,"endTime":1320.99,"body":"what are the environmental factors"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1320.99,"endTime":1321.86,"body":"that are responsible for that,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1321.86,"endTime":1325.34,"body":"what are the consequences"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1321.86,"endTime":1325.34,"body":"today of those adaptations."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1325.34,"endTime":1327.68,"body":"And again, there's a number"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1325.34,"endTime":1327.68,"body":"of different signatures,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1327.68,"endTime":1329.78,"body":"I'm focusing only on"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1327.68,"endTime":1329.78,"body":"allele frequency today"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1329.78,"endTime":1331.16,"body":"just for simplicity,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1331.16,"endTime":1334.823,"body":"but we use many more"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1331.16,"endTime":1334.823,"body":"sophisticated signatures."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1336.02,"endTime":1337.13,"body":"And actually,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1337.13,"endTime":1339.41,"body":"these signatures not only allow us"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1339.41,"endTime":1342.2,"body":"to identify the variants of genes"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1342.2,"endTime":1344.21,"body":"that have evolved under"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1342.2,"endTime":1344.21,"body":"positive selection,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1344.21,"endTime":1349.21,"body":"but also learn something"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1344.21,"endTime":1349.21,"body":"about the evolutionary forces."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1349.49,"endTime":1350.323,"body":"So for example,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1350.323,"endTime":1352.07,"body":"if I give you this map,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1352.07,"endTime":1353.6,"body":"and there's not a lot of information here,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1353.6,"endTime":1354.98,"body":"but if we have some more money,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1354.98,"endTime":1358.43,"body":"and then we spend some more"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1354.98,"endTime":1358.43,"body":"time studying this variant,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1358.43,"endTime":1361.07,"body":"and we see a pattern like this,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1361.07,"endTime":1364.01,"body":"really, this pattern is"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1361.07,"endTime":1364.01,"body":"very, very different here,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1364.01,"endTime":1367.04,"body":"then we know, most likely,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1367.04,"endTime":1368.3,"body":"these populations have adapted"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1368.3,"endTime":1370.79,"body":"to a very local selective force,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1370.79,"endTime":1371.63,"body":"an environmental force"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1371.63,"endTime":1374.75,"body":"that is very unique to these populations."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1374.75,"endTime":1375.86,"body":"If we do the same,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1375.86,"endTime":1377.66,"body":"and we observe a pattern where,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1377.66,"endTime":1378.95,"body":"at high latitudes,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1378.95,"endTime":1381.35,"body":"all of the populations"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1378.95,"endTime":1381.35,"body":"have a similar pattern,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1381.35,"endTime":1383.03,"body":"that means that they are probably sharing"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1383.03,"endTime":1384.33,"body":"that environmental factor."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1385.64,"endTime":1386.66,"body":"For example here,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1386.66,"endTime":1388.79,"body":"you could say maybe it's"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1386.66,"endTime":1388.79,"body":"something to do with cold,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1388.79,"endTime":1390.59,"body":"where these populations share"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1390.59,"endTime":1392.03,"body":"that particular environmental factor."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1392.03,"endTime":1392.93,"body":"And it's important,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1392.93,"endTime":1397.93,"body":"because if this variant also"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1392.93,"endTime":1397.93,"body":"has an influence, for example,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1398.39,"endTime":1400.107,"body":"on disease,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1400.107,"endTime":1405.107,"body":"so the predisposition to"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1400.107,"endTime":1405.107,"body":"disease in this case would be,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1405.68,"endTime":1408.02,"body":"these populations are different"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1405.68,"endTime":1408.02,"body":"from the rest of the world,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1408.02,"endTime":1408.853,"body":"but here,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1408.853,"endTime":1411.253,"body":"we would expect them to share"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1408.853,"endTime":1411.253,"body":"some disease predisposition."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1413.93,"endTime":1416.21,"body":"So now that we hopefully understand"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1416.21,"endTime":1417.5,"body":"how these processes happen,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1417.5,"endTime":1419.03,"body":"and how we can learn about them,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1419.03,"endTime":1423.17,"body":"even though we cannot"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1419.03,"endTime":1423.17,"body":"study them as they happen,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1423.17,"endTime":1424.25,"body":"I would like to discuss"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1424.25,"endTime":1428.003,"body":"how did genetic adaptation"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1424.25,"endTime":1428.003,"body":"help humans colonize the world."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1428.84,"endTime":1429.92,"body":"The first thing that I want to say,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1429.92,"endTime":1431.06,"body":"I won't go into the details,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1431.06,"endTime":1433.64,"body":"but we do know that genetic adaptation"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1433.64,"endTime":1435.92,"body":"did help humans colonize the world."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1435.92,"endTime":1439.01,"body":"If you look at the genome"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1435.92,"endTime":1439.01,"body":"scale, at the whole genome,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1439.01,"endTime":1441.65,"body":"you do see this pattern"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1439.01,"endTime":1441.65,"body":"of local adaptation,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1441.65,"endTime":1443.09,"body":"we know it has been important."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1443.09,"endTime":1444.98,"body":"As I said, culture is important,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1444.98,"endTime":1447.71,"body":"but biological adaptation also exists."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1447.71,"endTime":1449.54,"body":"So I want to give you a hint"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1449.54,"endTime":1450.86,"body":"of which ones are the adaptations"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1450.86,"endTime":1453.59,"body":"that we think are more"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1450.86,"endTime":1453.59,"body":"important, or interesting,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1453.59,"endTime":1454.76,"body":"or we know better about,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1454.76,"endTime":1456.383,"body":"and their consequences today."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1457.94,"endTime":1461.42,"body":"Perhaps the most famous"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1457.94,"endTime":1461.42,"body":"adaptation that we know of"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1461.42,"endTime":1462.62,"body":"is not a local adaptation,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1462.62,"endTime":1463.76,"body":"but it's a very important adaptation,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1463.76,"endTime":1464.593,"body":"which is to diet,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1464.593,"endTime":1469.31,"body":"and there are several known"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1464.593,"endTime":1469.31,"body":"examples of adaptations to diet."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1469.31,"endTime":1470.69,"body":"Diet is obviously very important,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1470.69,"endTime":1472.58,"body":"you need to be very well nourished"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1472.58,"endTime":1475.49,"body":"in order to just survive"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1472.58,"endTime":1475.49,"body":"and have offspring,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1475.49,"endTime":1480.49,"body":"but adaptation to consuming"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1475.49,"endTime":1480.49,"body":"milk into adulthood"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1481.49,"endTime":1483.04,"body":"is one of the most famous ones."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1484.31,"endTime":1486.26,"body":"In most species of mammals,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1486.26,"endTime":1488.45,"body":"adults are unable to digest milk,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1488.45,"endTime":1489.47,"body":"and that is because"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1489.47,"endTime":1491.48,"body":"once you can eat food,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1491.48,"endTime":1493.37,"body":"then why would you eat milk?"