{"version":"1.0.0","segments":[{"startTime":0.27,"endTime":1.95,"body":"- Good evening, everybody,"},{"startTime":1.95,"endTime":4.8,"body":"and welcome to lecture six"},{"startTime":4.8,"endTime":8.67,"body":"in this series on cosmic revolutions."},{"startTime":8.67,"endTime":13.383,"body":"The title of tonight's lecture"},{"startTime":8.67,"endTime":13.383,"body":"is Life in the Universe."},{"startTime":15.36,"endTime":19.89,"body":"In the popular American science"},{"startTime":15.36,"endTime":19.89,"body":"fiction program \"Star Trek,\""},{"startTime":19.89,"endTime":24.24,"body":"which began in the 1960s,"},{"startTime":19.89,"endTime":24.24,"body":"but was set in the future,"},{"startTime":24.24,"endTime":28.38,"body":"each episode of the program"},{"startTime":24.24,"endTime":28.38,"body":"began with William Shatner"},{"startTime":28.38,"endTime":32.73,"body":"playing the hero character,"},{"startTime":28.38,"endTime":32.73,"body":"Captain James T. Kirk"},{"startTime":32.73,"endTime":36.903,"body":"intoning the words,"},{"startTime":32.73,"endTime":36.903,"body":"\"Space: the final frontier."},{"startTime":37.747,"endTime":41.703,"body":"\"These are the voyages of"},{"startTime":37.747,"endTime":41.703,"body":"the starship Enterprise."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":41.703,"endTime":46.703,"body":"to"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":41.703,"endTime":46.703,"body":"explore strange new worlds,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":48.097,"endTime":53.097,"body":"\"to seek out new life"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":48.097,"endTime":53.097,"body":"and new civilizations,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":53.398,"endTime":58.398,"body":"\"to boldly go where no"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":53.398,"endTime":58.398,"body":"man has gone before.\""},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":58.5,"endTime":62.28,"body":"And that split infinitive"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":58.5,"endTime":62.28,"body":"captures the exuberance"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":62.28,"endTime":66.15,"body":"and excitement and the spirit of adventure"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":66.15,"endTime":70.595,"body":"that people in the 1960s"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":66.15,"endTime":70.595,"body":"thought that the space race"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":70.595,"endTime":72.723,"body":"was going to lead to."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":73.89,"endTime":78.89,"body":"I'm not overly familiar with"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":73.89,"endTime":78.89,"body":"this particular cultural genre,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":80.64,"endTime":83.253,"body":"but roughly speaking \"Star Trek\" is about"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":83.253,"endTime":88.253,"body":"a modern 21st century"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":83.253,"endTime":88.253,"body":"romantic idealized version"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":89.43,"endTime":92.28,"body":"of the battle between"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":89.43,"endTime":92.28,"body":"the American Cowboys,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":92.28,"endTime":94.26,"body":"who are roughly good,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":94.26,"endTime":97.95,"body":"and the uncivilized Indians"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":94.26,"endTime":97.95,"body":"who were roughly speaking bad,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":97.95,"endTime":101.433,"body":"at least according to"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":97.95,"endTime":101.433,"body":"certain cultural genres."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":102.27,"endTime":106.803,"body":"But in \"Star Trek,\" it's given"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":102.27,"endTime":106.803,"body":"a modern futuristic twist,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":107.94,"endTime":110.76,"body":"but I think it reminds us"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":107.94,"endTime":110.76,"body":"that although the public"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":110.76,"endTime":113.91,"body":"have a great fascination with searches"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":113.91,"endTime":116.7,"body":"for extra-terrestrial life,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":116.7,"endTime":118.718,"body":"it's perhaps a bit problematic"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":118.718,"endTime":122.176,"body":"to reflect on the behavior of humankind"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":122.176,"endTime":124.71,"body":"towards other species,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":124.71,"endTime":127.353,"body":"many of which are now extinct."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":128.31,"endTime":130.431,"body":"We have a poor record,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":130.431,"endTime":135.431,"body":"a poor historical record of"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":130.431,"endTime":135.431,"body":"behavior towards other species."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":136.341,"endTime":139.95,"body":"And also the historical"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":136.341,"endTime":139.95,"body":"record of our behavior"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":139.95,"endTime":143.49,"body":"towards different cultures"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":139.95,"endTime":143.49,"body":"within our own species"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":143.49,"endTime":145.884,"body":"is again poor."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":145.884,"endTime":148.89,"body":"There has been brutal genocide,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":148.89,"endTime":151.47,"body":"even as recently as today,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":151.47,"endTime":154.05,"body":"economies have been built on slavery,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":154.05,"endTime":157.396,"body":"slaves being people who looked different."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":157.396,"endTime":162.396,"body":"So I think the whole prospect"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":157.396,"endTime":162.396,"body":"of searching for aliens"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":162.6,"endTime":165.96,"body":"is an exciting and an intriguing one,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":165.96,"endTime":169.62,"body":"but I think we do well"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":165.96,"endTime":169.62,"body":"to reflect on ourselves"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":169.62,"endTime":173.91,"body":"as we venture out further"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":169.62,"endTime":173.91,"body":"and further into space."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":173.91,"endTime":175.713,"body":"More of that later on."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":176.76,"endTime":178.89,"body":"Humans have wondered for a long time"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":178.89,"endTime":181.917,"body":"where might there be"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":178.89,"endTime":181.917,"body":"extra-terrestrial life."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":181.917,"endTime":185.04,"body":"And so it was natural to look for life"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":185.04,"endTime":188.97,"body":"on one of our nearby planets, on Mars."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":188.97,"endTime":191.43,"body":"Mars is a red dot in the night sky"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":191.43,"endTime":193.29,"body":"most of the time."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":193.29,"endTime":194.847,"body":"And a couple of centuries ago,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":194.847,"endTime":199.847,"body":"Schiaparelli was convinced"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":194.847,"endTime":199.847,"body":"that there were canals on Mars,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":200.28,"endTime":203.79,"body":"channels that pervade water"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":203.79,"endTime":206.043,"body":"and therefore were suggestive of life."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":206.906,"endTime":208.988,"body":"This idea was popularized,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":208.988,"endTime":211.2,"body":"but it seems to have become clear"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":211.2,"endTime":214.59,"body":"that probably that was a"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":211.2,"endTime":214.59,"body":"lot to do with the eyesight"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":214.59,"endTime":216.33,"body":"and the interpretation,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":216.33,"endTime":219.87,"body":"the visual acuity of some"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":216.33,"endTime":219.87,"body":"of the individuals involved,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":219.87,"endTime":222.21,"body":"even though it was absolutely true"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":222.21,"endTime":223.74,"body":"that even over a century ago,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":223.74,"endTime":226.8,"body":"with a relatively large"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":223.74,"endTime":226.8,"body":"telescope for the time,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":226.8,"endTime":229.361,"body":"careful observations revealed beyond doubt"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":229.361,"endTime":231.671,"body":"that there were geological features"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":231.671,"endTime":233.163,"body":"that somewhat resembled"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":233.163,"endTime":238.163,"body":"certain geological features here on Earth."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":239.13,"endTime":241.62,"body":"Mars is a planet that you can observe"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":241.62,"endTime":243.72,"body":"relatively easily from Earth."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":243.72,"endTime":248.373,"body":"These are some images from my"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":243.72,"endTime":248.373,"body":"back garden in Oxfordshire."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":249.39,"endTime":251.07,"body":"But that's a long way away from Mars,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":251.07,"endTime":252.33,"body":"I have to say."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":252.33,"endTime":254.28,"body":"To get a really good look at Mars,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":254.28,"endTime":255.27,"body":"what you want to do"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":255.27,"endTime":260.27,"body":"is to use NASA's new"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":255.27,"endTime":260.27,"body":"explorer Perseverance."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":260.34,"endTime":261.96,"body":"And this is an image of Mars,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":261.96,"endTime":265.68,"body":"or at least part of Mars"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":261.96,"endTime":265.68,"body":"taken just yesterday."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":265.68,"endTime":269.613,"body":"As you can see, it's quite a rocky place."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":270.99,"endTime":272.58,"body":"The Mars Perseverance rover,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":272.58,"endTime":276.09,"body":"you can think of it as a go-cart"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":272.58,"endTime":276.09,"body":"with GoPro cameras attached"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":276.09,"endTime":278.7,"body":"is exploring Mars."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":278.7,"endTime":281.82,"body":"It's seeing what's there"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":278.7,"endTime":281.82,"body":"and it's drawing analogies"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":281.82,"endTime":286.82,"body":"between how similar it is"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":281.82,"endTime":286.82,"body":"and is not from planet Earth."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":287.82,"endTime":291.15,"body":"Here are some other images"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":287.82,"endTime":291.15,"body":"taken by the same camera"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":291.15,"endTime":293.07,"body":"on that explorer."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":293.07,"endTime":297.067,"body":"And you can see that it's"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":293.07,"endTime":297.067,"body":"a very arid, dusty place"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":297.067,"endTime":302.067,"body":"with lots of pebbles, but"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":297.067,"endTime":302.067,"body":"nonetheless sweeping landscapes."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":303.96,"endTime":305.19,"body":"Could there be life on Mars?"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":305.19,"endTime":307.87,"body":"Well, I think it could be difficult"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":309.208,"endTime":311.523,"body":"for life to be sustained on Mars."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":312.63,"endTime":314.55,"body":"One of those reasons is that Mars"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":314.55,"endTime":317.58,"body":"is thought to have chaotic variations"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":317.58,"endTime":319.923,"body":"in what is known as its obliquity."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":320.82,"endTime":324.9,"body":"The obliquity of a planet"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":320.82,"endTime":324.9,"body":"relates to the angle"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":324.9,"endTime":326.7,"body":"that it spins around."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":326.7,"endTime":329.94,"body":"And if that flops around"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":326.7,"endTime":329.94,"body":"all over the place,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":329.94,"endTime":333.759,"body":"you don't stand a chance of"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":329.94,"endTime":333.759,"body":"having stability of seasons,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":333.759,"endTime":337.8,"body":"which are crucially important"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":333.759,"endTime":337.8,"body":"for sustaining life,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":337.8,"endTime":341.1,"body":"if you think that life might need food,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":341.1,"endTime":343.863,"body":"and I'm sure we all agree"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":341.1,"endTime":343.863,"body":"that that's important."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":344.76,"endTime":347.033,"body":"Varying obliquity that flops around"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":347.033,"endTime":349.83,"body":"is not a showstopper for life,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":349.83,"endTime":354.83,"body":"but it's certainly suboptimal"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":349.83,"endTime":354.83,"body":"for fledgling life to emerge."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":356.47,"endTime":358.35,"body":"Although it's been very exciting,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":358.35,"endTime":360.48,"body":"the images and the data"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":358.35,"endTime":360.48,"body":"that have come back"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":360.48,"endTime":363.51,"body":"from NASA's new Mars explorer,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":363.51,"endTime":365.25,"body":"it's interesting to speculate"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":365.25,"endTime":369.123,"body":"what might be seen if humans"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":365.25,"endTime":369.123,"body":"could actually get to Mars."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":370.02,"endTime":372.24,"body":"But of course there are"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":370.02,"endTime":372.24,"body":"showstoppers involved with that"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":372.24,"endTime":376.44,"body":"not the least of which"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":372.24,"endTime":376.44,"body":"is the considerable cost,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":376.44,"endTime":379.38,"body":"and that is something"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":376.44,"endTime":379.38,"body":"of an understatement."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":379.38,"endTime":383.31,"body":"The cost of accrued mission to Mars"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":383.31,"endTime":386.97,"body":"would be comparable with"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":383.31,"endTime":386.97,"body":"the GDP of a small nation."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":386.97,"endTime":390.42,"body":"And I put it to you that isn't"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":386.97,"endTime":390.42,"body":"quite the right use of funds"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":390.42,"endTime":391.803,"body":"at the present time."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":393.03,"endTime":396.154,"body":"An equally important showstopper"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":393.03,"endTime":396.154,"body":"is the considerable risk"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":396.154,"endTime":399.45,"body":"that would be associated"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":396.154,"endTime":399.45,"body":"with landing on Mars."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":399.45,"endTime":401.25,"body":"And I don't just mean the landing,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":401.25,"endTime":403.705,"body":"which one might hope could"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":401.25,"endTime":403.705,"body":"be reasonably gentle."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":403.705,"endTime":405.81,"body":"What I am talking about"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":405.81,"endTime":409.953,"body":"is the risk due to radiation"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":405.81,"endTime":409.953,"body":"poisoning from the Sun."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":410.88,"endTime":415.02,"body":"Mars lacks a magnetic field."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":415.02,"endTime":418.5,"body":"Earth, thankfully has a magnetic field."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":418.5,"endTime":421.618,"body":"And that protects us from the solar wind"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":421.618,"endTime":426.12,"body":"and from the radiation"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":421.618,"endTime":426.12,"body":"poisoning associated with that."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":426.12,"endTime":428.133,"body":"More of that in a moment."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":429.09,"endTime":432.09,"body":"What about life in another"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":429.09,"endTime":432.09,"body":"part of the solar system?"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":432.09,"endTime":433.95,"body":"So not Mars now,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":433.95,"endTime":436.8,"body":"but how about a moon"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":433.95,"endTime":436.8,"body":"orbiting around Jupiter"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":436.8,"endTime":438.063,"body":"or perhaps Saturn?"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":439.14,"endTime":440.52,"body":"Well, it would be,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":440.52,"endTime":442.23,"body":"it's quite interesting to speculate"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":442.23,"endTime":446.34,"body":"whether a suitable moon might be found."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":446.34,"endTime":447.81,"body":"If you are talking about a moon"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":447.81,"endTime":450.39,"body":"that's orbiting around Saturn,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":450.39,"endTime":452.91,"body":"then although it's in orbit around Saturn,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":452.91,"endTime":456.66,"body":"Saturn is of course in"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":452.91,"endTime":456.66,"body":"orbit around the Sun"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":456.66,"endTime":461.19,"body":"and thus the distance"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":456.66,"endTime":461.19,"body":"of any of Saturn's moons"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":461.19,"endTime":465.99,"body":"with respect to that of the"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":461.19,"endTime":465.99,"body":"Sun is reasonably constant,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":465.99,"endTime":468.9,"body":"giving you a reasonably"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":465.99,"endTime":468.9,"body":"constant temperature."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":468.9,"endTime":470.61,"body":"So maybe it's possible."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":470.61,"endTime":474.21,"body":"And people have speculated"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":470.61,"endTime":474.21,"body":"that maybe Enceladus,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":474.21,"endTime":476.1,"body":"which is now the frame of reference"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":476.1,"endTime":478.74,"body":"in which this movie is being viewed,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":478.74,"endTime":481.41,"body":"might be such a location."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":481.41,"endTime":485.58,"body":"No mission to explore Enceladus"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":481.41,"endTime":485.58,"body":"has yet arrived there."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":485.58,"endTime":487.2,"body":"That's the Milky Way going past"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":487.2,"endTime":489.69,"body":"the Magellanic Clouds and the moon,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":489.69,"endTime":494.67,"body":"but it is interesting to speculate"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":489.69,"endTime":494.67,"body":"whether or not Enceladus,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":494.67,"endTime":496.77,"body":"that moon in orbit around Saturn"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":496.77,"endTime":501.453,"body":"might be suitable for habitability."