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1493.37,"endTime":1495.92,"body":"You can get your nutrition from food,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1495.92,"endTime":1498.11,"body":"your mom can have another baby,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1498.11,"endTime":1500.303,"body":"you never drink milk again."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1501.2,"endTime":1505.04,"body":"And that happens once you become older,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1505.04,"endTime":1506.9,"body":"then you stop producing the enzymes"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1506.9,"endTime":1508.973,"body":"that you need in order to digest milk."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1509.99,"endTime":1513.08,"body":"Many adults in many human societies"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1513.08,"endTime":1515.81,"body":"are actually able to digest milk"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1515.81,"endTime":1517.76,"body":"due to the continued"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1515.81,"endTime":1517.76,"body":"expression of lactase."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1517.76,"endTime":1519.41,"body":"Lactase is an enzyme"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1519.41,"endTime":1523.19,"body":"that allows us to metabolize"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1519.41,"endTime":1523.19,"body":"the sugars in the milk,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1523.19,"endTime":1527.78,"body":"and many of us continue to express this,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1527.78,"endTime":1530.33,"body":"and to have lactase well into adulthood,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1530.33,"endTime":1531.41,"body":"and we can drink milk."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1531.41,"endTime":1532.46,"body":"And not everybody can,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1532.46,"endTime":1533.91,"body":"many of us cannot drink milk."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1534.77,"endTime":1538.627,"body":"But this is unique in the animal kingdom,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1538.627,"endTime":1540.743,"body":"at least as far as I know."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1542.51,"endTime":1545.21,"body":"The lactase gene has some"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1542.51,"endTime":1545.21,"body":"of the strongest signatures"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1545.21,"endTime":1546.05,"body":"of local adaptation"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1546.05,"endTime":1547.28,"body":"in the whole human genome,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1547.28,"endTime":1548.24,"body":"and actually,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1548.24,"endTime":1549.71,"body":"I say one of the strongest,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1549.71,"endTime":1552.62,"body":"and it's the one that we"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1549.71,"endTime":1552.62,"body":"always use a classical example"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1552.62,"endTime":1553.733,"body":"because it's so clear."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1554.9,"endTime":1559.34,"body":"In Europe, it appeared very recently,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1559.34,"endTime":1560.87,"body":"maybe 2,000 years ago,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1560.87,"endTime":1561.703,"body":"we don't know exactly,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1561.703,"endTime":1562.61,"body":"but really recently,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1562.61,"endTime":1565.04,"body":"it increased in frequency very quickly,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1565.04,"endTime":1569.3,"body":"to the point that the"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1565.04,"endTime":1569.3,"body":"majority of individuals"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1569.3,"endTime":1573.17,"body":"in many European"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1569.3,"endTime":1573.17,"body":"populations can digest milk."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1573.17,"endTime":1574.58,"body":"What is interesting"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1574.58,"endTime":1578.0,"body":"is that the alleles that"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1574.58,"endTime":1578.0,"body":"maintain expression of lactase,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1578.0,"endTime":1580.79,"body":"that allow us to consume"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1578.0,"endTime":1580.79,"body":"milk into adulthood,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1580.79,"endTime":1584.51,"body":"have appeared in European"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1580.79,"endTime":1584.51,"body":"and in African pastoralists,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1584.51,"endTime":1586.19,"body":"and those are actually different."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1586.19,"endTime":1590.09,"body":"So mutations appear in these two locations"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1590.09,"endTime":1593.9,"body":"that continue lactase persisting,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1593.9,"endTime":1597.2,"body":"and they were under"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1593.9,"endTime":1597.2,"body":"positive selection in both,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1597.2,"endTime":1599.63,"body":"which means we have"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1597.2,"endTime":1599.63,"body":"different societies right now"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1599.63,"endTime":1602.03,"body":"that can consume milk into adulthood,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1602.03,"endTime":1605.81,"body":"and this was beneficial"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1602.03,"endTime":1605.81,"body":"completely independently."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1605.81,"endTime":1609.233,"body":"And of course, many other"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1605.81,"endTime":1609.233,"body":"societies don't share this."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1610.28,"endTime":1613.7,"body":"What we don't know for sure"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1610.28,"endTime":1613.7,"body":"is why is milk so important."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1613.7,"endTime":1615.74,"body":"Of course it's a good source of nutrition,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1615.74,"endTime":1619.52,"body":"and once you've learned"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1615.74,"endTime":1619.52,"body":"to domesticate cows,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1619.52,"endTime":1621.44,"body":"or other mammals,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1621.44,"endTime":1625.04,"body":"then it is a good source of nutrition,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1625.04,"endTime":1629.3,"body":"but milk is also a source of clean water"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1629.3,"endTime":1631.4,"body":"for those who don't have clean water."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1631.4,"endTime":1634.19,"body":"So we're not 100% sure"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1631.4,"endTime":1634.19,"body":"of what is the reason"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1634.19,"endTime":1639.19,"body":"why consuming milk into adulthood"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1634.19,"endTime":1639.19,"body":"is so strongly selected,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1639.86,"endTime":1643.103,"body":"but it is very clear"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1639.86,"endTime":1643.103,"body":"that it was beneficial."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1645.17,"endTime":1646.003,"body":"And actually,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1646.003,"endTime":1647.87,"body":"there are other adaptations to"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1646.003,"endTime":1647.87,"body":"diet that I won't talk about,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1647.87,"endTime":1650.48,"body":"but diet is clearly a very"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1647.87,"endTime":1650.48,"body":"important selective force."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1650.48,"endTime":1652.34,"body":"Another classical one,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1652.34,"endTime":1653.69,"body":"just because it's so visible,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1653.69,"endTime":1655.85,"body":"is adaptation to solar exposure."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1655.85,"endTime":1656.993,"body":"Solar exposure,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1657.83,"endTime":1661.49,"body":"it differs dramatically around the world,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1661.49,"endTime":1665.15,"body":"with higher levels of"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1661.49,"endTime":1665.15,"body":"exposure around the equator,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1665.15,"endTime":1668.303,"body":"and then lower exposure"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1665.15,"endTime":1668.303,"body":"as you get further away."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1669.44,"endTime":1670.4,"body":"And actually,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1670.4,"endTime":1673.49,"body":"this is a really important"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1670.4,"endTime":1673.49,"body":"selective factor also"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1673.49,"endTime":1677.03,"body":"because the Sun is"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1673.49,"endTime":1677.03,"body":"fantastic, and we need it,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1677.03,"endTime":1678.98,"body":"but it's also quite dangerous."