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":502.74,"endTime":507.09,"body":"So I want to turn now to what"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":502.74,"endTime":507.09,"body":"are the necessary ingredients"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":507.09,"endTime":510.42,"body":"for the habitability of a planet."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":510.42,"endTime":512.973,"body":"Let's go through a"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":510.42,"endTime":512.973,"body":"number of these in turn."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":514.05,"endTime":515.91,"body":"I've somewhat whimsically"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":514.05,"endTime":515.91,"body":"referred to these"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":515.91,"endTime":517.65,"body":"as creature comforts,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":517.65,"endTime":519.18,"body":"but these aren't creature comforts"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":519.18,"endTime":523.673,"body":"in the sense of luxury"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":519.18,"endTime":523.673,"body":"items that it's nice to have"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":523.673,"endTime":527.58,"body":"to increase comfort in one's"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":523.673,"endTime":527.58,"body":"living such as a soft pillow"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":527.58,"endTime":529.2,"body":"or something like that."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":529.2,"endTime":531.03,"body":"No, this is definitely a bit whimsical"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":531.03,"endTime":535.41,"body":"because I would say that these"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":531.03,"endTime":535.41,"body":"so-called creature comforts"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":535.41,"endTime":539.1,"body":"are things that are necessary for life."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":539.1,"endTime":541.23,"body":"And one of those things that is necessary"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":541.23,"endTime":543.66,"body":"is a firm foundation."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":543.66,"endTime":546.57,"body":"A rocky planet, a terrestrial planet,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":546.57,"endTime":549.3,"body":"having at least some rock,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":546.57,"endTime":549.3,"body":"much like planet Earth."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":549.3,"endTime":551.55,"body":"Yes, there's loads of"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":549.3,"endTime":551.55,"body":"ocean sloshing around,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":551.55,"endTime":553.44,"body":"but there's plenty of rock, too."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":553.44,"endTime":557.82,"body":"That firm foundation is great for life"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":557.82,"endTime":562.694,"body":"to inhabit in principle in"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":557.82,"endTime":562.694,"body":"a way that a gassiest planet"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":562.694,"endTime":567.363,"body":"such as Jupiter and"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":562.694,"endTime":567.363,"body":"Saturn is manifestly not."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":568.35,"endTime":573.147,"body":"It's perhaps worth pointing out"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":568.35,"endTime":573.147,"body":"that the terrestrial planets"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":574.47,"endTime":577.47,"body":"are in something of a small minority"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":577.47,"endTime":581.28,"body":"of the exoplanets that have"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":577.47,"endTime":581.28,"body":"been discovered so far."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":581.28,"endTime":584.94,"body":"Exoplanet, of course, signifying a planet"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":584.94,"endTime":588.453,"body":"that's outside of our solar system."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":590.504,"endTime":591.57,"body":"What are the other creature comforts"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":591.57,"endTime":594.21,"body":"or requirements for habitability?"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":594.21,"endTime":596.73,"body":"I would say that a comfortable temperature"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":596.73,"endTime":600.18,"body":"is of fairly high importance."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":600.18,"endTime":601.83,"body":"On the planets in the solar system"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":601.83,"endTime":604.35,"body":"nearest to the Sun, Mercury,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":604.35,"endTime":608.85,"body":"temperatures can exceed"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":604.35,"endTime":608.85,"body":"400 degrees Celsius,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":608.85,"endTime":613.14,"body":"which is way hotter than"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":608.85,"endTime":613.14,"body":"in one of our Earth ovens."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":613.14,"endTime":616.98,"body":"We would not survive in such temperatures."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":616.98,"endTime":619.89,"body":"In contrast, the temperature on Pluto,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":619.89,"endTime":622.59,"body":"one of the most famous dwarf planets,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":622.59,"endTime":626.7,"body":"which is sometimes outside of Neptune,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":626.7,"endTime":628.2,"body":"sometimes inside,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":628.2,"endTime":633.2,"body":"the temperature is minus"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":628.2,"endTime":633.2,"body":"230 degrees Celsius,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":633.51,"endTime":636.36,"body":"which is way lower than the temperature"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":636.36,"endTime":639.3,"body":"at which nitrogen liquefies."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":639.3,"endTime":641.73,"body":"And of course the"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":639.3,"endTime":641.73,"body":"majority of our atmosphere"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":641.73,"endTime":644.01,"body":"is made up of nitrogen."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":644.01,"endTime":646.409,"body":"And so it will be pretty disastrous"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":646.409,"endTime":650.58,"body":"to have an atmosphere"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":646.409,"endTime":650.58,"body":"that wasn't even gassiest."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":650.58,"endTime":653.67,"body":"So tuning the temperature"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":650.58,"endTime":653.67,"body":"to be about right,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":653.67,"endTime":655.983,"body":"I think is critically important."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":657.33,"endTime":660.75,"body":"Planet Earth is in what"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":657.33,"endTime":660.75,"body":"is technically known as"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":660.75,"endTime":662.64,"body":"the Goldilock zone,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":662.64,"endTime":666.393,"body":"not too hot, not too"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":662.64,"endTime":666.393,"body":"cold, but about right."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":668.04,"endTime":670.95,"body":"On the theme of having the"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":668.04,"endTime":670.95,"body":"temperature being about right"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":670.95,"endTime":674.53,"body":"for habitability, a"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":670.95,"endTime":674.53,"body":"stable thermal environment"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":675.81,"endTime":677.523,"body":"is key as well."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":678.45,"endTime":681.66,"body":"So what might give you a"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":678.45,"endTime":681.66,"body":"stable thermal environment?"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":681.66,"endTime":684.06,"body":"Well, high upon the list"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":684.06,"endTime":686.79,"body":"is the fact that the orbit of that planet"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":686.79,"endTime":691.79,"body":"around its mothership"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":686.79,"endTime":691.79,"body":"star is fairly circular"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":692.67,"endTime":695.373,"body":"as opposed to fairly elliptical."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":696.39,"endTime":699.24,"body":"If you had a fairly elliptical orbit,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":699.24,"endTime":701.22,"body":"then at times in the orbit,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":701.22,"endTime":704.49,"body":"when the planet is closer to the star,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":704.49,"endTime":706.95,"body":"it would be a whole lot hotter."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":706.95,"endTime":709.38,"body":"Whereas at times when the star"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":709.38,"endTime":714.38,"body":"is much more distant from"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":709.38,"endTime":714.38,"body":"the planet at apastron,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":714.57,"endTime":717.72,"body":"then the temperatures"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":714.57,"endTime":717.72,"body":"will be much, much lower."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":717.72,"endTime":721.71,"body":"Stability in temperature"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":717.72,"endTime":721.71,"body":"could not be attained"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":721.71,"endTime":725.34,"body":"if you are talking about a"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":721.71,"endTime":725.34,"body":"planet with a highly eccentric,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":725.34,"endTime":727.383,"body":"a highly elliptical orbit."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":728.43,"endTime":732.48,"body":"I'm showing a cartoon"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":728.43,"endTime":732.48,"body":"now of a cartoon movie"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":732.48,"endTime":736.147,"body":"of two stars in orbit around one another"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":736.147,"endTime":740.28,"body":"in the frame of reference"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":736.147,"endTime":740.28,"body":"of their center of mass,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":740.28,"endTime":741.63,"body":"their barycenter."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":741.63,"endTime":745.11,"body":"And you can see that at"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":741.63,"endTime":745.11,"body":"times of the close encounter,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":745.11,"endTime":748.32,"body":"the closest approach, the periastron,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":748.32,"endTime":752.19,"body":"there is a very significant fly past"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":752.19,"endTime":754.02,"body":"in contrast with apastron,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":754.02,"endTime":756.84,"body":"when they're maximally separated."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":756.84,"endTime":761.84,"body":"This wouldn't just give you an"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":756.84,"endTime":761.84,"body":"unstable thermal environment."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":762.72,"endTime":766.713,"body":"It would cause serious"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":762.72,"endTime":766.713,"body":"seismic activity as well."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":767.82,"endTime":772.82,"body":"This orbit I should say is"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":767.82,"endTime":772.82,"body":"fully obeying Kepler's laws."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":772.92,"endTime":775.65,"body":"As I described in my previous lecture,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":775.65,"endTime":780.513,"body":"in the series on cosmic concepts"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":775.65,"endTime":780.513,"body":"called Shapes of Free Fall."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":781.44,"endTime":786.24,"body":"Orbits that obey Kepler's"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":781.44,"endTime":786.24,"body":"laws span a continuous range"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":786.24,"endTime":791.1,"body":"in eccentricity from zero for"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":786.24,"endTime":791.1,"body":"a perfectly circular orbit,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":791.1,"endTime":794.1,"body":"which would give you"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":791.1,"endTime":794.1,"body":"maximum thermal stability,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":794.1,"endTime":796.353,"body":"up to and beyond one."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":797.58,"endTime":802.56,"body":"I love to study stars in eccentric orbits."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":802.56,"endTime":805.29,"body":"And that's something that"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":802.56,"endTime":805.29,"body":"I study very frequently"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":805.29,"endTime":809.01,"body":"with my Global Jet Watch"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":805.29,"endTime":809.01,"body":"network of telescopes,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":809.01,"endTime":813.69,"body":"which monitor via spectroscopic monitoring"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":813.69,"endTime":817.86,"body":"different stars that are in"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":813.69,"endTime":817.86,"body":"these different sorts of orbits."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":817.86,"endTime":820.98,"body":"And one such star known as GG Carinae,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":820.98,"endTime":823.8,"body":"has an orbital eccentricity of a half."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":823.8,"endTime":827.94,"body":"And so its orbit strongly"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":823.8,"endTime":827.94,"body":"resembles the cartoon movie"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":827.94,"endTime":830.193,"body":"that I showed you a couple of slides ago."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":831.261,"endTime":835.29,"body":"GG Carinae is contained in"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":831.261,"endTime":835.29,"body":"that pink square over there."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":835.29,"endTime":838.44,"body":"You can see three stars"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":835.29,"endTime":838.44,"body":"that are a little brighter"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":838.44,"endTime":840.36,"body":"than the others around it."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":840.36,"endTime":844.44,"body":"GG Carinae is the one"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":840.36,"endTime":844.44,"body":"nearest of those three"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":844.44,"endTime":848.523,"body":"nearest to the top bar"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":844.44,"endTime":848.523,"body":"of that pink square."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":849.51,"endTime":851.778,"body":"We've been monitoring it successively"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":851.778,"endTime":856.778,"body":"with using spectrographs"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":851.778,"endTime":856.778,"body":"attached to the telescopes"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":857.76,"endTime":860.37,"body":"and looking at how the spectra change"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":860.37,"endTime":862.71,"body":"every single time we observe it."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":862.71,"endTime":866.58,"body":"This is time-lapse spectroscopy."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":866.58,"endTime":868.17,"body":"And as we measure the wavelengths"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":868.17,"endTime":871.29,"body":"of some of those emission"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":868.17,"endTime":871.29,"body":"lines in the spectra,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":871.29,"endTime":872.31,"body":"and then say,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":872.31,"endTime":875.1,"body":"gosh, I wonder how you've changed today"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":875.1,"endTime":877.23,"body":"with respect to how you were yesterday,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":877.23,"endTime":879.09,"body":"and the day before yesterday,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":879.09,"endTime":882.63,"body":"which is what time-lapse"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":879.09,"endTime":882.63,"body":"monitoring is all about."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":882.63,"endTime":885.96,"body":"And we see very clear wiggles, indeed."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":885.96,"endTime":888.12,"body":"We see clear wiggles on the time scale"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":888.12,"endTime":889.8,"body":"of the orbital period,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":889.8,"endTime":892.62,"body":"the time for the stars"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":889.8,"endTime":892.62,"body":"to do their dance around"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":892.62,"endTime":896.223,"body":"resembling that movie"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":892.62,"endTime":896.223,"body":"from a few slides ago."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":897.3,"endTime":901.35,"body":"But we found another"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":897.3,"endTime":901.35,"body":"periodicity in the data as well."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":901.35,"endTime":905.88,"body":"The orbital period is very"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":901.35,"endTime":905.88,"body":"similar to an Earth month"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":905.88,"endTime":910.399,"body":"being 31 days that we"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":905.88,"endTime":910.399,"body":"discovered another periodicity"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":910.399,"endTime":913.8,"body":"of about a day and a half."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":913.8,"endTime":915.93,"body":"And we could see this"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":913.8,"endTime":915.93,"body":"in all different ways"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":915.93,"endTime":919.02,"body":"in which we investigated the data"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":919.02,"endTime":922.23,"body":"in the wavelength shifts of"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":919.02,"endTime":922.23,"body":"some of those emission lines"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":922.23,"endTime":923.46,"body":"in the spectra,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":923.46,"endTime":928.46,"body":"in the brightness of the star system."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":928.8,"endTime":932.61,"body":"And what we found was that"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":928.8,"endTime":932.61,"body":"if you looked at periastron,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":932.61,"endTime":935.012,"body":"that moment of closest approach,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":935.012,"endTime":940.012,"body":"you would see maximally"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":935.012,"endTime":940.012,"body":"enhanced variability"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":941.4,"endTime":946.23,"body":"on that 1.5 day periodic time scale."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":946.23,"endTime":947.46,"body":"What was going on?"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":947.46,"endTime":949.89,"body":"Well, it turns out that that fly past,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":949.89,"endTime":952.984,"body":"that close encounter of the two stars"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":952.984,"endTime":955.32,"body":"would so distort,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":955.32,"endTime":960.32,"body":"gravitationally distort the"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":955.32,"endTime":960.32,"body":"primary star in that system,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":960.69,"endTime":961.803,"body":"that it would wobble."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":962.698,"endTime":967.02,"body":"Now the following analogy is not exact,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":967.02,"endTime":970.35,"body":"but it is instructive and"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":967.02,"endTime":970.35,"body":"illustrative, I think."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":970.35,"endTime":973.44,"body":"If you take a panna"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":970.35,"endTime":973.44,"body":"cotta and you wobble it"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":973.44,"endTime":977.19,"body":"and you notice the frequency"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":973.44,"endTime":977.19,"body":"at which it wobbles or rattles,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":977.19,"endTime":981.48,"body":"that's because you've applied"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":977.19,"endTime":981.48,"body":"a distorting force to it."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":981.48,"endTime":982.92,"body":"And that's kind of what happens"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":982.92,"endTime":986.37,"body":"when two stars do a fly pass,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":986.37,"endTime":989.13,"body":"a close encounter at periastron."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":989.13,"endTime":991.2,"body":"And if you start causing"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":991.2,"endTime":995.853,"body":"those astroseismic variations in a star,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":998.13,"endTime":1001.67,"body":"the variations within that"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":998.13,"endTime":1001.67,"body":"will cause changes in density,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1001.67,"endTime":1004.25,"body":"which will cause changes in opacity,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1004.25,"endTime":1006.92,"body":"which will cause changes in luminosity,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1006.92,"endTime":1011.45,"body":"in brightness, and hence in"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1006.92,"endTime":1011.45,"body":"temperature on any planet"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1011.45,"endTime":1015.773,"body":"that's orbiting either one"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1011.45,"endTime":1015.773,"body":"or both of those stars."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1016.76,"endTime":1021.2,"body":"It is fortunate for us that"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1016.76,"endTime":1021.2,"body":"the planets in the solar system"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1021.2,"endTime":1024.71,"body":"and crucially Earth's orbit around the Sun"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1024.71,"endTime":1026.87,"body":"is very close to circular."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1026.87,"endTime":1029.39,"body":"It's not a perfectly circular orbit,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1029.39,"endTime":1033.323,"body":"but it is nonetheless quite"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1029.39,"endTime":1033.323,"body":"close to being circular."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1034.46,"endTime":1036.59,"body":"Most of the extra solar planets,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1036.59,"endTime":1039.32,"body":"the exoplanets that we know today"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1039.32,"endTime":1042.71,"body":"have significantly more eccentric orbits"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1042.71,"endTime":1046.4,"body":"than ours do here in the solar system."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1046.4,"endTime":1049.7,"body":"And so our solar system does"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1046.4,"endTime":1049.7,"body":"seem to be a little bit special"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1049.7,"endTime":1051.46,"body":"in that regard."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1051.46,"endTime":1055.13,"body":"But back to the theme of needing"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1055.13,"endTime":1059.24,"body":"a stable thermal, environment"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1055.13,"endTime":1059.24,"body":"for the habitability"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1059.24,"endTime":1061.793,"body":"of any planet."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1063.05,"endTime":1066.17,"body":"I've already indicated"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1063.05,"endTime":1066.17,"body":"in the context of Mars"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1066.17,"endTime":1068.75,"body":"and its varying obliquity"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1068.75,"endTime":1073.75,"body":"that thermal stability does"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1068.75,"endTime":1073.75,"body":"require a stable spin access"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1075.29,"endTime":1078.74,"body":"if you are to have stable seasons,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1078.74,"endTime":1082.52,"body":"that's a stable spin access"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1078.74,"endTime":1082.52,"body":"with respect to the star"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1082.52,"endTime":1085.73,"body":"that the planet is in orbit around."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1085.73,"endTime":1088.58,"body":"Day and night are"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1085.73,"endTime":1088.58,"body":"considerably advantageous"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1088.58,"endTime":1090.5,"body":"to avoid overheating,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1090.5,"endTime":1094.07,"body":"local overheating on the planet."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1094.07,"endTime":1097.13,"body":"I've been working in South"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1094.07,"endTime":1097.13,"body":"Africa at my observatory there"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1097.13,"endTime":1098.96,"body":"the past week or so."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1098.96,"endTime":1101.93,"body":"And during the day, it"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1098.96,"endTime":1101.93,"body":"can be really very hot,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1101.93,"endTime":1103.94,"body":"even though we're approaching winter"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1103.94,"endTime":1106.01,"body":"in that part of the world."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1106.01,"endTime":1109.19,"body":"Sunset comes as a great relief"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1109.19,"endTime":1111.26,"body":"when the temperatures get cooler."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1111.26,"endTime":1115.61,"body":"Day and night are most"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1111.26,"endTime":1115.61,"body":"important for comfort,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1115.61,"endTime":1117.683,"body":"I would say for living creatures."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1118.91,"endTime":1120.59,"body":"What the obliquity of a planet is,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1120.59,"endTime":1122.84,"body":"can depend on initial conditions."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1122.84,"endTime":1126.847,"body":"It can depend on something"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1122.84,"endTime":1126.847,"body":"impacting the planet,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1126.847,"endTime":1129.563,"body":"subsequent to its formation."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1130.94,"endTime":1132.02,"body":"In the case of Earth,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1132.02,"endTime":1135.59,"body":"we do have a fairly stable spin axis."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1135.59,"endTime":1140.59,"body":"It varies a little bit"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1135.59,"endTime":1140.59,"body":"with something that..."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1140.9,"endTime":1143.03,"body":"phenomenon known as Chandler wobble."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1143.03,"endTime":1146.87,"body":"There is in fact, a mutation superimposed"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1146.87,"endTime":1148.67,"body":"on the procession of the equinoxes,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1148.67,"endTime":1151.821,"body":"but it's fairly subtle"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1148.67,"endTime":1151.821,"body":"and it doesn't wreck up"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1151.821,"endTime":1154.97,"body":"the stability of seasons."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1154.97,"endTime":1155.9,"body":"But if you can imagine,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1155.9,"endTime":1160.67,"body":"if we didn't have that stable"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1155.9,"endTime":1160.67,"body":"spin axis and the ice caps,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1160.67,"endTime":1163.52,"body":"the polar ice caps flopped around"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1163.52,"endTime":1167.0,"body":"because the spin axis of"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1163.52,"endTime":1167.0,"body":"the planet wasn't stable,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1167.0,"endTime":1172.0,"body":"we would not be able to"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1167.0,"endTime":1172.0,"body":"sustain stable seasons"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1172.16,"endTime":1175.73,"body":"and thereby stability of crops,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1175.73,"endTime":1178.403,"body":"and hence food for the"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1175.73,"endTime":1178.403,"body":"inhabitants of Earth."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1179.42,"endTime":1181.34,"body":"The moon is a great asset."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1181.34,"endTime":1184.91,"body":"It's thought to be a great"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1181.34,"endTime":1184.91,"body":"asset for planet Earth,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1184.91,"endTime":1189.91,"body":"that it helps stabilize"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1184.91,"endTime":1189.91,"body":"Earth's spin access."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1190.76,"endTime":1192.71,"body":"And indeed it gives us tides,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1192.71,"endTime":1195.26,"body":"which have been suggested by some,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1195.26,"endTime":1200.03,"body":"to be important for the origin"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1195.26,"endTime":1200.03,"body":"of certain types of life"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1200.03,"endTime":1201.203,"body":"on this planet."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1202.19,"endTime":1205.28,"body":"So this is the famous Earth rise image"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1205.28,"endTime":1207.21,"body":"of Earth rising over the Moon"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1208.22,"endTime":1211.673,"body":"as imaged by the astronauts"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1208.22,"endTime":1211.673,"body":"on board Apollo 8."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1214.968,"endTime":1218.33,"body":"This famous image was taken"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1214.968,"endTime":1218.33,"body":"on Christmas Eve of 1968,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1220.07,"endTime":1224.72,"body":"a reminder of the closeness of Earth"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1224.72,"endTime":1228.863,"body":"with respect to our nearest"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1224.72,"endTime":1228.863,"body":"celestial neighbor, the Moon."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1229.97,"endTime":1233.783,"body":"Continuing the theme of a"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1229.97,"endTime":1233.783,"body":"stable thermal environment,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1234.77,"endTime":1238.55,"body":"a planet that has a"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1234.77,"endTime":1238.55,"body":"stable thermal environment"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1238.55,"endTime":1241.94,"body":"will be a planet that"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1238.55,"endTime":1241.94,"body":"has what physicists call"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1241.94,"endTime":1244.283,"body":"a high heat capacity."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1245.12,"endTime":1250.12,"body":"Now heat capacity is sometimes"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1245.12,"endTime":1250.12,"body":"known as thermal mass."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1250.55,"endTime":1255.53,"body":"A low heat capacity means that"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1250.55,"endTime":1255.53,"body":"just a small amount of heat"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1255.53,"endTime":1258.95,"body":"will give you a large"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1255.53,"endTime":1258.95,"body":"increase in temperature."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1258.95,"endTime":1261.2,"body":"Whereas a high heat capacity"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1261.2,"endTime":1266.18,"body":"means that you'll get a very"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1261.2,"endTime":1266.18,"body":"small change in temperature,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1266.18,"endTime":1269.15,"body":"even when you pump in"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1266.18,"endTime":1269.15,"body":"lots and lots of heat,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1269.15,"endTime":1271.76,"body":"and you need that if you are going to have"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1271.76,"endTime":1274.46,"body":"a stable thermal environment."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1274.46,"endTime":1279.46,"body":"And so the oceans are a"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1274.46,"endTime":1279.46,"body":"really important asset for us"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1279.95,"endTime":1281.45,"body":"here on planet Earth,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1281.45,"endTime":1285.95,"body":"because water has a"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1281.45,"endTime":1285.95,"body":"relatively high heat capacity."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1285.95,"endTime":1290.95,"body":"There is lots of thermal"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1285.95,"endTime":1290.95,"body":"mass in the oceans."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1291.41,"endTime":1294.75,"body":"We're familiar, I think with"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1291.41,"endTime":1294.75,"body":"the idea of heat capacity"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1295.64,"endTime":1298.253,"body":"as something that's important"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1295.64,"endTime":1298.253,"body":"for building design."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1299.15,"endTime":1303.53,"body":"Greenhouses are terrific if"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1299.15,"endTime":1303.53,"body":"you want to grow tomatoes."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1303.53,"endTime":1305.48,"body":"The greenhouse effect is a thing."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1305.48,"endTime":1308.99,"body":"We like hot greenhouses"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1305.48,"endTime":1308.99,"body":"because tomatoes like to grow"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1308.99,"endTime":1310.64,"body":"in a Mediterranean climate."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1310.64,"endTime":1313.22,"body":"And in the British culture,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1313.22,"endTime":1317.6,"body":"then greenhouses will attain that for us."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1317.6,"endTime":1319.88,"body":"But in terms of humans thriving,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1319.88,"endTime":1323.99,"body":"forget tomatoes in terms of"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1319.88,"endTime":1323.99,"body":"humans, not just surviving,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1323.99,"endTime":1328.99,"body":"but thriving in Mediterranean"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1323.99,"endTime":1328.99,"body":"and more equatorial places,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1329.63,"endTime":1333.02,"body":"you need a building with"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1329.63,"endTime":1333.02,"body":"lots of thermal mass,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1333.02,"endTime":1335.15,"body":"a high heat capacity,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1335.15,"endTime":1336.193,"body":"if you're going to have a stable"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1336.193,"endTime":1338.543,"body":"thermal thermal environment."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1339.462,"endTime":1344.0,"body":"Also continuing the theme of"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1339.462,"endTime":1344.0,"body":"a stable thermal environment"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1344.0,"endTime":1348.53,"body":"is the number of stars that"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1344.0,"endTime":1348.53,"body":"a planet is orbiting around."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1348.53,"endTime":1352.162,"body":"Having one star to orbit around"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1348.53,"endTime":1352.162,"body":"is about the right number,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1352.162,"endTime":1357.162,"body":"but we do know that"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1352.162,"endTime":1357.162,"body":"circumbinary orbits are a thing."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1358.31,"endTime":1360.53,"body":"I spoke about these in my previous lecture"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1360.53,"endTime":1363.26,"body":"on Planetary Universe."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1363.26,"endTime":1366.543,"body":"And just as most exoplanets"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1363.26,"endTime":1366.543,"body":"that we know about"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1366.543,"endTime":1368.6,"body":"are in eccentric orbits,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1368.6,"endTime":1373.37,"body":"which are not favorable for habitability,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1373.37,"endTime":1375.98,"body":"a significant number,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1373.37,"endTime":1375.98,"body":"very much a minority,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1375.98,"endTime":1378.693,"body":"but a significant number appear to be"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1378.693,"endTime":1382.88,"body":"in circumbinary orbits,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1382.88,"endTime":1387.62,"body":"the exoplanets orbiting"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1382.88,"endTime":1387.62,"body":"binary star systems."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1387.62,"endTime":1392.093,"body":"But one is a really good"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1387.62,"endTime":1392.093,"body":"number for habitability."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1393.085,"endTime":1395.81,"body":"What else is on the list"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1393.085,"endTime":1395.81,"body":"of creature comforts"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1395.81,"endTime":1399.65,"body":"that are part of our"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1395.81,"endTime":1399.65,"body":"requirements for habitability?"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1399.65,"endTime":1403.13,"body":"I would say clean air is up there."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1403.13,"endTime":1405.107,"body":"We need a certain amount of oxygen."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1405.107,"endTime":1407.36,"body":"The oxygen that we have in our atmosphere"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1407.36,"endTime":1410.96,"body":"is diluted by the"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1407.36,"endTime":1410.96,"body":"relatively inert nitrogen,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1410.96,"endTime":1415.654,"body":"which forms the dominant"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1410.96,"endTime":1415.654,"body":"component of Earth's atmosphere."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1415.654,"endTime":1417.53,"body":"The oxygen that we breathe,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1417.53,"endTime":1419.45,"body":"hope no one's squeamish here"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1419.45,"endTime":1422.69,"body":"was generated a few billion years ago"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1422.69,"endTime":1426.729,"body":"by bacteria that were alive on the Earth,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1426.729,"endTime":1430.853,"body":"significantly in advance of sentient life."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1431.75,"endTime":1433.91,"body":"A runaway greenhouse effect"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1433.91,"endTime":1436.64,"body":"where you've ended up with loads"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1433.91,"endTime":1436.64,"body":"and loads of carbon dioxide"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1436.64,"endTime":1440.06,"body":"in the atmosphere would"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1436.64,"endTime":1440.06,"body":"not be good for life."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1440.06,"endTime":1443.9,"body":"And so no one is talking about"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1440.06,"endTime":1443.9,"body":"searching for life on Venus,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1443.9,"endTime":1446.93,"body":"where it seems there has been where..."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1446.93,"endTime":1450.383,"body":"where there is a huge amount of CO2."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1451.64,"endTime":1454.37,"body":"What else do we need for"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1451.64,"endTime":1454.37,"body":"habitability of our planet?"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1454.37,"endTime":1456.8,"body":"It needs to be radiation safe."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1456.8,"endTime":1459.71,"body":"As I indicated in the context of Mars,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1459.71,"endTime":1462.74,"body":"if a planet lacks a magnetic field,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1462.74,"endTime":1464.99,"body":"and then it's blasted with the solar wind,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1464.99,"endTime":1468.583,"body":"which consists of essentially"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1464.99,"endTime":1468.583,"body":"radioactive particles"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1468.583,"endTime":1472.612,"body":"with relativistic energies in many cases,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1472.612,"endTime":1474.95,"body":"you're probably going to die fairly soon"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1474.95,"endTime":1476.573,"body":"from radiation poisoning."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1477.41,"endTime":1480.83,"body":"Magnetic fields are PPE,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1480.83,"endTime":1483.5,"body":"planetary protective equipment."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1483.5,"endTime":1485.93,"body":"They're a really great idea."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1485.93,"endTime":1489.26,"body":"So Mars not having a"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1485.93,"endTime":1489.26,"body":"magnetosphere, forget it."