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1678.98,"endTime":1680.84,"body":"If you live in regions of the world"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1680.84,"endTime":1683.18,"body":"where there's high solar exposure,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1683.18,"endTime":1684.71,"body":"then you need protection,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1684.71,"endTime":1688.28,"body":"because otherwise you get"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1684.71,"endTime":1688.28,"body":"skin cancer very quickly,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1688.28,"endTime":1691.52,"body":"we don't have fur, we're"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1688.28,"endTime":1691.52,"body":"completely exposed,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1691.52,"endTime":1692.81,"body":"so in those cases,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1692.81,"endTime":1695.123,"body":"it is beneficial to have dark skin."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1696.409,"endTime":1697.61,"body":"It is the melanin,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1697.61,"endTime":1702.61,"body":"so how well your skin"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1697.61,"endTime":1702.61,"body":"can protect from the Sun,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1705.08,"endTime":1707.9,"body":"that's the level of protection."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1707.9,"endTime":1710.51,"body":"If you live in places like the UK,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1710.51,"endTime":1712.73,"body":"where there's really not a lot of sun,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1712.73,"endTime":1717.73,"body":"then what happens is that"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1712.73,"endTime":1717.73,"body":"you need exposure to sun"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1718.04,"endTime":1719.78,"body":"to generate vitamin D,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1719.78,"endTime":1722.99,"body":"because we do need the Sun"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1719.78,"endTime":1722.99,"body":"in order to generate it,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1722.99,"endTime":1725.033,"body":"so now you're in a situation where,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1726.08,"endTime":1729.11,"body":"even though you need some protection,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1729.11,"endTime":1731.54,"body":"the need for vitamin D is more important,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1731.54,"endTime":1733.49,"body":"and in those situation,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1733.49,"endTime":1736.1,"body":"then it's better to have lighter skin."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1736.1,"endTime":1740.03,"body":"And what we know has happened"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1740.03,"endTime":1742.61,"body":"is that there has been some evolution"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1742.61,"endTime":1745.43,"body":"so that populations that"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1742.61,"endTime":1745.43,"body":"live at higher latitudes,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1745.43,"endTime":1746.9,"body":"for example,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1746.9,"endTime":1749.75,"body":"places where there's lower solar exposure,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1749.75,"endTime":1752.84,"body":"they have evolved to have"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1749.75,"endTime":1752.84,"body":"lighter pigmentation."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1752.84,"endTime":1753.95,"body":"And actually,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1753.95,"endTime":1756.71,"body":"this has resulted in an amazing diversity"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1756.71,"endTime":1758.453,"body":"of skin pigmentation around the world"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1758.453,"endTime":1761.0,"body":"in a really beautiful way,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1761.0,"endTime":1762.92,"body":"people, depending where you live,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1762.92,"endTime":1764.0,"body":"there's some balance"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1764.0,"endTime":1765.89,"body":"in between how much protection you need"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1765.89,"endTime":1768.503,"body":"versus how vitamin D generation you need."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1771.5,"endTime":1773.3,"body":"Of course, this is very visible,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1773.3,"endTime":1774.133,"body":"one would argue"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1774.133,"endTime":1776.99,"body":"maybe it's not very"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1774.133,"endTime":1776.99,"body":"important for many things,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1776.99,"endTime":1777.89,"body":"but it's very clear"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1777.89,"endTime":1782.89,"body":"that these populations have"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1777.89,"endTime":1782.89,"body":"adapted to where they live."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1783.83,"endTime":1786.71,"body":"And actually, there are"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1783.83,"endTime":1786.71,"body":"very, very strong signatures"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1786.71,"endTime":1787.543,"body":"of positive selection"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1787.543,"endTime":1791.273,"body":"for multiple genes that"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1787.543,"endTime":1791.273,"body":"are responsible for this."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1792.44,"endTime":1796.247,"body":"Of course, the consequences"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1792.44,"endTime":1796.247,"body":"today are a bit different,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1797.54,"endTime":1800.75,"body":"we live in a world"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1800.75,"endTime":1802.94,"body":"where we spend a lot of"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1800.75,"endTime":1802.94,"body":"time indoors, and so on,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1802.94,"endTime":1805.19,"body":"so the selective pressures have changed."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1805.19,"endTime":1807.53,"body":"We also maybe go on"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1805.19,"endTime":1807.53,"body":"holidays to other places,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1807.53,"endTime":1809.15,"body":"and then we have more sun,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1809.15,"endTime":1812.72,"body":"so of course, all of this"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1809.15,"endTime":1812.72,"body":"has changed over time,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1812.72,"endTime":1813.94,"body":"but this is a very clear example"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1813.94,"endTime":1815.87,"body":"of very strong selection"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1815.87,"endTime":1818.47,"body":"for individuals to adapt"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1815.87,"endTime":1818.47,"body":"to their local environment."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1819.59,"endTime":1822.17,"body":"So besides these very classical examples,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1822.17,"endTime":1823.61,"body":"I just wanted to say"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1823.61,"endTime":1826.76,"body":"adaptation to pathogens"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1823.61,"endTime":1826.76,"body":"is really important,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1826.76,"endTime":1830.39,"body":"and there's very strong"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1826.76,"endTime":1830.39,"body":"selection, of course,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1830.39,"endTime":1831.99,"body":"because pathogens will kill you"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1832.843,"endTime":1836.03,"body":"if you are sensitive to them."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1836.03,"endTime":1837.47,"body":"And there are other characteristics,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1837.47,"endTime":1838.4,"body":"for example height,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1838.4,"endTime":1840.14,"body":"so there are populations"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1840.14,"endTime":1841.97,"body":"that we know have had very strong pressure"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1841.97,"endTime":1843.35,"body":"to reduce the height,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1843.35,"endTime":1845.99,"body":"and we believe that maybe"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1843.35,"endTime":1845.99,"body":"in other populations,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1845.99,"endTime":1847.64,"body":"there's selection to increase height,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1847.64,"endTime":1849.74,"body":"and there's a whole bunch"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1847.64,"endTime":1849.74,"body":"of different phenotypes"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1849.74,"endTime":1851.42,"body":"that have been under selection."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1851.42,"endTime":1853.483,"body":"And again, what I would like to say is,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1853.483,"endTime":1854.87,"body":"this is interesting,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1854.87,"endTime":1856.79,"body":"but also, it's important in the sense"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1856.79,"endTime":1859.19,"body":"that many of these variants"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1859.19,"endTime":1861.92,"body":"have consequences in health today,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1861.92,"endTime":1864.05,"body":"so as much as understand our evolution,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1864.05,"endTime":1866.24,"body":"we will understand the"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1864.05,"endTime":1866.24,"body":"reason why they exist,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1866.24,"endTime":1868.1,"body":"and if they're different"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1866.24,"endTime":1868.1,"body":"between populations,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1868.1,"endTime":1872.0,"body":"that can help us understand"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1868.1,"endTime":1872.0,"body":"population differences in risk."