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1489.26,"endTime":1494.26,"body":"Other planets that don't"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1489.26,"endTime":1494.26,"body":"have magnetic fields,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1494.3,"endTime":1498.653,"body":"they are not likely to be"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1494.3,"endTime":1498.653,"body":"considered ideally habitable."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1499.835,"endTime":1502.37,"body":"I think it's also pertinent to ask"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1502.37,"endTime":1504.59,"body":"whether there will inevitably be life"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1504.59,"endTime":1506.393,"body":"on Earth in the future."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1507.522,"endTime":1511.07,"body":"I reckon that we live on"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1507.522,"endTime":1511.07,"body":"a very dangerous planet."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1511.07,"endTime":1513.86,"body":"There are earthquakes"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1511.07,"endTime":1513.86,"body":"and there are tsunamis"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1513.86,"endTime":1515.45,"body":"and there are meteorites."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1515.45,"endTime":1517.91,"body":"After all, look what"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1515.45,"endTime":1517.91,"body":"happened to the dinosaurs."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1517.91,"endTime":1520.28,"body":"We don't see them stomping around today,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1520.28,"endTime":1521.873,"body":"yet we know they existed."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1522.98,"endTime":1527.98,"body":"In time, there will be"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1522.98,"endTime":1527.98,"body":"no more life on Earth."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1528.32,"endTime":1529.4,"body":"Now, please don't panic"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1529.4,"endTime":1532.22,"body":"because what I'm thinking"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1529.4,"endTime":1532.22,"body":"of when I say that"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1532.22,"endTime":1535.1,"body":"is several billion years from now,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1535.1,"endTime":1538.763,"body":"when our Sun turns into a red giant,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1539.6,"endTime":1543.98,"body":"at which time its radius"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1539.6,"endTime":1543.98,"body":"will extend larger"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1543.98,"endTime":1547.25,"body":"than Earth's orbital"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1543.98,"endTime":1547.25,"body":"radius around the Sun."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1547.25,"endTime":1548.083,"body":"At that time,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1548.083,"endTime":1550.52,"body":"the smart money would be"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1548.083,"endTime":1550.52,"body":"living on say Neptune,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1550.52,"endTime":1552.77,"body":"which would become a"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1550.52,"endTime":1552.77,"body":"lot warmer by that time."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1553.661,"endTime":1557.93,"body":"Probably there will be life"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1553.661,"endTime":1557.93,"body":"in a hundred years from now,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1557.93,"endTime":1559.253,"body":"but it's not inevitable."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1561.11,"endTime":1564.41,"body":"But it is fair to say"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1561.11,"endTime":1564.41,"body":"that life will one day"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1564.41,"endTime":1568.841,"body":"end on this planet, even if"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1564.41,"endTime":1568.841,"body":"not very imminently, we hope."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1568.841,"endTime":1571.883,"body":"But I want to turn now"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1568.841,"endTime":1571.883,"body":"to how it all began."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1572.96,"endTime":1577.64,"body":"And I want to begin at"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1572.96,"endTime":1577.64,"body":"nearly the beginning of time,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1577.64,"endTime":1580.041,"body":"the beginning of the universe."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1580.041,"endTime":1583.16,"body":"At about one second after the Big Bang,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1583.16,"endTime":1585.361,"body":"there was essentially only radiation"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1585.361,"endTime":1588.92,"body":"and primordial plasma soup."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1588.92,"endTime":1592.16,"body":"It was so hot, so energetic,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1592.16,"endTime":1595.4,"body":"that matter couldn't coalesce into atoms."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1595.4,"endTime":1597.556,"body":"Temperatures were way too hot,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1597.556,"endTime":1601.52,"body":"but the universe was expanding"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1597.556,"endTime":1601.52,"body":"and therefore cooling"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1601.52,"endTime":1605.329,"body":"and eventually electrons"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1601.52,"endTime":1605.329,"body":"and protons could form,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1605.329,"endTime":1608.633,"body":"were cool enough to be"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1605.329,"endTime":1608.633,"body":"able to form hydrogen."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1609.89,"endTime":1612.5,"body":"But there's more to life than hydrogen."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1612.5,"endTime":1615.41,"body":"If the universe only"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1612.5,"endTime":1615.41,"body":"consisted of hydrogen,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1615.41,"endTime":1616.883,"body":"we would not be here."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1617.99,"endTime":1619.52,"body":"If we eat a balanced diet,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1619.52,"endTime":1623.033,"body":"then this is what we are comprised of."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1624.05,"endTime":1626.84,"body":"Approximately, varies from one to another,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1626.84,"endTime":1629.45,"body":"varies depending on our diet."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1629.45,"endTime":1631.73,"body":"And so we do need all of these elements"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1631.73,"endTime":1635.273,"body":"to have formed in the universe"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1631.73,"endTime":1635.273,"body":"for life to happen itself."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1636.2,"endTime":1638.51,"body":"There are various means"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1636.2,"endTime":1638.51,"body":"by which these have"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1638.51,"endTime":1640.97,"body":"nuclear synthesis within stars."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1640.97,"endTime":1643.61,"body":"Nuclear synthesis at the"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1640.97,"endTime":1643.61,"body":"start of the Big Bang"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1643.61,"endTime":1646.973,"body":"only gave us a smattering of"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1643.61,"endTime":1646.973,"body":"the elements needed for life."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1648.5,"endTime":1650.338,"body":"But before I get to that,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1650.338,"endTime":1655.338,"body":"how do we get the basic"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1650.338,"endTime":1655.338,"body":"structures of the building blocks"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1655.349,"endTime":1657.92,"body":"of the universe to form?"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1657.92,"endTime":1660.44,"body":"Well, I described this"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1657.92,"endTime":1660.44,"body":"in my lecture entitled"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1660.44,"endTime":1664.49,"body":"Structures in the Universe"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1660.44,"endTime":1664.49,"body":"earlier in this series."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1664.49,"endTime":1667.673,"body":"And roughly speaking the answer"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1664.49,"endTime":1667.673,"body":"to that question is gravity."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1668.93,"endTime":1672.83,"body":"Inhomogeneities in that primordial plasma,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1672.83,"endTime":1674.931,"body":"which are manifested in the ripples"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1674.931,"endTime":1677.81,"body":"in the cosmic microwave background"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1677.81,"endTime":1680.783,"body":"are the seeds of structure formation."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1681.62,"endTime":1686.0,"body":"If you have an inhomogeneity"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1681.62,"endTime":1686.0,"body":"in the density of that plasma,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1686.0,"endTime":1687.86,"body":"it will collapse under gravity."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1687.86,"endTime":1691.01,"body":"Gravity only works in one direction."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1691.01,"endTime":1694.1,"body":"Little inhomogeneities"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1691.01,"endTime":1694.1,"body":"depicted on the left"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1694.1,"endTime":1698.21,"body":"will become big"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1694.1,"endTime":1698.21,"body":"inhomogeneities on the right."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1698.21,"endTime":1700.49,"body":"Small over densities in matter"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1700.49,"endTime":1704.27,"body":"will become larger over"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1700.49,"endTime":1704.27,"body":"density in matters."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1704.27,"endTime":1707.33,"body":"And so gravity gives us galaxies,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1707.33,"endTime":1710.69,"body":"over densities of matter"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1707.33,"endTime":1710.69,"body":"collapse under gravities"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1710.69,"endTime":1712.22,"body":"and under gravity."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1712.22,"endTime":1716.993,"body":"And these coagulates of matter"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1712.22,"endTime":1716.993,"body":"are called proto-galaxies."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1718.04,"endTime":1719.24,"body":"Within proto-galaxies,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1719.24,"endTime":1721.91,"body":"where the matter is sufficiently dense"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1721.91,"endTime":1724.91,"body":"and sufficiently hot,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1724.91,"endTime":1729.53,"body":"fusion can take place if the"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1724.91,"endTime":1729.53,"body":"temperatures are high enough,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1729.53,"endTime":1733.223,"body":"this releases radiation,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1729.53,"endTime":1733.223,"body":"and hence stars shine."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1734.27,"endTime":1737.069,"body":"Stars are critically important"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1737.069,"endTime":1741.56,"body":"for the synthesis of"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1737.069,"endTime":1741.56,"body":"elements in the universe."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1741.56,"endTime":1746.56,"body":"Stellar nucleosynthesis"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1741.56,"endTime":1746.56,"body":"is a necessary process"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1746.57,"endTime":1750.68,"body":"to have happened in the"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1746.57,"endTime":1750.68,"body":"universe for life to take place."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1750.68,"endTime":1752.9,"body":"It's a necessary condition,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1752.9,"endTime":1756.02,"body":"but it's also not a sufficient condition."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1756.02,"endTime":1758.06,"body":"The kind of elements"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1756.02,"endTime":1758.06,"body":"that can be synthesized"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1758.06,"endTime":1759.92,"body":"in the interiors of stars,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1759.92,"endTime":1762.41,"body":"won't actually give us all the elements,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1762.41,"endTime":1763.88,"body":"the trace elements,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1763.88,"endTime":1766.7,"body":"which are necessary"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1763.88,"endTime":1766.7,"body":"for life as we know it,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1766.7,"endTime":1769.79,"body":"the sentient life that"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1766.7,"endTime":1769.79,"body":"we are familiar with."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1769.79,"endTime":1773.69,"body":"Other elements come from nova explosions"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1773.69,"endTime":1776.6,"body":"and from supernova explosions."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1776.6,"endTime":1780.77,"body":"And without those exotic"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1776.6,"endTime":1780.77,"body":"energetic phenomena"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1780.77,"endTime":1782.81,"body":"taking place in the universe,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1782.81,"endTime":1784.673,"body":"we wouldn't have life at all."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1785.587,"endTime":1790.587,"body":"But planets do form manifestly"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1785.587,"endTime":1790.587,"body":"all across the universe."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1791.87,"endTime":1794.84,"body":"I indicated that gravity was a key player,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1794.84,"endTime":1797.84,"body":"but it's not the only key player."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1797.84,"endTime":1801.26,"body":"The formation of protoplanetary disks,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1801.26,"endTime":1805.1,"body":"where disks of matter"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1801.26,"endTime":1805.1,"body":"collapse under gravity"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1805.1,"endTime":1809.51,"body":"is not solely governed"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1805.1,"endTime":1809.51,"body":"by one law of physics."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1809.51,"endTime":1813.14,"body":"The law of conservation"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1809.51,"endTime":1813.14,"body":"of angular momentum"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1813.14,"endTime":1816.5,"body":"is also critically important here."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1816.5,"endTime":1820.49,"body":"You see the spin of the"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1816.5,"endTime":1820.49,"body":"matter being much, much faster"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1820.49,"endTime":1824.063,"body":"in the center than it is further out."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1825.11,"endTime":1827.21,"body":"And besides gravity"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1827.21,"endTime":1830.78,"body":"and besides the conservation"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1827.21,"endTime":1830.78,"body":"of angular momentum,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1830.78,"endTime":1833.682,"body":"thermodynamics is also"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1830.78,"endTime":1833.682,"body":"critically important"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1833.682,"endTime":1838.682,"body":"for the formation of planets"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1833.682,"endTime":1838.682,"body":"and disks around planets"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1839.06,"endTime":1843.41,"body":"that subsequently form"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1839.06,"endTime":1843.41,"body":"satellite systems or moons"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1843.41,"endTime":1845.993,"body":"much like the moons in"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1843.41,"endTime":1845.993,"body":"orbit around Saturn."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1847.352,"endTime":1851.06,"body":"So I went into this in rather more detail"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1851.06,"endTime":1852.26,"body":"in my previous lecture,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1852.26,"endTime":1854.665,"body":"entitled Planetary Universe."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1854.665,"endTime":1858.95,"body":"Planets, exoplanets are a"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1854.665,"endTime":1858.95,"body":"thing, they're out there."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1858.95,"endTime":1862.13,"body":"It's relatively easy to find them."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1862.13,"endTime":1864.86,"body":"The number of exoplanets that we now know"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1864.86,"endTime":1867.83,"body":"is numbered in their thousands."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1867.83,"endTime":1869.0,"body":"But that's only searching"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1869.0,"endTime":1872.12,"body":"a relatively small amount of space."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1872.12,"endTime":1875.63,"body":"And not only are there"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1872.12,"endTime":1875.63,"body":"lots of galaxies out there,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1875.63,"endTime":1880.1,"body":"but there are lots of..."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1880.1,"endTime":1883.453,"body":"Space itself is to misquote Douglas Adams,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1883.453,"endTime":1885.5,"body":"is really big."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1885.5,"endTime":1889.4,"body":"And so I dunno whether"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1885.5,"endTime":1889.4,"body":"you become more optimistic"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1889.4,"endTime":1890.87,"body":"about finding life further out."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1890.87,"endTime":1892.077,"body":"If you say, \"Well, gosh,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1892.077,"endTime":1893.757,"body":"\"there are a lot of haystacks out there"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1893.757,"endTime":1896.297,"body":"\"within which to maybe find a needle,\""},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1897.35,"endTime":1901.667,"body":"but there's no doubt that"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1897.35,"endTime":1901.667,"body":"the prospect of finding life"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1901.667,"endTime":1904.1,"body":"outside of the solar system"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1904.1,"endTime":1908.42,"body":"is really a very daunting"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1904.1,"endTime":1908.42,"body":"problem indeed to solve."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1908.42,"endTime":1912.2,"body":"Outer space is big and amazing."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1912.2,"endTime":1914.6,"body":"The number of galaxies in the universe is,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1914.6,"endTime":1915.909,"body":"in the observable universe"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1915.909,"endTime":1920.03,"body":"is up there at hundreds of billions."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1920.03,"endTime":1921.62,"body":"The number of stars in our galaxy,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1921.62,"endTime":1926.21,"body":"which is by no means one"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1921.62,"endTime":1926.21,"body":"of the largest galaxies"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1926.21,"endTime":1928.22,"body":"that we know about is something like"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1928.22,"endTime":1929.813,"body":"a hundred thousand million."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1930.74,"endTime":1932.993,"body":"How many stars have planets? Many."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1934.28,"endTime":1937.88,"body":"The numbers get to be big and daunting."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1937.88,"endTime":1940.46,"body":"How much of space have"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1937.88,"endTime":1940.46,"body":"we searched already?"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1940.46,"endTime":1943.79,"body":"How much is searchable in principle?"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1943.79,"endTime":1946.13,"body":"A very, very tiny fraction."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1946.13,"endTime":1949.43,"body":"That little circle in"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1946.13,"endTime":1949.43,"body":"the bottom-left quadrant"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1949.43,"endTime":1952.58,"body":"shows the fraction of our galaxy,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1952.58,"endTime":1956.573,"body":"only our galaxy that has"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1952.58,"endTime":1956.573,"body":"been searched thus far."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1957.83,"endTime":1962.09,"body":"At the end of my last lecture,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1957.83,"endTime":1962.09,"body":"entitled Planetary Universe,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1962.09,"endTime":1964.07,"body":"I reported that the number of planets"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1964.07,"endTime":1967.4,"body":"that had been discovered were 5,005."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1967.4,"endTime":1970.43,"body":"It was a great landmark to"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1967.4,"endTime":1970.43,"body":"have reached the discovery"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1970.43,"endTime":1973.22,"body":"of 5,000 exoplanets."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1973.22,"endTime":1974.54,"body":"That number has gone up."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1974.54,"endTime":1977.3,"body":"It's now 5,035."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1977.3,"endTime":1982.3,"body":"So all the time new planets"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1977.3,"endTime":1982.3,"body":"are being confirmed,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1982.61,"endTime":1985.339,"body":"but you'll see the percentage of planets"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1985.339,"endTime":1988.76,"body":"that are in principle"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1985.339,"endTime":1988.76,"body":"have a sporting chance"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1988.76,"endTime":1991.91,"body":"of being habitable is only a few percent."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1991.91,"endTime":1993.11,"body":"The terrestrial ones,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1993.11,"endTime":1994.94,"body":"the Earth-like ones."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1994.94,"endTime":1996.2,"body":"Forget the gassiest ones."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1996.2,"endTime":1997.7,"body":"I mean, they're very pretty"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":1997.7,"endTime":2000.82,"body":"and, you know, massive and fascinating"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2000.82,"endTime":2003.591,"body":"in terms of the physics"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2000.82,"endTime":2003.591,"body":"of planetary formation,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2003.591,"endTime":2007.603,"body":"but they're not good hunting"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2003.591,"endTime":2007.603,"body":"ground for life itself."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2008.68,"endTime":2010.72,"body":"So there's a lot of space out there."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2010.72,"endTime":2014.17,"body":"And this is a point that was"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2010.72,"endTime":2014.17,"body":"pondered by the physicist,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2014.17,"endTime":2016.81,"body":"the Italian physicist Enrico Fermi."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2016.81,"endTime":2021.81,"body":"He was born in Rome, in Italy in 1901."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2022.03,"endTime":2026.23,"body":"Fermi is often known as the"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2022.03,"endTime":2026.23,"body":"father of the atomic bomb."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2026.23,"endTime":2030.16,"body":"He was known for his work on"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2026.23,"endTime":2030.16,"body":"the first nuclear reactor."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2030.16,"endTime":2031.45,"body":"And he was a key player"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2031.45,"endTime":2035.68,"body":"in the Manhattan Project in Los Alamos."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2035.68,"endTime":2038.293,"body":"But even at the time"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2035.68,"endTime":2038.293,"body":"that he was developing,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2039.31,"endTime":2042.31,"body":"doing key work on the Manhattan Project,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2042.31,"endTime":2046.187,"body":"apparently at lunch one"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2042.31,"endTime":2046.187,"body":"day, he just suddenly said,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2046.187,"endTime":2047.689,"body":"\"Where is everyone?"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2047.689,"endTime":2050.267,"body":"\"Where are they?"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2050.267,"endTime":2052.907,"body":"\"If there are loads and"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2050.267,"endTime":2052.907,"body":"loads of stars out there"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2052.907,"endTime":2055.667,"body":"\"in loads and loads of different galaxies,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2055.667,"endTime":2057.557,"body":"\"and if there's life"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2055.667,"endTime":2057.557,"body":"on at least one planet,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2057.557,"endTime":2060.737,"body":"\"then how come there isn't"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2057.557,"endTime":2060.737,"body":"life on loads of planets"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2060.737,"endTime":2065.737,"body":"\"and how come we have heard"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2060.737,"endTime":2065.737,"body":"nothing from anyone as yet?\""},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2067.09,"endTime":2071.14,"body":"This is something that is"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2067.09,"endTime":2071.14,"body":"known as the Fermi paradox."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2071.14,"endTime":2072.97,"body":"The fact that if it's out there"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2072.97,"endTime":2076.87,"body":"and if stars and galaxies"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2072.97,"endTime":2076.87,"body":"are utterly numerous,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2076.87,"endTime":2080.47,"body":"surely we should have seen"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2076.87,"endTime":2080.47,"body":"any extra-terrestrial beings."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2080.47,"endTime":2082.57,"body":"Surely they'd want to"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2080.47,"endTime":2082.57,"body":"talk to us wouldn't they,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2082.57,"endTime":2084.433,"body":"after all we're such lovely people."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2085.54,"endTime":2087.523,"body":"That's the Fermi paradox."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2088.63,"endTime":2092.08,"body":"Well, Fermi's paradox was thought about"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2092.08,"endTime":2093.424,"body":"by quite a lot of people."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2093.424,"endTime":2097.6,"body":"The paradox came about"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2093.424,"endTime":2097.6,"body":"really in the 1960s."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2097.6,"endTime":2100.437,"body":"And someone who did quite a"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2097.6,"endTime":2100.437,"body":"lot of deep thinking about that"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2100.437,"endTime":2103.09,"body":"was a chap called Frank Drake,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2103.09,"endTime":2106.243,"body":"who turned 92 just last Sunday."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2107.62,"endTime":2108.73,"body":"And he began thinking,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2108.73,"endTime":2110.892,"body":"just for our galaxy,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2110.892,"endTime":2115.892,"body":"can you encapsulate"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2110.892,"endTime":2115.892,"body":"and attempt to quantify"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2116.44,"endTime":2121.44,"body":"the probabilities or if you"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2116.44,"endTime":2121.44,"body":"want to call it prejudices,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2122.2,"endTime":2123.34,"body":"which govern,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2123.34,"endTime":2127.72,"body":"do you or don't you"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2123.34,"endTime":2127.72,"body":"believe in Fermi's paradox?"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2127.72,"endTime":2130.48,"body":"Are you startled that"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2127.72,"endTime":2130.48,"body":"extra-terrestrial life"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2130.48,"endTime":2132.373,"body":"hasn't got in touch with us yet?"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2133.21,"endTime":2136.48,"body":"And so Drake came up with an equation"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2136.48,"endTime":2138.49,"body":"which attempts to quantify"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2138.49,"endTime":2141.253,"body":"those probabilities and prejudices."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2142.24,"endTime":2145.69,"body":"So this is what's known"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2142.24,"endTime":2145.69,"body":"as the Drake equation"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2145.69,"endTime":2150.61,"body":"where N on the left hand"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2145.69,"endTime":2150.61,"body":"side of the equation"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2150.61,"endTime":2153.335,"body":"is the number of"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2150.61,"endTime":2153.335,"body":"civilizations in our galaxy"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2153.335,"endTime":2157.6,"body":"that we might be able to communicate with."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2157.6,"endTime":2162.6,"body":"So this would exclude planetary systems,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2162.61,"endTime":2167.08,"body":"orbiting stars, sort of the far"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2162.61,"endTime":2167.08,"body":"side of the galactic center,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2167.08,"endTime":2170.23,"body":"where there's so much dust"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2167.08,"endTime":2170.23,"body":"and all the rest of it."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2170.23,"endTime":2172.6,"body":"You'd have trouble with your line of sight"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2172.6,"endTime":2174.25,"body":"getting you a clear signal."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2174.25,"endTime":2176.17,"body":"So just think about the ones"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2176.17,"endTime":2178.933,"body":"that there's a good line"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2176.17,"endTime":2178.933,"body":"of sight to in principle."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2180.1,"endTime":2181.06,"body":"And now think about,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2181.06,"endTime":2184.72,"body":"well, you know, what's"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2181.06,"endTime":2184.72,"body":"the formation of stars"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2184.72,"endTime":2185.972,"body":"in the Milky Way?"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2185.972,"endTime":2190.627,"body":"How many new stars are born"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2185.972,"endTime":2190.627,"body":"in the Milky Way per year?"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2190.627,"endTime":2194.38,"body":"How many planets are likely"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2190.627,"endTime":2194.38,"body":"to be formed around those?"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2194.38,"endTime":2198.833,"body":"Of the new stars that form"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2194.38,"endTime":2198.833,"body":"in our galaxy, the Milky Way,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2198.833,"endTime":2203.293,"body":"what fraction of those have planets?"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2204.79,"endTime":2206.38,"body":"I'll come back to this point in a minute,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2206.38,"endTime":2208.39,"body":"but I think of all the"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2206.38,"endTime":2208.39,"body":"different quantities"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2208.39,"endTime":2212.68,"body":"that I'm going to describe"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2208.39,"endTime":2212.68,"body":"in the Drake equation,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2212.68,"endTime":2213.513,"body":"this one here,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2213.513,"endTime":2217.198,"body":"F sub P, the fraction"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2213.513,"endTime":2217.198,"body":"of stars having planets"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2217.198,"endTime":2220.6,"body":"is probably the most well-determined"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2220.6,"endTime":2224.557,"body":"on the basis of having searched"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2220.6,"endTime":2224.557,"body":"that tiny little fraction"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2224.557,"endTime":2229.557,"body":"of our galaxy so far for the"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2224.557,"endTime":2229.557,"body":"existence of orbiting planets"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2231.22,"endTime":2233.833,"body":"around stars outside the solar system."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2236.17,"endTime":2239.17,"body":"Once you've quantified"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2236.17,"endTime":2239.17,"body":"the fraction of stars"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2239.17,"endTime":2240.31,"body":"that are formed each year,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2240.31,"endTime":2242.2,"body":"and the fraction of those stars"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2242.2,"endTime":2244.858,"body":"that have planets orbiting around them,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2244.858,"endTime":2248.23,"body":"then you want to think about"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2244.858,"endTime":2248.23,"body":"the fraction of those planets"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2248.23,"endTime":2249.94,"body":"that could support life."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2249.94,"endTime":2252.457,"body":"And I've already ruled"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2249.94,"endTime":2252.457,"body":"out the gassiest planets"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2252.457,"endTime":2255.61,"body":"and some of the others where"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2252.457,"endTime":2255.61,"body":"they're too close and too hot,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2255.61,"endTime":2257.77,"body":"or too far away and too cold,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2257.77,"endTime":2260.233,"body":"N sub B captures that."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2262.09,"endTime":2266.65,"body":"F sub L is the fraction of these planets"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2266.65,"endTime":2269.5,"body":"that could go on to support life."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2269.5,"endTime":2272.44,"body":"And so that is where you"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2269.5,"endTime":2272.44,"body":"feed in the kind of chemistry"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2272.44,"endTime":2273.64,"body":"that you need,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2273.64,"endTime":2276.67,"body":"enough oxygen, but not so much oxygen"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2276.67,"endTime":2278.173,"body":"that you poison everyone."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2279.519,"endTime":2284.519,"body":"So all of these quantities"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2279.519,"endTime":2284.519,"body":"are multiplied together"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2284.68,"endTime":2289.033,"body":"to give us N, the number"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2284.68,"endTime":2289.033,"body":"we expect over on the left."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2290.11,"endTime":2291.97,"body":"But then Drake goes on to say..."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2291.97,"endTime":2295.457,"body":"Bear in mind, Enrico Fermi's paradox was,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2295.457,"endTime":2296.807,"body":"\"Where is everyone?"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2296.807,"endTime":2299.027,"body":"\"Why haven't they got in touch with us?"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2299.027,"endTime":2300.617,"body":"\"Why haven't they talked to us,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2300.617,"endTime":2302.167,"body":"\"we're such lovely people.\""},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2304.06,"endTime":2306.3,"body":"You have to then feed into that."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2306.3,"endTime":2309.101,"body":"Of the fraction of planets"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2306.3,"endTime":2309.101,"body":"that can sustain life,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2309.101,"endTime":2312.37,"body":"which of those can"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2309.101,"endTime":2312.37,"body":"sustain intelligent life,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2312.37,"endTime":2314.23,"body":"sentient life,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2314.23,"endTime":2318.554,"body":"life that's capable of"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2314.23,"endTime":2318.554,"body":"developing technology"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2318.554,"endTime":2321.91,"body":"that could communicate with other people."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2321.91,"endTime":2325.9,"body":"And that's encapsulated in F subscript I,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2325.9,"endTime":2328.182,"body":"the fraction of planets"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2325.9,"endTime":2328.182,"body":"that will go on to support"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2328.182,"endTime":2329.893,"body":"intelligent life."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2330.94,"endTime":2333.7,"body":"But it's not enough to"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2330.94,"endTime":2333.7,"body":"just be intelligent."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2333.7,"endTime":2335.17,"body":"After all, the ancient Greeks,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2335.17,"endTime":2336.64,"body":"the ancient Chinese,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2336.64,"endTime":2337.604,"body":"the ancient Indians,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2337.604,"endTime":2342.22,"body":"terribly intelligent, but"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2337.604,"endTime":2342.22,"body":"they didn't have radar,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2342.22,"endTime":2343.9,"body":"even though they were intelligent."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2343.9,"endTime":2345.355,"body":"So we need to factor in"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2345.355,"endTime":2348.994,"body":"the fraction of intelligent civilizations"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2348.994,"endTime":2352.808,"body":"that will go on to develop"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2348.994,"endTime":2352.808,"body":"the kind of technology"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2352.808,"endTime":2356.459,"body":"that is detectable here on Earth."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2356.459,"endTime":2358.45,"body":"And then finally,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2358.45,"endTime":2361.75,"body":"the other important"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2358.45,"endTime":2361.75,"body":"factor in Drake's equation"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2361.75,"endTime":2366.124,"body":"is the length of time for"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2361.75,"endTime":2366.124,"body":"which the particular planet"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2366.124,"endTime":2369.04,"body":"that sufficiently advanced"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2366.124,"endTime":2369.04,"body":"that it's technology"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2369.04,"endTime":2372.49,"body":"can release signals that are"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2369.04,"endTime":2372.49,"body":"detectable here on Earth."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2372.49,"endTime":2375.297,"body":"That time is finite,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2375.297,"endTime":2380.297,"body":"just as life on Earth could end"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2375.297,"endTime":2380.297,"body":"will end in 6 billion years."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2381.13,"endTime":2384.563,"body":"So the duration of time"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2381.13,"endTime":2384.563,"body":"for which any planet"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2384.563,"endTime":2389.563,"body":"will be able to emit"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2384.563,"endTime":2389.563,"body":"signals is similarly finite."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2390.58,"endTime":2395.2,"body":"And so we have to multiply"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2390.58,"endTime":2395.2,"body":"in that duration of time,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2395.2,"endTime":2396.91,"body":"that fraction of time,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2396.91,"endTime":2399.223,"body":"if we want to get back to what is N."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2400.18,"endTime":2402.765,"body":"I'm sure everyone in the"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2400.18,"endTime":2402.765,"body":"audience is thinking,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2402.765,"endTime":2405.76,"body":"goodness, that doesn't seem"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2402.765,"endTime":2405.76,"body":"a very well known number"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2405.76,"endTime":2407.56,"body":"and that one doesn't either,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2407.56,"endTime":2410.35,"body":"and goodness, not many of them do at all."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2410.35,"endTime":2413.68,"body":"Like I said, F sub P is probably the one"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2413.68,"endTime":2415.27,"body":"that we can hope to quantify best."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2415.27,"endTime":2419.41,"body":"What's the fraction of stars"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2415.27,"endTime":2419.41,"body":"that have planets around them?"