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1872.0,"endTime":1873.29,"body":"I'm going to spend a bit of time"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1873.29,"endTime":1876.443,"body":"talking about adaptation"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1873.29,"endTime":1876.443,"body":"to ambient temperature,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1877.43,"endTime":1879.29,"body":"and that is because I"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1877.43,"endTime":1879.29,"body":"really like this example,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1879.29,"endTime":1880.19,"body":"it's very close to home,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1880.19,"endTime":1882.53,"body":"we've been working on this"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1880.19,"endTime":1882.53,"body":"for a number of years,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1882.53,"endTime":1885.18,"body":"but also, I think it's a very nice example"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1886.1,"endTime":1888.38,"body":"that really tells a story"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1888.38,"endTime":1891.47,"body":"about how important these adaptations are."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1891.47,"endTime":1893.707,"body":"I would argue that ambient temperature"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1893.707,"endTime":1897.08,"body":"is one of the strongest"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1893.707,"endTime":1897.08,"body":"environmental factors"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1897.08,"endTime":1900.113,"body":"that anybody has to deal with,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1901.01,"endTime":1904.76,"body":"because if pathogens can"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1901.01,"endTime":1904.76,"body":"kill you in a few days,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1904.76,"endTime":1908.63,"body":"well if you cannot adapt to,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1908.63,"endTime":1911.54,"body":"for example, very cold environments,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1911.54,"endTime":1913.46,"body":"if there's a sudden change in temperature,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1913.46,"endTime":1914.96,"body":"and you don't realize,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1914.96,"endTime":1918.53,"body":"or you don't change your"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1914.96,"endTime":1918.53,"body":"metabolism or your behavior,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1918.53,"endTime":1920.18,"body":"then that kills you in hours,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1920.18,"endTime":1923.6,"body":"so I think it's a really"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1920.18,"endTime":1923.6,"body":"very strong selective force."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1923.6,"endTime":1927.68,"body":"But also, it varies"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1923.6,"endTime":1927.68,"body":"dramatically in the world."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1927.68,"endTime":1929.15,"body":"So just an example,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1929.15,"endTime":1934.07,"body":"in Nigeria, the average"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1929.15,"endTime":1934.07,"body":"temperature across the year"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1934.07,"endTime":1936.2,"body":"is 28 degrees."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1936.2,"endTime":1938.0,"body":"If you go to Finland, it's six degrees."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1938.0,"endTime":1939.92,"body":"This is a huge difference,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1939.92,"endTime":1941.96,"body":"and this is the average across the year,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1941.96,"endTime":1944.33,"body":"I'm not talking about the winter."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1944.33,"endTime":1949.33,"body":"So individuals living"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1944.33,"endTime":1949.33,"body":"without our modern culture"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1950.06,"endTime":1951.71,"body":"in those two places,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1951.71,"endTime":1954.38,"body":"they really have very, very"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1951.71,"endTime":1954.38,"body":"different environments,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1954.38,"endTime":1956.03,"body":"and there's a whole gradient, of course,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1956.03,"endTime":1957.5,"body":"in between them,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1957.5,"endTime":1961.13,"body":"so I think it's interesting to ask"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1961.13,"endTime":1963.173,"body":"have humans adapted to this?"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1964.16,"endTime":1965.99,"body":"Let me very shortly tell you about"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1965.99,"endTime":1967.643,"body":"how we sense temperature,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1967.643,"endTime":1970.76,"body":"this is a really important process,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1970.76,"endTime":1971.72,"body":"and actually,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1971.72,"endTime":1974.96,"body":"the Nobel Prize for Physiology"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1971.72,"endTime":1974.96,"body":"or Medicine last year"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1974.96,"endTime":1977.06,"body":"was awarded on the discovery"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1977.06,"endTime":1979.853,"body":"of temperature and touch sensors,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1980.75,"endTime":1983.513,"body":"because it's how we interact"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1980.75,"endTime":1983.513,"body":"with the environment."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1984.5,"endTime":1986.51,"body":"So we sense temperature"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1986.51,"endTime":1988.64,"body":"by some neurons that innervate the skin,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1988.64,"endTime":1989.78,"body":"so they come from the brain,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1989.78,"endTime":1994.4,"body":"and they arrive to the"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1989.78,"endTime":1994.4,"body":"skin, the mouth, and so on,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1994.4,"endTime":1996.77,"body":"and if they activate,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1996.77,"endTime":1999.133,"body":"they tell your brain,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1996.77,"endTime":1999.133,"body":"for example, it's cold,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1999.133,"endTime":1999.966,"body":"and this is how this works."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":1999.966,"endTime":2002.38,"body":"There's a number of proteins,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2002.38,"endTime":2005.59,"body":"and they are in the membranes of cells,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2005.59,"endTime":2009.79,"body":"and these are what we call ion channels."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2009.79,"endTime":2011.83,"body":"So these are proteins"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2011.83,"endTime":2016.83,"body":"that allow ions to go"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2011.83,"endTime":2016.83,"body":"in or out of the cells,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2016.87,"endTime":2020.35,"body":"and by allowing ions going in or out,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2020.35,"endTime":2023.653,"body":"they activate the cells"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2020.35,"endTime":2023.653,"body":"that they belong to."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2024.7,"endTime":2029.7,"body":"And this family has a number"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2024.7,"endTime":2029.7,"body":"of different channels,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2030.34,"endTime":2034.09,"body":"and each of them activates"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2030.34,"endTime":2034.09,"body":"at different temperatures."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2034.09,"endTime":2035.89,"body":"So if it's really, really hot,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2035.89,"endTime":2039.25,"body":"then you're going to have TRPA1 activate,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2039.25,"endTime":2041.86,"body":"it's going to allow exchange of ions,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2041.86,"endTime":2044.11,"body":"it's going to activate"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2041.86,"endTime":2044.11,"body":"the cell where it is,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2044.11,"endTime":2046.99,"body":"and this cell is going to tell"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2044.11,"endTime":2046.99,"body":"your brain it's really very hot,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2046.99,"endTime":2049.63,"body":"and this is the thermo-sensation,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2049.63,"endTime":2050.71,"body":"and then your brain"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2050.71,"endTime":2053.74,"body":"is going to make you"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2050.71,"endTime":2053.74,"body":"change your metabolism,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2053.74,"endTime":2055.33,"body":"and maybe your behavior,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2055.33,"endTime":2056.44,"body":"depending which species you are,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2056.44,"endTime":2058.39,"body":"and depending how you deal with this."