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2419.41,"endTime":2422.623,"body":"And I suspect that's a"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2419.41,"endTime":2422.623,"body":"reasonable fraction of unity,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2423.49,"endTime":2425.98,"body":"but all of these other factors here,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2425.98,"endTime":2430.48,"body":"I suspect could be rather"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2425.98,"endTime":2430.48,"body":"less than unity in some cases,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2430.48,"endTime":2432.904,"body":"a lot less than unity."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2432.904,"endTime":2437.904,"body":"Note that if any of these"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2432.904,"endTime":2437.904,"body":"factors were equal to zero,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2438.58,"endTime":2440.56,"body":"the whole lot would be zero,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2440.56,"endTime":2445.06,"body":"we do not know what the"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2440.56,"endTime":2445.06,"body":"value of these parameters is."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2445.06,"endTime":2446.59,"body":"But if you're an optimist,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2446.59,"endTime":2448.577,"body":"then that will cause you to say,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2448.577,"endTime":2450.947,"body":"\"N is not zero."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2450.947,"endTime":2454.87,"body":"\"If it is not zero, let's"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2450.947,"endTime":2454.87,"body":"go out searching for life.\""},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2454.87,"endTime":2456.4,"body":"And let's think about the kind of life"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2456.4,"endTime":2458.32,"body":"that might be searched for."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2458.32,"endTime":2461.02,"body":"There's no doubt that"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2458.32,"endTime":2461.02,"body":"here on planet Earth,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2461.02,"endTime":2464.83,"body":"life can persist in extreme conditions."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2464.83,"endTime":2467.65,"body":"This is not life itself,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2464.83,"endTime":2467.65,"body":"that I'm showing you."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2467.65,"endTime":2470.65,"body":"But this is indicative of"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2467.65,"endTime":2470.65,"body":"the very extreme environments"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2470.65,"endTime":2472.27,"body":"that you can get here on Earth."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2472.27,"endTime":2475.306,"body":"These are some photographs that"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2472.27,"endTime":2475.306,"body":"I took in Yellowstone Park,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2475.306,"endTime":2477.16,"body":"where it's now thought"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2477.16,"endTime":2480.58,"body":"that in some of the"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2477.16,"endTime":2480.58,"body":"extreme conditions of pH,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2480.58,"endTime":2482.47,"body":"of salinity, of temperature,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2482.47,"endTime":2484.283,"body":"and to an extent pressure,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2484.283,"endTime":2489.28,"body":"there are simple, relatively"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2484.283,"endTime":2489.28,"body":"simple cellular life-forms"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2489.28,"endTime":2492.25,"body":"in existence, just as there are"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2492.25,"endTime":2495.49,"body":"way down in the ocean in circumstances of"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2495.49,"endTime":2497.293,"body":"extreme pressure."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2498.46,"endTime":2503.46,"body":"So life can exist in extreme locations,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2503.74,"endTime":2506.35,"body":"in extreme environments on this planet."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2506.35,"endTime":2509.95,"body":"So that might encourage us"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2506.35,"endTime":2509.95,"body":"that life on other planets"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2509.95,"endTime":2512.35,"body":"could exist because maybe conditions"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2512.35,"endTime":2515.86,"body":"don't have to be as ideal"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2512.35,"endTime":2515.86,"body":"as I was saying earlier"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2515.86,"endTime":2518.194,"body":"in my shopping list of creature comforts"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2518.194,"endTime":2521.65,"body":"or (indistinct) for habitability."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2521.65,"endTime":2523.6,"body":"Maybe if you want to"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2521.65,"endTime":2523.6,"body":"broaden it a bit to say,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2523.6,"endTime":2527.74,"body":"well, let's just see how"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2523.6,"endTime":2527.74,"body":"much life is out there,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2527.74,"endTime":2530.088,"body":"even in extreme conditions."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2530.088,"endTime":2534.583,"body":"Then maybe you stand a greater"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2530.088,"endTime":2534.583,"body":"chance of detecting that."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2535.72,"endTime":2537.73,"body":"But just because there might be"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2537.73,"endTime":2540.82,"body":"simple cellular life-forms out there,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2540.82,"endTime":2542.74,"body":"just because there might be bacteria"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2542.74,"endTime":2546.94,"body":"existing in extreme"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2542.74,"endTime":2546.94,"body":"locations on other planets,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2546.94,"endTime":2548.26,"body":"could it follow,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2548.26,"endTime":2551.02,"body":"would it follow that"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2548.26,"endTime":2551.02,"body":"there would be sentient,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2551.02,"endTime":2555.07,"body":"intelligent life on that same planet?"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2555.07,"endTime":2558.37,"body":"Simon Conway Morris has done"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2555.07,"endTime":2558.37,"body":"some deep thinking on this."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2558.37,"endTime":2560.98,"body":"And at some point in one of these slides,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2560.98,"endTime":2564.37,"body":"I'll be referring to his book that I think"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2564.37,"endTime":2567.943,"body":"is a very stimulating read on this matter."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2569.2,"endTime":2570.22,"body":"If you want to consider"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2570.22,"endTime":2573.16,"body":"whether life comes as"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2570.22,"endTime":2573.16,"body":"standard in this universe,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2573.16,"endTime":2574.69,"body":"I think the best answer"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2574.69,"endTime":2576.76,"body":"that you can give to"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2574.69,"endTime":2576.76,"body":"that question right now"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2576.76,"endTime":2579.193,"body":"is we don't know."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2580.03,"endTime":2584.365,"body":"Observation of life on Earth"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2580.03,"endTime":2584.365,"body":"is clearly a selection effect"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2584.365,"endTime":2586.66,"body":"to those of us living on Earth."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2586.66,"endTime":2588.793,"body":"This is known as the anthropic principle."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2589.87,"endTime":2593.21,"body":"The observation of life on an exoplanet"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2593.21,"endTime":2596.47,"body":"would be much more than"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2593.21,"endTime":2596.47,"body":"just another data point."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2596.47,"endTime":2598.78,"body":"It would be very significant."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2598.78,"endTime":2600.805,"body":"It would make the"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2598.78,"endTime":2600.805,"body":"difference between knowing"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2600.805,"endTime":2603.2,"body":"whether life on this planet was unique,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2603.2,"endTime":2606.037,"body":"or if there's only one other,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2606.037,"endTime":2608.26,"body":"then that might well suggest"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2608.26,"endTime":2610.48,"body":"that there's lots and lots of others."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2610.48,"endTime":2614.418,"body":"You could put in much"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2610.48,"endTime":2614.418,"body":"more informed numbers"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2614.418,"endTime":2618.253,"body":"into those factors in the Drake equation."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2618.253,"endTime":2621.973,"body":"One more data point would tell us a lot."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2623.14,"endTime":2626.89,"body":"But right now we really don't"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2623.14,"endTime":2626.89,"body":"know if we are unique or not."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2626.89,"endTime":2630.31,"body":"But if you are interested"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2626.89,"endTime":2630.31,"body":"in these matters,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2630.31,"endTime":2631.96,"body":"as I mentioned a second ago,"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2631.96,"endTime":2636.13,"body":"I really recommend Simon"},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2631.96,"endTime":2636.13,"body":"Conway Morris's book."},{"speaker":"\"It's five-year mission","startTime":2636.13,"endTime":2638.709,"body":"He's a paleontologist in Cambridge."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2641.177,"endTime":2643.96,"body":"\"Inevitable Humans in a Lonely Universe\""},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2643.96,"endTime":2645.904,"body":"is well worth reading."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2645.904,"endTime":2650.904,"body":"He reckons that sentient"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2645.904,"endTime":2650.904,"body":"life is inevitable if,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2651.22,"endTime":2654.314,"body":"and only if you get the right,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2654.314,"endTime":2656.803,"body":"but very unlikely starting conditions."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2657.79,"endTime":2661.063,"body":"I really do recommend that book to you."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2661.9,"endTime":2665.38,"body":"If you are interested in exploring"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2661.9,"endTime":2665.38,"body":"as it were the biological"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2665.38,"endTime":2668.413,"body":"side of life, which is a"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2665.38,"endTime":2668.413,"body":"fairly crucial part of life."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2669.55,"endTime":2673.0,"body":"Let's go back to the idea"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2669.55,"endTime":2673.0,"body":"of extra-terrestrial life."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2673.0,"endTime":2677.08,"body":"And why are we so"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2673.0,"endTime":2677.08,"body":"fascinated by the prospect"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2677.08,"endTime":2679.243,"body":"of extra-terrestrial life?"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2680.23,"endTime":2681.32,"body":"A great many people"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2681.32,"endTime":2684.97,"body":"are fascinated by extra-terrestrial life."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2684.97,"endTime":2688.423,"body":"I used a little artistic"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2684.97,"endTime":2688.423,"body":"license with that image."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2689.62,"endTime":2693.52,"body":"Why are we fascinated by the prospect?"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2693.52,"endTime":2696.07,"body":"One answer is that it's very interesting"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2696.07,"endTime":2700.42,"body":"to meet other people who"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2696.07,"endTime":2700.42,"body":"are different from us."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2700.42,"endTime":2703.09,"body":"It's interesting to have"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2700.42,"endTime":2703.09,"body":"relationships with people"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2703.09,"endTime":2705.4,"body":"who are interestingly different from us."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2705.4,"endTime":2708.49,"body":"We learn new things. We"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2705.4,"endTime":2708.49,"body":"gain new perspectives."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2708.49,"endTime":2710.764,"body":"We think in different ways."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2710.764,"endTime":2714.31,"body":"This basic human instinct,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2714.31,"endTime":2718.03,"body":"which desires an encounter with others"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2718.03,"endTime":2722.267,"body":"demonstrates that we, humans"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2718.03,"endTime":2722.267,"body":"at least are relational beings."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2722.267,"endTime":2725.081,"body":"We are predisposed to engage with others"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2725.081,"endTime":2728.56,"body":"outside of our own circles."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2728.56,"endTime":2730.216,"body":"And so it is fascinating."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2730.216,"endTime":2733.99,"body":"It would be a wonderful"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2730.216,"endTime":2733.99,"body":"thing to be able to pin down"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2733.99,"endTime":2738.22,"body":"some of the numbers in the Drake"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2733.99,"endTime":2738.22,"body":"equation even a little bit,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2738.22,"endTime":2742.03,"body":"because right now the"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2738.22,"endTime":2742.03,"body":"factors in the Drake equation"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2742.03,"endTime":2744.91,"body":"are as wide open as the universe itself."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2744.91,"endTime":2747.22,"body":"We've got very little determination"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2747.22,"endTime":2748.573,"body":"of what those numbers are."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2749.77,"endTime":2752.803,"body":"So how do you go about"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2749.77,"endTime":2752.803,"body":"searching for life on a planet?"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2753.67,"endTime":2756.61,"body":"There are in principle,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2753.67,"endTime":2756.61,"body":"two different ways."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2756.61,"endTime":2759.52,"body":"You can search for something"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2756.61,"endTime":2759.52,"body":"known as biosignatures"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2759.52,"endTime":2764.23,"body":"or biomarkers, which"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2759.52,"endTime":2764.23,"body":"are markers of organisms"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2764.23,"endTime":2768.793,"body":"that are aspiring and functioning."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2770.11,"endTime":2773.38,"body":"Now such an experiment"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2770.11,"endTime":2773.38,"body":"has already taken place"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2773.38,"endTime":2777.49,"body":"and has already found life here on Earth."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2777.49,"endTime":2778.66,"body":"And that's a good thing."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2778.66,"endTime":2781.21,"body":"That's a test of the technique."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2781.21,"endTime":2785.89,"body":"I'm talking about an experiment"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2781.21,"endTime":2785.89,"body":"proposed by Carl Sagan."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2785.89,"endTime":2789.79,"body":"He wrote a letter to Nature"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2789.79,"endTime":2792.7,"body":"around the time of Elizabeth"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2789.79,"endTime":2792.7,"body":"II's Golden Jubilee"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2792.7,"endTime":2797.7,"body":"around 30 years ago in relation"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2792.7,"endTime":2797.7,"body":"to the Galileo spacecraft,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2797.95,"endTime":2801.82,"body":"as it flew past Earth on route to Jupiter,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2801.82,"endTime":2805.93,"body":"which it flew into"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2801.82,"endTime":2805.93,"body":"headfirst some years later."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2805.93,"endTime":2809.113,"body":"The Galileo spacecraft prompted Carl Sagan"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2809.113,"endTime":2811.48,"body":"to propose this novel experiment,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2811.48,"endTime":2815.89,"body":"which wasn't the primary goal"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2811.48,"endTime":2815.89,"body":"of the Galileo space mission."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2815.89,"endTime":2817.93,"body":"But his proposal was."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2817.93,"endTime":2822.16,"body":"Let's look, let's use the"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2817.93,"endTime":2822.16,"body":"Galileo spacecraft to look"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2822.16,"endTime":2824.89,"body":"from space back at Earth,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2824.89,"endTime":2827.263,"body":"to see whether we can see signs of life."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2828.22,"endTime":2830.05,"body":"Happily, you'll be pleased to hear"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2830.05,"endTime":2833.86,"body":"that it did indeed find"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2830.05,"endTime":2833.86,"body":"those signs of life."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2833.86,"endTime":2838.86,"body":"The spacecraft found high"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2833.86,"endTime":2838.86,"body":"levels of methane, that's CH4."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2839.05,"endTime":2840.46,"body":"So maybe that gives you evidence"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2840.46,"endTime":2845.46,"body":"for the existence of"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2840.46,"endTime":2845.46,"body":"cows and oxygen and CO2."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2846.31,"endTime":2850.57,"body":"And the ratios of these"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2846.31,"endTime":2850.57,"body":"give you confidence"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2850.57,"endTime":2854.2,"body":"in the fact that"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2850.57,"endTime":2854.2,"body":"photosynthesis is taking place,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2854.2,"endTime":2858.22,"body":"the process that living plants undergo."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2858.22,"endTime":2862.42,"body":"So all of these particular"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2858.22,"endTime":2862.42,"body":"signatures of molecules"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2862.42,"endTime":2864.65,"body":"that are present in Earth's atmosphere"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2866.484,"endTime":2870.31,"body":"are what are known as, are"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2866.484,"endTime":2870.31,"body":"examples of biosignatures."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2873.67,"endTime":2878.67,"body":"The prospect of even more"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2873.67,"endTime":2878.67,"body":"biosignatures, biomarkers"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2879.28,"endTime":2883.45,"body":"that are even more"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2879.28,"endTime":2883.45,"body":"complicated organic molecules,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2883.45,"endTime":2885.74,"body":"would of course be much more stringent"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2886.78,"endTime":2889.12,"body":"indicators of life on Earth."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2889.12,"endTime":2890.62,"body":"I conjecture that if ever you found"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2890.62,"endTime":2892.66,"body":"the caffeine molecule in space,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2892.66,"endTime":2896.38,"body":"which some of us might say is"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2892.66,"endTime":2896.38,"body":"necessary for sustaining life,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2896.38,"endTime":2897.769,"body":"at least when we're tired"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2897.769,"endTime":2902.769,"body":"would be quite a significant"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2897.769,"endTime":2902.769,"body":"discovery of a biomarker."