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2058.39,"endTime":2061.48,"body":"If it's cold, TRPM8 is"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2058.39,"endTime":2061.48,"body":"going to do the same,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2061.48,"endTime":2063.28,"body":"it's going to tell your"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2061.48,"endTime":2063.28,"body":"brain that it's cold,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2063.28,"endTime":2064.51,"body":"and this is how,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2064.51,"endTime":2067.09,"body":"by the combination of these"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2064.51,"endTime":2067.09,"body":"in the different neurons,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2067.09,"endTime":2070.09,"body":"we can know how cold it is,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2070.09,"endTime":2070.923,"body":"which, as I said,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2070.923,"endTime":2073.69,"body":"I think it's really critical for survival."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2073.69,"endTime":2076.18,"body":"One thing that is very"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2073.69,"endTime":2076.18,"body":"funny, or fun at least,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2076.18,"endTime":2078.7,"body":"about these receptors"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2078.7,"endTime":2081.85,"body":"is that they're also"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2078.7,"endTime":2081.85,"body":"activated by components."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2081.85,"endTime":2084.85,"body":"So mint, for example, activates TRPM8,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2084.85,"endTime":2089.44,"body":"so when you have mint-based"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2084.85,"endTime":2089.44,"body":"gum or toothpaste,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2089.44,"endTime":2092.08,"body":"and you have this feeling of freshness,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2092.08,"endTime":2095.32,"body":"that is TRPM8 activating because of mint,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2095.32,"endTime":2097.6,"body":"and telling your brain it's cold,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2097.6,"endTime":2098.497,"body":"and then you believe it's cold,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2098.497,"endTime":2099.46,"body":"but it's not cold,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2099.46,"endTime":2100.99,"body":"it's just the mint activating."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2100.99,"endTime":2101.823,"body":"And actually,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2101.823,"endTime":2103.12,"body":"all of these, or many of these,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2103.12,"endTime":2104.59,"body":"are activated by other compounds,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2104.59,"endTime":2107.08,"body":"for example this one is"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2104.59,"endTime":2107.08,"body":"activate by chili pepper,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2107.08,"endTime":2110.05,"body":"so a lot this feeling that"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2107.08,"endTime":2110.05,"body":"we have of temperature"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2110.05,"endTime":2112.773,"body":"is by the same receptors"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2112.773,"endTime":2116.23,"body":"that tell us about temperature."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2116.23,"endTime":2118.21,"body":"So I'm going to talk about TRPM8"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2118.21,"endTime":2121.36,"body":"because it's the only one"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2118.21,"endTime":2121.36,"body":"where we know for sure"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2121.36,"endTime":2122.83,"body":"that there are signatures of selection,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2122.83,"endTime":2125.86,"body":"and that's the one that"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2122.83,"endTime":2125.86,"body":"we studied in my group."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2125.86,"endTime":2127.45,"body":"TRPM8 is interesting"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2127.45,"endTime":2130.84,"body":"because it's the best"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2127.45,"endTime":2130.84,"body":"established cold receptor,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2130.84,"endTime":2133.14,"body":"the one that we know has"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2130.84,"endTime":2133.14,"body":"a very important role"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2134.53,"endTime":2137.5,"body":"in cold reception in living organisms,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2137.5,"endTime":2138.49,"body":"and actually,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2138.49,"endTime":2142.24,"body":"is has mediated adaptation"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2138.49,"endTime":2142.24,"body":"to cold, we believe,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2142.24,"endTime":2144.25,"body":"in some other animals."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2144.25,"endTime":2145.69,"body":"This is not my group,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2145.69,"endTime":2148.96,"body":"but people have compared four animals"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2148.96,"endTime":2152.02,"body":"living in habitats at"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2148.96,"endTime":2152.02,"body":"different temperatures,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2152.02,"endTime":2156.44,"body":"what is the activation level"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2152.02,"endTime":2156.44,"body":"of TRPM8, this protein,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2158.65,"endTime":2160.3,"body":"and they studied,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2160.3,"endTime":2163.33,"body":"from penguins, that live"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2160.3,"endTime":2163.33,"body":"in very cold environments,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2163.33,"endTime":2165.55,"body":"to elephants, that live"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2163.33,"endTime":2165.55,"body":"in very high environments."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2165.55,"endTime":2169.96,"body":"And what we see is that the"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2165.55,"endTime":2169.96,"body":"level of activation of TRPM8"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2169.96,"endTime":2174.94,"body":"increases with temperature."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2174.94,"endTime":2176.62,"body":"Or the other way to think about it,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2176.62,"endTime":2178.96,"body":"the species that live in"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2176.62,"endTime":2178.96,"body":"very cold environments,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2178.96,"endTime":2182.08,"body":"they have a not very active cold receptor,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2182.08,"endTime":2184.63,"body":"and this perhaps is because,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2184.63,"endTime":2187.742,"body":"if you live in a very,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2184.63,"endTime":2187.742,"body":"very cold environment,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2187.742,"endTime":2191.65,"body":"and you're metabolically"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2187.742,"endTime":2191.65,"body":"very well adapted to that,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2191.65,"endTime":2194.29,"body":"you don't need to constantly"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2191.65,"endTime":2194.29,"body":"be feeling that it's cold,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2194.29,"endTime":2195.88,"body":"because that is where you live,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2195.88,"endTime":2198.08,"body":"and you want to be able"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2195.88,"endTime":2198.08,"body":"to just do your life"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2199.0,"endTime":2201.52,"body":"without this constant pressure"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2201.52,"endTime":2203.59,"body":"of your brain telling you it's cold."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2203.59,"endTime":2208.06,"body":"And actually, something"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2203.59,"endTime":2208.06,"body":"similar happens in rodents,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2208.06,"endTime":2210.52,"body":"where non-hibernating rodents,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2210.52,"endTime":2213.43,"body":"or rodents that just keep"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2210.52,"endTime":2213.43,"body":"going through the winter,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2213.43,"endTime":2217.06,"body":"they have a normally active cold receptor,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2217.06,"endTime":2219.01,"body":"while hibernators,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2219.01,"endTime":2222.19,"body":"they have a very inactive receptor,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2222.19,"endTime":2223.33,"body":"very similar to the ones"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2223.33,"endTime":2224.86,"body":"that live in very cold environments."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2224.86,"endTime":2225.76,"body":"And we also believe"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2225.76,"endTime":2229.753,"body":"that this is just to"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2225.76,"endTime":2229.753,"body":"adjust to temperature."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2230.59,"endTime":2232.39,"body":"So it is clear to me"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2232.39,"endTime":2235.81,"body":"that this particular cold receptor"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2235.81,"endTime":2238.84,"body":"has helped species adapt"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2235.81,"endTime":2238.84,"body":"to the environment,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2238.84,"endTime":2239.8,"body":"and now the question is,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2239.8,"endTime":2243.79,"body":"okay, humans that have"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2239.8,"endTime":2243.79,"body":"evolved for millions of years"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2243.79,"endTime":2246.1,"body":"in very warm Africa,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2246.1,"endTime":2247.72,"body":"did they also use TRPM8"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2247.72,"endTime":2250.393,"body":"in order to adapt to living"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2247.72,"endTime":2250.393,"body":"in Finland, for example?"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2252.91,"endTime":2254.41,"body":"I'm going to show the allele frequencies"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2254.41,"endTime":2256.03,"body":"of a genetic variant"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2256.03,"endTime":2257.41,"body":"that we believe has function,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2257.41,"endTime":2259.24,"body":"although I won't talk about that,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2259.24,"endTime":2261.94,"body":"and we have here a number of populations"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2261.94,"endTime":2263.11,"body":"from around the world,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2263.11,"endTime":2265.3,"body":"this dataset, it's"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2263.11,"endTime":2265.3,"body":"called the 1,000 Genomes,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2265.3,"endTime":2266.2,"body":"and what you can see"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2266.2,"endTime":2270.52,"body":"is that this allele has very"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2266.2,"endTime":2270.52,"body":"low frequency in Africa,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2270.52,"endTime":2272.29,"body":"it has intermediate frequency"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2272.29,"endTime":2274.48,"body":"in several populations in Asia,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2274.48,"endTime":2278.98,"body":"and it has very high frequency in Europe,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2278.98,"endTime":2280.24,"body":"and this is really unusual."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2280.24,"endTime":2282.79,"body":"By now I think you will agree with me"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2282.79,"endTime":2284.83,"body":"that there are very large"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2282.79,"endTime":2284.83,"body":"allele frequency differences"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2284.83,"endTime":2286.0,"body":"across populations,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2286.0,"endTime":2287.89,"body":"and this is unusual."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2287.89,"endTime":2289.63,"body":"And actually, it's unusual to the level"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2289.63,"endTime":2294.49,"body":"that only 0.02% of all"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2289.63,"endTime":2294.49,"body":"of the SNPs in the genome"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2294.49,"endTime":2296.05,"body":"have larger allele frequently"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2296.05,"endTime":2298.12,"body":"between Yoruba and Finnish,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2298.12,"endTime":2298.99,"body":"and this is just an example,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2298.99,"endTime":2300.88,"body":"but I will give you similar numbers"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2300.88,"endTime":2302.23,"body":"between other populations,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2302.23,"endTime":2304.937,"body":"so this is really a very unusual SNP."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2305.92,"endTime":2307.09,"body":"And actually,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2307.09,"endTime":2309.76,"body":"when we try to identify"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2307.09,"endTime":2309.76,"body":"these additional signatures"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2309.76,"endTime":2311.8,"body":"of local adaptation,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2311.8,"endTime":2314.23,"body":"we do find there's a bunch of them,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2314.23,"endTime":2316.06,"body":"we're very, very sure"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2316.06,"endTime":2318.64,"body":"that this allele has"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2316.06,"endTime":2318.64,"body":"increased in frequency"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2318.64,"endTime":2321.49,"body":"because of positive selection"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2318.64,"endTime":2321.49,"body":"at higher latitudes."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2321.49,"endTime":2324.7,"body":"And actually, there's a"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2321.49,"endTime":2324.7,"body":"significant correlation"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2324.7,"endTime":2327.28,"body":"of the frequency with latitude."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2327.28,"endTime":2331.27,"body":"So if we plot latitude, north,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2331.27,"endTime":2335.02,"body":"and we plot the frequency of the allele,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2335.02,"endTime":2335.92,"body":"we see that"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2335.92,"endTime":2339.34,"body":"as populations live in"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2335.92,"endTime":2339.34,"body":"more norther environments,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2339.34,"endTime":2341.39,"body":"they have higher frequency of the allele."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2343.278,"endTime":2344.23,"body":"This is slightly complicated,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2344.23,"endTime":2345.49,"body":"and I won't go into details,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2345.49,"endTime":2347.08,"body":"but you can do analyses"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2347.08,"endTime":2348.88,"body":"that allow you to take"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2347.08,"endTime":2348.88,"body":"into account the fact"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2348.88,"endTime":2351.43,"body":"that populations are not"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2348.88,"endTime":2351.43,"body":"independent from each other,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2351.43,"endTime":2353.14,"body":"but this correlates with latitude"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2353.14,"endTime":2356.14,"body":"much more than you"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2353.14,"endTime":2356.14,"body":"expect under neutrality,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2356.14,"endTime":2358.45,"body":"and very, very few variants in the genome"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2358.45,"endTime":2359.92,"body":"have a correlation like this,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2359.92,"endTime":2361.363,"body":"this is not what you expect."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2362.98,"endTime":2365.62,"body":"So what we believe has happened"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2365.62,"endTime":2369.37,"body":"is that this variant in this co-receptor"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2369.37,"endTime":2370.6,"body":"has slightly contributed"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2370.6,"endTime":2374.17,"body":"to adaptation to increasingly"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2370.6,"endTime":2374.17,"body":"cold environments"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2374.17,"endTime":2377.05,"body":"as humans migrated to"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2374.17,"endTime":2377.05,"body":"higher and higher latitudes,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2377.05,"endTime":2379.54,"body":"so that selection was"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2377.05,"endTime":2379.54,"body":"stronger and stronger"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2379.54,"endTime":2380.373,"body":"in higher latitudes,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2380.373,"endTime":2383.62,"body":"so the allele has reached"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2380.373,"endTime":2383.62,"body":"higher and higher frequencies"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2383.62,"endTime":2385.51,"body":"in higher latitudes,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2385.51,"endTime":2387.31,"body":"and this has generated"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2387.31,"endTime":2389.413,"body":"this gradient that we observe today."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2390.55,"endTime":2393.31,"body":"We continue working on this example,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2393.31,"endTime":2396.342,"body":"but we're pretty convinced"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2393.31,"endTime":2396.342,"body":"that this is true."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2396.342,"endTime":2399.55,"body":"What is interesting in"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2396.342,"endTime":2399.55,"body":"humans is that, actually,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2399.55,"endTime":2400.383,"body":"the derived allele,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2400.383,"endTime":2403.51,"body":"so the allele that has high"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2400.383,"endTime":2403.51,"body":"frequency at high latitudes,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2403.51,"endTime":2405.97,"body":"increases cold sensitivity,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2405.97,"endTime":2408.82,"body":"so this is the opposite of"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2405.97,"endTime":2408.82,"body":"what you see in other animals."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2411.58,"endTime":2415.06,"body":"My personal opinion is that"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2411.58,"endTime":2415.06,"body":"what probably has happened"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2415.06,"endTime":2417.43,"body":"is that humans are, metabolically,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2417.43,"endTime":2420.55,"body":"not adapted to living at"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2417.43,"endTime":2420.55,"body":"very cold environments,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2420.55,"endTime":2421.75,"body":"so it is possible"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2421.75,"endTime":2424.72,"body":"that if you live in a place"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2421.75,"endTime":2424.72,"body":"where it gets cold quickly,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2424.72,"endTime":2426.94,"body":"you need to be very sensitive to this"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2426.94,"endTime":2428.35,"body":"because you need to metabolically adapt,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2428.35,"endTime":2430.69,"body":"or maybe behaviorally adapt,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2430.69,"endTime":2432.67,"body":"maybe the penguins don't have to do this,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2432.67,"endTime":2434.23,"body":"but we do."