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2903.946,"endTime":2906.73,"body":"This experiment was repeated"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2906.73,"endTime":2909.22,"body":"with the OSIRIS-REx spacecraft,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2909.22,"endTime":2913.491,"body":"which flew past Earth in 2017."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2913.491,"endTime":2917.35,"body":"It found that there was"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2913.491,"endTime":2917.35,"body":"still life on Earth."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2917.35,"endTime":2918.94,"body":"This is a good thing."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2918.94,"endTime":2921.393,"body":"I should say, by the way the OSIRIS-Rex,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2921.393,"endTime":2925.48,"body":"the successor to Galileo in this context,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2925.48,"endTime":2928.96,"body":"stood the name OSIRIS-REx stands for"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2928.96,"endTime":2932.253,"body":"Origins, Spectral Interpretation,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2928.96,"endTime":2932.253,"body":"Resource Identification,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2932.253,"endTime":2936.01,"body":"and Security-Regolith Explorer mission."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2936.01,"endTime":2939.142,"body":"I conjecture that that's"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2936.01,"endTime":2939.142,"body":"a classic case of the name"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2939.142,"endTime":2942.103,"body":"of a mission designed by committee."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2942.94,"endTime":2945.85,"body":"Incidentally, regolith"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2942.94,"endTime":2945.85,"body":"is a pretentious word"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2945.85,"endTime":2948.141,"body":"for dust and gravel."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2948.141,"endTime":2953.141,"body":"But anyway, back to what the"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2948.141,"endTime":2953.141,"body":"OSIRIS-REx spacecraft found."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2954.31,"endTime":2956.608,"body":"It found those same biomarkers,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2956.608,"endTime":2961.57,"body":"but it also found that atmospheric"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2956.608,"endTime":2961.57,"body":"levels of carbon dioxide"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2961.57,"endTime":2965.537,"body":"and methane had increased significantly."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2965.537,"endTime":2968.11,"body":"This is not good."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2968.11,"endTime":2973.11,"body":"This is not good for the survival"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2968.11,"endTime":2973.11,"body":"of people on planet Earth."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2973.84,"endTime":2978.01,"body":"But I'm slightly stepping"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2973.84,"endTime":2978.01,"body":"out of my field here,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2978.01,"endTime":2980.2,"body":"but I'm very happy to"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2978.01,"endTime":2980.2,"body":"tell you that Gresham"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2980.2,"endTime":2981.85,"body":"has recently announced"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2981.85,"endTime":2984.58,"body":"the appointment of its"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2981.85,"endTime":2984.58,"body":"new Gresham professor"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2984.58,"endTime":2986.02,"body":"of the environment,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2986.02,"endTime":2989.56,"body":"which happens to be my"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2986.02,"endTime":2989.56,"body":"colleague in Oxford physics,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2989.56,"endTime":2992.68,"body":"the atmospheric physicist Myles Allen."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2992.68,"endTime":2995.05,"body":"And he tells me that his second lecture"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2995.05,"endTime":2997.518,"body":"in his series, Starting in the Autumn,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":2997.518,"endTime":3000.6,"body":"is precisely going to be talking about"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3000.6,"endTime":3004.29,"body":"studying the greenhouse"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3000.6,"endTime":3004.29,"body":"effect on planet Earth"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3004.29,"endTime":3005.88,"body":"from space."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3005.88,"endTime":3009.15,"body":"So do look out for his lecture entitled"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3009.15,"endTime":3012.453,"body":"the Atmospheric Physics Behind Net Zero."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3014.01,"endTime":3017.43,"body":"But if biomarkers are one"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3014.01,"endTime":3017.43,"body":"way of looking for life,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3017.43,"endTime":3019.26,"body":"but potentially they have the drawback"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3019.26,"endTime":3023.76,"body":"that they don't necessarily"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3019.26,"endTime":3023.76,"body":"tell you about intelligent life,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3023.76,"endTime":3026.79,"body":"depending on whether you think"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3023.76,"endTime":3026.79,"body":"cows are important or not,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3026.79,"endTime":3029.67,"body":"perhaps a smarter move might be to search"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3029.67,"endTime":3034.56,"body":"for not the biosignatures,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3029.67,"endTime":3034.56,"body":"but tech signatures."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3034.56,"endTime":3037.92,"body":"So tech signatures are"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3034.56,"endTime":3037.92,"body":"all about signatures"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3037.92,"endTime":3041.553,"body":"of a technologically-advanced"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3037.92,"endTime":3041.553,"body":"civilization."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3044.34,"endTime":3047.46,"body":"A technologically-advanced"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3044.34,"endTime":3047.46,"body":"civilization might be"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3047.46,"endTime":3050.73,"body":"a civilization that's invented radar"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3050.73,"endTime":3055.73,"body":"or digital signal projection"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3050.73,"endTime":3055.73,"body":"or television or radio."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3056.19,"endTime":3060.96,"body":"These are the kinds of things"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3056.19,"endTime":3060.96,"body":"that we hope to eavesdrop on"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3060.96,"endTime":3065.133,"body":"and detect when we are"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3060.96,"endTime":3065.133,"body":"talking about tech signatures."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3066.27,"endTime":3070.68,"body":"Now there are about 15,000 star systems"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3070.68,"endTime":3075.51,"body":"within about 70 light years of Earth."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3075.51,"endTime":3078.506,"body":"So if you think about those"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3075.51,"endTime":3078.506,"body":"15,000 stars for a moment,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3078.506,"endTime":3080.58,"body":"and think about planetary systems,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3080.58,"endTime":3082.5,"body":"which may or may not,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3082.5,"endTime":3086.167,"body":"but probably are in"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3082.5,"endTime":3086.167,"body":"orbit around the majority"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3086.167,"endTime":3089.55,"body":"of those 15,000 stars."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3089.55,"endTime":3094.55,"body":"If they had really, really"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3089.55,"endTime":3094.55,"body":"good radio telescopes"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3095.19,"endTime":3098.76,"body":"or even really brilliant"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3095.19,"endTime":3098.76,"body":"optical telescopes,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3098.76,"endTime":3100.92,"body":"then what they would see,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3100.92,"endTime":3105.92,"body":"at least corresponding"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3100.92,"endTime":3105.92,"body":"to 69 years ago tomorrow"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3106.41,"endTime":3108.81,"body":"would be the first ever broadcast"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3108.81,"endTime":3111.093,"body":"of the coronation of a monarch."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3112.348,"endTime":3116.94,"body":"But that would be for only for those stars"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3116.94,"endTime":3121.94,"body":"closer than 70 or 69 light"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3116.94,"endTime":3121.94,"body":"years away from Earth."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3124.71,"endTime":3126.57,"body":"But now think about it"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3124.71,"endTime":3126.57,"body":"the other way around"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3126.57,"endTime":3130.44,"body":"and think about from the vantage"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3126.57,"endTime":3130.44,"body":"point of radio telescopes"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3130.44,"endTime":3132.03,"body":"on planet Earth,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3132.03,"endTime":3136.14,"body":"what tech signatures might we see?"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3136.14,"endTime":3137.788,"body":"This is the Lovell Telescope,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3137.788,"endTime":3141.09,"body":"which is part of Jodrell Bank in Cheshire,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3141.09,"endTime":3145.02,"body":"and a visit to its discovery"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3141.09,"endTime":3145.02,"body":"center is highly recommended,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3145.02,"endTime":3147.153,"body":"now lockdown is over."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3148.02,"endTime":3153.02,"body":"I talked quite a bit about the"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3148.02,"endTime":3153.02,"body":"benefits of doing astronomy"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3153.24,"endTime":3156.51,"body":"in the radio part of the"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3153.24,"endTime":3156.51,"body":"electromagnetic spectrum"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3156.51,"endTime":3161.51,"body":"in my previous lecture in the"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3156.51,"endTime":3161.51,"body":"cosmic concept series entitled"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3162.24,"endTime":3164.19,"body":"Watching the Radio."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3164.19,"endTime":3166.41,"body":"And one of those key advantages"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3166.41,"endTime":3171.41,"body":"is that radio waves can"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3166.41,"endTime":3171.41,"body":"penetrate through clouds,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3171.78,"endTime":3174.933,"body":"that we're covered with a"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3171.78,"endTime":3174.933,"body":"lot of the time in England,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3176.07,"endTime":3180.93,"body":"but also dust that's intervening"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3176.07,"endTime":3180.93,"body":"along our line of sight"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3180.93,"endTime":3182.163,"body":"to the galaxy."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3183.138,"endTime":3187.26,"body":"Highly recommended in"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3183.138,"endTime":3187.26,"body":"this particular context"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3187.26,"endTime":3189.463,"body":"is the movie \"Contact.\""},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3189.463,"endTime":3191.13,"body":"I think this is a great movie,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3191.13,"endTime":3193.62,"body":"but it does get certain things wrong"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3193.62,"endTime":3197.07,"body":"about the way in which"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3193.62,"endTime":3197.07,"body":"we do radio astronomy."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3197.07,"endTime":3199.302,"body":"We don't listen."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3199.302,"endTime":3204.302,"body":"We do use telescopes to"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3199.302,"endTime":3204.302,"body":"search all kinds of phenomena,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3204.93,"endTime":3207.423,"body":"energetic phenomena in the universe,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3211.046,"endTime":3214.95,"body":"they have been used especially"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3211.046,"endTime":3214.95,"body":"recently quite a bit"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3214.95,"endTime":3216.96,"body":"in the context of searching"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3216.96,"endTime":3220.209,"body":"for extra-terrestrial intelligence."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3220.209,"endTime":3222.87,"body":"And now a substantial fraction"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3222.87,"endTime":3225.983,"body":"of quite a few of the"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3222.87,"endTime":3225.983,"body":"world's best radio telescopes"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3225.983,"endTime":3230.983,"body":"has been dedicated purely for"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3225.983,"endTime":3230.983,"body":"searches of tech signatures,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3234.69,"endTime":3238.296,"body":"which would correspond"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3234.69,"endTime":3238.296,"body":"to intelligent life,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3238.296,"endTime":3242.313,"body":"industrially-advanced"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3238.296,"endTime":3242.313,"body":"life on another planet."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3243.54,"endTime":3247.17,"body":"Of course, the danger"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3243.54,"endTime":3247.17,"body":"of looking for signals,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3247.17,"endTime":3250.68,"body":"arising from instruments"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3247.17,"endTime":3250.68,"body":"comparable with our own"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3250.68,"endTime":3253.65,"body":"is that you might just"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3250.68,"endTime":3253.65,"body":"be detecting yourself."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3253.65,"endTime":3258.18,"body":"And so it has to be said a"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3253.65,"endTime":3258.18,"body":"huge amount of calibration,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3258.18,"endTime":3261.944,"body":"verification, digital signal processing"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3261.944,"endTime":3265.77,"body":"is really important for this."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3265.77,"endTime":3268.83,"body":"I would say it's an even"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3265.77,"endTime":3268.83,"body":"bigger software challenge"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3268.83,"endTime":3271.38,"body":"than it is a challenge in any other way,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3271.38,"endTime":3276.38,"body":"to be able to definitively"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3271.38,"endTime":3276.38,"body":"detect and confirm"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3276.72,"endTime":3281.72,"body":"a tech signature of"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3276.72,"endTime":3281.72,"body":"extra-terrestrial intelligence."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3282.21,"endTime":3284.31,"body":"That's the Very Large Array Telescope,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3284.31,"endTime":3287.34,"body":"which actually featured"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3284.31,"endTime":3287.34,"body":"in the movie \"Contact\""},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3287.34,"endTime":3289.47,"body":"alongside Jodie Foster."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3289.47,"endTime":3293.34,"body":"And this is the Parkes"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3289.47,"endTime":3293.34,"body":"Telescope in Australia,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3293.34,"endTime":3295.317,"body":"which featured in the movie, \"The Dish,\""},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3295.317,"endTime":3296.52,"body":"you can see that telescopes"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3296.52,"endTime":3298.233,"body":"do feature quite a lot in movies."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3299.46,"endTime":3301.74,"body":"And this played a huge role"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3301.74,"endTime":3304.14,"body":"in the Apollo landing, of course,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3304.14,"endTime":3306.66,"body":"but it's playing a huge role today"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3306.66,"endTime":3309.42,"body":"in dedicating a fraction of its time"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3309.42,"endTime":3313.11,"body":"to the search for"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3309.42,"endTime":3313.11,"body":"extra-terrestrial intelligence."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3313.11,"endTime":3316.35,"body":"This is its dish and"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3313.11,"endTime":3316.35,"body":"the dish can slew around"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3316.35,"endTime":3319.5,"body":"to look in lots of different"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3316.35,"endTime":3319.5,"body":"directions all around the sky."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3319.5,"endTime":3323.31,"body":"This is its top end"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3319.5,"endTime":3323.31,"body":"containing the receivers."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3323.31,"endTime":3328.11,"body":"And these are steps"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3323.31,"endTime":3328.11,"body":"that you can walk along."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3328.11,"endTime":3330.87,"body":"So that dish can slew around."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3330.87,"endTime":3334.47,"body":"So it's pointing reasonably"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3330.87,"endTime":3334.47,"body":"closely towards the horizon,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3334.47,"endTime":3336.81,"body":"and then you can step onto these steps"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3336.81,"endTime":3339.505,"body":"and walk all the way along"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3336.81,"endTime":3339.505,"body":"if you don't mind heights"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3339.505,"endTime":3343.26,"body":"all the way into the dish itself."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3343.26,"endTime":3347.31,"body":"And I was privileged to"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3343.26,"endTime":3347.31,"body":"visit there some years back."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3347.31,"endTime":3349.508,"body":"I'm not an expert on cricket,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3349.508,"endTime":3351.0,"body":"as you might imagine,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3351.0,"endTime":3354.48,"body":"but it is just about possible"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3351.0,"endTime":3354.48,"body":"to play cricket up there,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3354.48,"endTime":3356.43,"body":"but that is not the best use"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3356.43,"endTime":3359.28,"body":"of this amazing radio telescope."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3359.28,"endTime":3362.553,"body":"It is much better seated"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3359.28,"endTime":3362.553,"body":"for astronomical purposes."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3363.78,"endTime":3365.659,"body":"So what are some of the major projects"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3365.659,"endTime":3369.54,"body":"for searching for extra-terrestrial"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3365.659,"endTime":3369.54,"body":"intelligence these days?"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3369.54,"endTime":3373.44,"body":"Well, of course the pioneering venture"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3373.44,"endTime":3374.79,"body":"is known as SETI,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3374.79,"endTime":3378.54,"body":"the Search for"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3374.79,"endTime":3378.54,"body":"Extraterrestrial Intelligence,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3378.54,"endTime":3380.64,"body":"which was pioneered and masterminded"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3380.64,"endTime":3384.18,"body":"by Jill Tarter pictured here,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3384.18,"endTime":3387.581,"body":"who really is the person"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3384.18,"endTime":3387.581,"body":"that Jodie Foster's character"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3387.581,"endTime":3391.022,"body":"is modeled on in the movie \"Contact.