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2434.23,"endTime":2435.7,"body":"So even though I don't have proof of that,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2435.7,"endTime":2437.47,"body":"I think it's very likely that what happens"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2437.47,"endTime":2441.1,"body":"is that you need to be"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2437.47,"endTime":2441.1,"body":"more sensitive to cold,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2441.1,"endTime":2442.458,"body":"and knowing that it's coming,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2442.458,"endTime":2445.483,"body":"if you live in places where"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2442.458,"endTime":2445.483,"body":"it's going to become very cold."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2447.13,"endTime":2452.13,"body":"An interesting association of this gene"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2452.77,"endTime":2457.15,"body":"is that the allele that has"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2452.77,"endTime":2457.15,"body":"high frequency in Europeans"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2457.15,"endTime":2459.493,"body":"is associated with"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2457.15,"endTime":2459.493,"body":"increased risk of migraine,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2460.57,"endTime":2462.82,"body":"which means individuals"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2460.57,"endTime":2462.82,"body":"that have this allele"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2465.074,"endTime":2466.48,"body":"have higher risk of migraine."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2466.48,"endTime":2469.84,"body":"Migraine is a very complex disease,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2469.84,"endTime":2471.19,"body":"it is multifactorial,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2471.19,"endTime":2473.62,"body":"and there are a lot of"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2471.19,"endTime":2473.62,"body":"environmental factors,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2473.62,"endTime":2478.39,"body":"but it is true that this SNP"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2473.62,"endTime":2478.39,"body":"contributes to your risk."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2478.39,"endTime":2479.83,"body":"And actually,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2479.83,"endTime":2482.29,"body":"populations that have a higher"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2479.83,"endTime":2482.29,"body":"frequency of this allele"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2482.29,"endTime":2484.723,"body":"have a higher prevalence of migraine."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2487.09,"endTime":2489.43,"body":"Again, it's a very complex disease,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2489.43,"endTime":2491.68,"body":"but probably, this has an effect."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2491.68,"endTime":2493.69,"body":"So what we believe might have happened"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2493.69,"endTime":2495.79,"body":"is that we have this adaptation"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2495.79,"endTime":2498.4,"body":"that has increased cold sensitivity,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2498.4,"endTime":2500.77,"body":"and as a side effect,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2500.77,"endTime":2502.51,"body":"nobody wanted this to happen,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2502.51,"endTime":2503.68,"body":"but as a side effect,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2503.68,"endTime":2506.38,"body":"has increased the frequency of migraine"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2506.38,"endTime":2507.79,"body":"in some human groups,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2507.79,"endTime":2511.48,"body":"just because on top of"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2507.79,"endTime":2511.48,"body":"helping you feel the cold,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2511.48,"endTime":2513.823,"body":"maybe this increases"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2511.48,"endTime":2513.823,"body":"your risk of migraine."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2516.85,"endTime":2517.72,"body":"So very quickly,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2517.72,"endTime":2521.11,"body":"I want to touch on cold habitats,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2521.11,"endTime":2522.04,"body":"because, of course,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2522.04,"endTime":2523.57,"body":"I mean I told you about Finland,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2523.57,"endTime":2527.083,"body":"but there are places that"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2523.57,"endTime":2527.083,"body":"are much colder than that,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2528.46,"endTime":2529.6,"body":"in Greenland, for example,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2529.6,"endTime":2531.22,"body":"that's the average temperature,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2531.22,"endTime":2534.64,"body":"and there are actually people"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2531.22,"endTime":2534.64,"body":"that live there year-wide,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2534.64,"endTime":2538.12,"body":"so you could ask how does"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2534.64,"endTime":2538.12,"body":"TRPM8 look like there."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2538.12,"endTime":2541.45,"body":"Well it doesn't look"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2538.12,"endTime":2541.45,"body":"particularly striking,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2541.45,"endTime":2543.73,"body":"and actually, some of our colleagues"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2543.73,"endTime":2547.12,"body":"have studied genetic"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2543.73,"endTime":2547.12,"body":"adaptations in the Inuit,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2547.12,"endTime":2550.45,"body":"I think believing that one"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2547.12,"endTime":2550.45,"body":"would find adaptations to cold,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2550.45,"endTime":2552.88,"body":"but actually, if you study them,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2552.88,"endTime":2556.48,"body":"what they find is the strongest"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2552.88,"endTime":2556.48,"body":"signatures of adaptation"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2556.48,"endTime":2557.8,"body":"are in FADS genes."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2557.8,"endTime":2560.95,"body":"FADS genes are fatty acid denaturases,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2560.95,"endTime":2565.66,"body":"and we believe that this"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2560.95,"endTime":2565.66,"body":"is an adaptation to a diet"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2565.66,"endTime":2570.66,"body":"that is very, very rich"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2565.66,"endTime":2570.66,"body":"in fish and other mammals,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2572.53,"endTime":2575.35,"body":"that has a lot of that"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2572.53,"endTime":2575.35,"body":"type of fatty acids,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2575.35,"endTime":2578.86,"body":"and it has very little fresh produce,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2578.86,"endTime":2580.33,"body":"fruits and vegetables."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2580.33,"endTime":2582.55,"body":"So there's an excess of"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2580.33,"endTime":2582.55,"body":"some types of fatty acids"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2582.55,"endTime":2583.87,"body":"and a deficit of other ones,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2583.87,"endTime":2586.81,"body":"and what my colleagues believe"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2586.81,"endTime":2589.87,"body":"is that there has been an"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2586.81,"endTime":2589.87,"body":"adaptation to the diet."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2589.87,"endTime":2593.14,"body":"And actually, these"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2589.87,"endTime":2593.14,"body":"mutations that they identify"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2593.14,"endTime":2594.94,"body":"are associated with a number of traits"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2594.94,"endTime":2598.87,"body":"that they believe protect"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2594.94,"endTime":2598.87,"body":"from cardio-metabolic disease"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2598.87,"endTime":2600.28,"body":"when you have this type of diet,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2600.28,"endTime":2603.52,"body":"diet that people that"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2600.28,"endTime":2603.52,"body":"are not adapted to eat"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2603.52,"endTime":2605.65,"body":"would have real"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2603.52,"endTime":2605.65,"body":"cardiovascular issues with,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2605.65,"endTime":2607.27,"body":"so maybe they're protected from that."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2607.27,"endTime":2608.47,"body":"But I still find it interesting"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2608.47,"endTime":2611.77,"body":"that the strongest selective forces"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2611.77,"endTime":2613.9,"body":"that one sees in the Inuit"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2613.9,"endTime":2616.513,"body":"is not on the temperature,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2613.9,"endTime":2616.513,"body":"but it's on the diet."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2617.68,"endTime":2619.66,"body":"And actually,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2619.66,"endTime":2623.62,"body":"when people have gone and"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2619.66,"endTime":2623.62,"body":"tried to identify adaptations"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2623.62,"endTime":2624.79,"body":"to very extreme environments,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2624.79,"endTime":2627.88,"body":"so extremely high altitudes,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2624.79,"endTime":2627.88,"body":"for example, in Tibet,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2627.88,"endTime":2630.4,"body":"or living where you are fishing,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2630.4,"endTime":2633.85,"body":"and you have to spend a lot"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2630.4,"endTime":2633.85,"body":"of time underwater to fish,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2633.85,"endTime":2635.56,"body":"where that's a very"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2633.85,"endTime":2635.56,"body":"important part of the diet"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2635.56,"endTime":2636.7,"body":"of the population,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2636.7,"endTime":2640.63,"body":"they do see these types"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2636.7,"endTime":2640.63,"body":"of very strong adaptations"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2640.63,"endTime":2642.04,"body":"in these populations."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2642.04,"endTime":2646.15,"body":"So it's clear that not"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2642.04,"endTime":2646.15,"body":"only colonizing the world,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2646.15,"endTime":2647.17,"body":"but also colonizing"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2647.17,"endTime":2650.53,"body":"these very special, very"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2647.17,"endTime":2650.53,"body":"difficult to inhabit habitats,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2650.53,"endTime":2651.52,"body":"or territories,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2651.52,"endTime":2654.55,"body":"there has been genetic"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2651.52,"endTime":2654.55,"body":"adaptation to those,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2654.55,"endTime":2655.42,"body":"and those, of course,"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2655.42,"endTime":2657.97,"body":"are part of the genomes of"},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2655.42,"endTime":2657.97,"body":"the people living there."},{"speaker":"Now you have positive selection","startTime":2659.65,"endTime":2662.983,"body":"So just to finish, to wrap up,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2666.67,"endTime":2669.13,"body":"so how did genetic adaptation"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2669.13,"endTime":2671.143,"body":"help humans colonize the globe?"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2672.01,"endTime":2674.71,"body":"We know that human populations"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2672.01,"endTime":2674.71,"body":"are highly homogeneous,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2675.569,"endTime":2677.653,"body":"if you have to take one thing from this,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2677.653,"endTime":2679.853,"body":"it's that we are very"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2677.653,"endTime":2679.853,"body":"similar to each other,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2681.31,"endTime":2683.38,"body":"both genetically, in our genes,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2683.38,"endTime":2685.303,"body":"and phenotypically, in our traits."},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2687.25,"endTime":2691.18,"body":"Still, as humans migrated"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2687.25,"endTime":2691.18,"body":"around the world,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2691.18,"endTime":2693.22,"body":"local positive selection allowed them"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2693.22,"endTime":2695.41,"body":"to adapt to their novel environments,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2695.41,"endTime":2697.09,"body":"and this has been really critical"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2697.09,"endTime":2699.79,"body":"in our ability to colonize"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2697.09,"endTime":2699.79,"body":"the world, I believe."},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2699.79,"endTime":2702.28,"body":"And this has resulted in key adaptations"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2702.28,"endTime":2705.58,"body":"to different climates, to"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2702.28,"endTime":2705.58,"body":"diets, pathogens, and so on,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2705.58,"endTime":2706.54,"body":"and in addition,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2706.54,"endTime":2708.55,"body":"there are specialized genetic adaptations"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2708.55,"endTime":2709.42,"body":"that have allowed humans"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2709.42,"endTime":2711.34,"body":"to colonize even extreme environments"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2711.34,"endTime":2713.62,"body":"that are very difficult to live in,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2713.62,"endTime":2714.58,"body":"at least for a mammal"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2714.58,"endTime":2717.073,"body":"that has evolved as a species in Africa."},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2719.68,"endTime":2721.45,"body":"I think it's also important to recognize"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2721.45,"endTime":2722.89,"body":"that these evolutionary events"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2722.89,"endTime":2726.97,"body":"live today as differences"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2722.89,"endTime":2726.97,"body":"among individuals,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2726.97,"endTime":2728.08,"body":"and among populations,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2728.08,"endTime":2729.37,"body":"in important traits,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2729.37,"endTime":2730.203,"body":"including disease."},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2730.203,"endTime":2731.74,"body":"So as I said before,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2731.74,"endTime":2733.153,"body":"if you have two populations"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2733.153,"endTime":2736.06,"body":"that have differences"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2733.153,"endTime":2736.06,"body":"at the genetic level,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2736.06,"endTime":2737.98,"body":"in particular genes,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2737.98,"endTime":2741.07,"body":"and those genes are involved in disease,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2741.07,"endTime":2743.17,"body":"you're going to"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2741.07,"endTime":2743.17,"body":"differences in disease risk"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2743.17,"endTime":2744.7,"body":"between the two populations."},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2744.7,"endTime":2745.533,"body":"And of course,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2745.533,"endTime":2750.13,"body":"most of the medical"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2745.533,"endTime":2750.13,"body":"differences between populations"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2750.13,"endTime":2751.21,"body":"are not genetic,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2751.21,"endTime":2752.5,"body":"are due to environmental factors,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2752.5,"endTime":2753.55,"body":"but the ones that are genetic"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2753.55,"endTime":2755.35,"body":"are something that we can understand,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2755.35,"endTime":2756.725,"body":"and perhaps do something about,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2756.725,"endTime":2758.8,"body":"it's important to understand them."},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2758.8,"endTime":2760.96,"body":"So I believe that the study of genomes"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2760.96,"endTime":2762.64,"body":"using evolutionary population genetics"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2762.64,"endTime":2764.08,"body":"is a critical tool"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2764.08,"endTime":2765.58,"body":"to better understand human evolution,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2765.58,"endTime":2767.83,"body":"and also has important effects"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2767.83,"endTime":2769.66,"body":"on not only evolutionary history,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2769.66,"endTime":2771.79,"body":"but also the people living today,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2771.79,"endTime":2773.47,"body":"so I think it's important"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2773.47,"endTime":2776.29,"body":"that we start linking human evolution"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2776.29,"endTime":2780.49,"body":"with our understanding of"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2776.29,"endTime":2780.49,"body":"disease across populations."},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2780.49,"endTime":2783.76,"body":"And I'll just finish"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2780.49,"endTime":2783.76,"body":"with that, thanking UCL,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2783.76,"endTime":2786.07,"body":"which is my current institution,"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2786.07,"endTime":2789.587,"body":"and I'll be happy to take any"},{"speaker":"some conclusions here","startTime":2786.07,"endTime":2789.587,"body":"questions if you have any."}]}