\""},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3391.022,"endTime":3394.56,"body":"And this makes use of the"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3391.022,"endTime":3394.56,"body":"Allen Telescope Array,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3394.56,"endTime":3397.533,"body":"a radio telescope in Northern California."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3398.67,"endTime":3400.65,"body":"One of the other new initiatives"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3400.65,"endTime":3402.165,"body":"announced just a few years ago"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3402.165,"endTime":3405.09,"body":"is known as Breakthrough Listen,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3405.09,"endTime":3409.698,"body":"which is funded by Yuri and Julia Milner."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3409.698,"endTime":3414.54,"body":"And this is the largest ever"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3409.698,"endTime":3414.54,"body":"scientific research program"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3414.54,"endTime":3419.37,"body":"aimed at finding evidence of"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3414.54,"endTime":3419.37,"body":"civilizations beyond Earth."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3419.37,"endTime":3424.37,"body":"It includes a survey of the"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3419.37,"endTime":3424.37,"body":"million closest stars to Earth,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3424.872,"endTime":3427.443,"body":"and it scans the center of our galaxy"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3427.443,"endTime":3430.353,"body":"and the entire galactic plane."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3431.277,"endTime":3435.18,"body":"It listens or will listen for messages"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3435.18,"endTime":3438.03,"body":"from the 100 closest galaxies to us."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3438.03,"endTime":3440.894,"body":"It's a very ambitious project, of course,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3440.894,"endTime":3443.67,"body":"but they have high sensitivity."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3443.67,"endTime":3448.67,"body":"They are sensitive enough to"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3443.67,"endTime":3448.67,"body":"hear a common aircraft radar"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3448.95,"endTime":3453.95,"body":"transmitting to us from anyone"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3448.95,"endTime":3453.95,"body":"of the 1,000 nearest stars."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3454.08,"endTime":3455.765,"body":"So if they're out there,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3455.765,"endTime":3459.21,"body":"this program will detect them."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3459.21,"endTime":3461.493,"body":"They could detect a hundred watt laser"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3461.493,"endTime":3465.576,"body":"from 25 trillion miles away."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3465.576,"endTime":3468.824,"body":"But of course, it's not just a question"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3468.824,"endTime":3469.92,"body":"of having really good receivers"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3469.92,"endTime":3473.85,"body":"bolted to really big telescopes"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3469.92,"endTime":3473.85,"body":"with large collecting areas,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3473.85,"endTime":3477.6,"body":"innovative software and"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3473.85,"endTime":3477.6,"body":"data analysis techniques"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3477.6,"endTime":3479.883,"body":"are crucial to the success of this."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3480.863,"endTime":3484.17,"body":"So Breakthrough Listen is"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3480.863,"endTime":3484.17,"body":"all about tech signatures."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3484.17,"endTime":3487.32,"body":"Breakthrough Watch is"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3484.17,"endTime":3487.32,"body":"all about biosignatures."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3487.32,"endTime":3491.82,"body":"And they're looking to"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3487.32,"endTime":3491.82,"body":"identify and characterize"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3491.82,"endTime":3495.96,"body":"Earth-size, rocky planets"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3491.82,"endTime":3495.96,"body":"around Alpha Centauri,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3495.96,"endTime":3500.61,"body":"and other stars within just"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3495.96,"endTime":3500.61,"body":"20 light years of Earth."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3500.61,"endTime":3502.26,"body":"And just three years ago,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3502.26,"endTime":3504.06,"body":"this program had first light"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3504.06,"endTime":3509.04,"body":"on the Very Large Telescope in Chile"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3509.04,"endTime":3510.84,"body":"using the instrument VISIR,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3510.84,"endTime":3514.5,"body":"which is a collaboration between"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3510.84,"endTime":3514.5,"body":"the Breakthrough Initiative"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3514.5,"endTime":3517.083,"body":"and the European Southern Observatory."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3517.92,"endTime":3520.02,"body":"So it's potentially"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3517.92,"endTime":3520.02,"body":"really exciting, isn't it?"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3520.02,"endTime":3523.653,"body":"If they're out there, we"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3520.02,"endTime":3523.653,"body":"might discover aliens."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3524.55,"endTime":3529.14,"body":"But just a minute, remember"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3524.55,"endTime":3529.14,"body":"how I started my talk?"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3529.14,"endTime":3532.136,"body":"What is humanity's record"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3532.136,"endTime":3536.01,"body":"when it comes to meeting different people,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3536.01,"endTime":3538.86,"body":"when it comes to meeting strangers?"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3538.86,"endTime":3541.74,"body":"Humanity's record shows repeatedly"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3541.74,"endTime":3543.6,"body":"that our reaction to other cultures"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3543.6,"endTime":3546.038,"body":"is different is inferior,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3546.038,"endTime":3547.803,"body":"different is threatening."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3549.18,"endTime":3552.69,"body":"Try telling a cowboy to love an Indian."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3552.69,"endTime":3555.99,"body":"There are all sorts of"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3552.69,"endTime":3555.99,"body":"racial and ethnic barriers"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3555.99,"endTime":3558.573,"body":"that are bound even today."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3560.01,"endTime":3565.01,"body":"The good Samaritan today is"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3560.01,"endTime":3565.01,"body":"interpreted widely as meaning"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3565.02,"endTime":3567.21,"body":"help the stranger."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3567.21,"endTime":3570.448,"body":"It might be a really good"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3567.21,"endTime":3570.448,"body":"idea to get practice in"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3570.448,"endTime":3573.783,"body":"before we meet the aliens."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3574.77,"endTime":3578.373,"body":"So what is our place in space?"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3579.33,"endTime":3581.4,"body":"Are we alone?"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3581.4,"endTime":3586.037,"body":"Are we the only"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3581.4,"endTime":3586.037,"body":"intellectually alive species"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3587.01,"endTime":3588.423,"body":"in the universe?"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3589.26,"endTime":3592.045,"body":"Whatever is the answer to this question,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3592.045,"endTime":3595.17,"body":"whether it's yes, we are alone,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3595.17,"endTime":3599.613,"body":"or no, the universe is"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3595.17,"endTime":3599.613,"body":"teaming with aliens."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3600.66,"endTime":3604.26,"body":"I suggest to you that either"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3600.66,"endTime":3604.26,"body":"answer to this question"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3604.26,"endTime":3607.02,"body":"will be revolutionary."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3607.02,"endTime":3609.57,"body":"I do hope that you have enjoyed thinking"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3609.57,"endTime":3612.84,"body":"about the possibility of"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3609.57,"endTime":3612.84,"body":"discovering other life"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3612.84,"endTime":3614.46,"body":"in the universe this evening."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3614.46,"endTime":3615.788,"body":"Thank you."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3615.788,"endTime":3618.15,"body":"(audience applauding)"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3618.15,"endTime":3620.22,"body":"- So there's been a lot of interest online"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3620.22,"endTime":3623.19,"body":"in non-carbon based life"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3623.19,"endTime":3625.32,"body":"or life that's fundamentally different"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3625.32,"endTime":3627.21,"body":"from what we know on Earth."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3627.21,"endTime":3629.723,"body":"If life can be structured"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3627.21,"endTime":3629.723,"body":"in radically different ways,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3629.723,"endTime":3631.89,"body":"would life be possible on those planets"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3631.89,"endTime":3633.491,"body":"that have high radiation,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3633.491,"endTime":3636.15,"body":"extreme thermal variability?"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3636.15,"endTime":3639.78,"body":"What would the biomarkers be"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3636.15,"endTime":3639.78,"body":"for alternate types of life?"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3639.78,"endTime":3642.06,"body":"Are we looking in those ways?"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3642.06,"endTime":3645.42,"body":"- Thank you. I think this is"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3642.06,"endTime":3645.42,"body":"a really fascinating area."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3645.42,"endTime":3648.283,"body":"The idea of, for example,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3645.42,"endTime":3648.283,"body":"silicon-based life"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3648.283,"endTime":3651.96,"body":"as being an example of"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3648.283,"endTime":3651.96,"body":"non-carbon based life."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3651.96,"endTime":3655.587,"body":"There's ever so much carbon"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3651.96,"endTime":3655.587,"body":"in all of us, present."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3655.587,"endTime":3660.255,"body":"But could life exist that was"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3655.587,"endTime":3660.255,"body":"based somewhat analogously"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3660.255,"endTime":3662.49,"body":"on silicon instead?"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3662.49,"endTime":3664.802,"body":"The answer to that is a definite maybe."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3664.802,"endTime":3666.42,"body":"(audience laughing)"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3666.42,"endTime":3669.87,"body":"I was particularly struck"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3666.42,"endTime":3669.87,"body":"by the point about,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3669.87,"endTime":3674.58,"body":"could that kind of life be"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3669.87,"endTime":3674.58,"body":"resilient to radiation poisoning?"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3674.58,"endTime":3679.58,"body":"Would it necessarily"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3674.58,"endTime":3679.58,"body":"require a magnetosphere"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3679.74,"endTime":3683.64,"body":"to protect itself from the radiate,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3683.64,"endTime":3685.02,"body":"possibility of radiation poisoning"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3685.02,"endTime":3687.33,"body":"from the star it's orbiting around?"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3687.33,"endTime":3689.133,"body":"That's a fascinating question."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3690.63,"endTime":3691.95,"body":"I'm not a chemist."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3691.95,"endTime":3693.81,"body":"And the answer to that question"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3693.81,"endTime":3697.11,"body":"would really depend on the possibility"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3697.11,"endTime":3701.28,"body":"of whether radioactive"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3697.11,"endTime":3701.28,"body":"particles could trigger"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3701.28,"endTime":3705.41,"body":"mutations in those"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3701.28,"endTime":3705.41,"body":"silicon-based life-forms."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3705.41,"endTime":3707.7,"body":"And I don't know enough about chemistry"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3707.7,"endTime":3709.65,"body":"to know the answer to that question,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3709.65,"endTime":3712.2,"body":"but I think it's a"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3709.65,"endTime":3712.2,"body":"fascinating possibility."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3712.2,"endTime":3714.6,"body":"- Do you need a planet to have life?"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3714.6,"endTime":3719.423,"body":"Can you not have a life-form"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3714.6,"endTime":3719.423,"body":"in the universe space?"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3720.93,"endTime":3721.763,"body":"- Um?"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3722.693,"endTime":3726.36,"body":"(audience laughing)"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3726.36,"endTime":3728.58,"body":"Maybe."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3726.36,"endTime":3728.58,"body":"(audience laughing)"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3728.58,"endTime":3731.896,"body":"So in the context of life, as we know it,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3731.896,"endTime":3734.43,"body":"I said towards the start of my lecture,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3734.43,"endTime":3736.95,"body":"and again, somewhat in the middle,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3736.95,"endTime":3741.09,"body":"you can't have life as we know it"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3741.09,"endTime":3742.95,"body":"being sustained on a Gaius giant."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3742.95,"endTime":3745.05,"body":"If you step into,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3745.05,"endTime":3748.74,"body":"if you penetrate the surface of Jupiter,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3748.74,"endTime":3750.988,"body":"which is what the Galileo spacecraft did"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3750.988,"endTime":3753.393,"body":"after it flew past us,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3754.466,"endTime":3759.466,"body":"there's no firm foundation"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3754.466,"endTime":3759.466,"body":"on which life could be built."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3760.47,"endTime":3761.938,"body":"So I think the answer is,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3761.938,"endTime":3763.983,"body":"not for life as we know it."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3766.72,"endTime":3768.39,"body":"- Is it the same answer for,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3768.39,"endTime":3770.884,"body":"there are couple people"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3768.39,"endTime":3770.884,"body":"online who are asking about"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3770.884,"endTime":3773.4,"body":"life beginning in the oceans,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3773.4,"endTime":3776.4,"body":"and could there be life on a planet"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3776.4,"endTime":3778.41,"body":"that didn't have this terrestrial,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3778.41,"endTime":3781.14,"body":"the rockiness that you were talking about?"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3781.14,"endTime":3783.63,"body":"- I would've thought"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3781.14,"endTime":3783.63,"body":"absolutely in principle,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3783.63,"endTime":3784.65,"body":"in the following sense,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3784.65,"endTime":3786.06,"body":"some people think,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3786.06,"endTime":3788.777,"body":"I don't think it's a favorite model now,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3788.777,"endTime":3792.447,"body":"but some smart people on the"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3788.777,"endTime":3792.447,"body":"basis of very clear evidence"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3792.447,"endTime":3795.39,"body":"have positive that life first developed,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3795.39,"endTime":3798.475,"body":"simple life-forms first developed"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3798.475,"endTime":3803.475,"body":"in very, very high pressure"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3798.475,"endTime":3803.475,"body":"regions deep down in the oceans,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3804.24,"endTime":3809.07,"body":"where there was a sufficient"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3804.24,"endTime":3809.07,"body":"variety of chemical elements"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3809.07,"endTime":3811.003,"body":"from the periodic table."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3811.003,"endTime":3815.07,"body":"And so if you ask the"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3811.003,"endTime":3815.07,"body":"question, could it happen?"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3815.07,"endTime":3818.79,"body":"The answer is, well, it"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3815.07,"endTime":3818.79,"body":"certainly did happen at one stage"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3818.79,"endTime":3821.76,"body":"in the history of our planet."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3821.76,"endTime":3824.82,"body":"What's being discussed as"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3821.76,"endTime":3824.82,"body":"far as that is concerned"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3824.82,"endTime":3827.539,"body":"on our planet is really the"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3824.82,"endTime":3827.539,"body":"order in which it all happened"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3827.539,"endTime":3829.89,"body":"at those early geological times,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3829.89,"endTime":3831.51,"body":"rather than if it happened."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3831.51,"endTime":3832.943,"body":"So, yes, definitely."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3832.943,"endTime":3836.203,"body":"But the question of if you"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3832.943,"endTime":3836.203,"body":"have that sort of life,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3836.203,"endTime":3839.07,"body":"so non-land based life,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3839.07,"endTime":3842.643,"body":"could it ultimately lead"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3839.07,"endTime":3842.643,"body":"to sentient life-forms."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3843.99,"endTime":3845.73,"body":"And that's why I really recommend reading"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3845.73,"endTime":3847.53,"body":"Simon Conway Morris's book,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3847.53,"endTime":3850.38,"body":"who knows a whole lot more than I do"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3850.38,"endTime":3852.54,"body":"about genetics and"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3850.38,"endTime":3852.54,"body":"biology and paleontology,"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3852.54,"endTime":3855.06,"body":"which is really what one needs to know"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3855.06,"endTime":3857.61,"body":"I think to answer that"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3855.06,"endTime":3857.61,"body":"question a bit more fully."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3857.61,"endTime":3858.443,"body":"- Thank you."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3858.443,"endTime":3860.73,"body":"Well, I'm afraid we are going"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3858.443,"endTime":3860.73,"body":"to have to draw it to a close."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3860.73,"endTime":3862.56,"body":"I thank you so much, Professor Blundell"},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3862.56,"endTime":3865.048,"body":"for a really interesting lecture."},{"speaker":"His book \"Life's Solutions","startTime":3865.048,"endTime":3867.558,"body":"(audience applauding)"}]}