{"version":"1.0.0","segments":[{"startTime":0.27,"endTime":4.863,"body":"- I'm going to start with"},{"startTime":0.27,"endTime":4.863,"body":"the Great Cat Massacre."},{"startTime":5.79,"endTime":7.77,"body":"No one knows about this except me?"},{"startTime":7.77,"endTime":10.2,"body":"There was a Great Cat Massacre"},{"startTime":10.2,"endTime":14.01,"body":"July 1916 in New York."},{"startTime":14.01,"endTime":16.41,"body":"By the end of the month,"},{"startTime":16.41,"endTime":20.69,"body":"72,000 cats had been killed,"},{"startTime":20.69,"endTime":25.383,"body":"72,000, and around 8,000 dogs."},{"startTime":26.76,"endTime":30.27,"body":"Headline, New York Times"},{"startTime":26.76,"endTime":30.27,"body":"screamed out the news"},{"startTime":30.27,"endTime":35.153,"body":"that cats had been \"killed"},{"startTime":30.27,"endTime":35.153,"body":"in paralysis fear,\""},{"startTime":36.337,"endTime":38.58,"body":"\"killed in paralysis fear.\""},{"startTime":38.58,"endTime":40.74,"body":"The Times reported that this fear"},{"startTime":40.74,"endTime":45.69,"body":"was due to an epidemic"},{"startTime":40.74,"endTime":45.69,"body":"of infantile paralysis,"},{"startTime":45.69,"endTime":49.41,"body":"or poliomyelitis,"},{"startTime":49.41,"endTime":53.85,"body":"a viral inflammation, itis,"},{"startTime":53.85,"endTime":55.63,"body":"of gray, polios,"},{"startTime":56.55,"endTime":61.32,"body":"anterior matter of the"},{"startTime":56.55,"endTime":61.32,"body":"spinal cord, myelos,"},{"startTime":61.32,"endTime":65.55,"body":"which we now know comes in three serotypes"},{"startTime":65.55,"endTime":68.16,"body":"or three viral strains."},{"startTime":68.16,"endTime":71.17,"body":"This Great Cat Massacre"},{"startTime":72.18,"endTime":74.58,"body":"was not a workers' protest,"},{"startTime":74.58,"endTime":78.807,"body":"as in Robert Downton's famous exposition"},{"startTime":79.98,"endTime":83.25,"body":"of the massacre of the feline population"},{"startTime":83.25,"endTime":86.01,"body":"in Paris in 1730."},{"startTime":86.01,"endTime":87.54,"body":"Those of you who are historians here"},{"startTime":87.54,"endTime":90.6,"body":"will know about that"},{"startTime":87.54,"endTime":90.6,"body":"very, very famous book,"},{"startTime":90.6,"endTime":93.997,"body":"one of the really classics"},{"startTime":90.6,"endTime":93.997,"body":"and cultural history,"},{"startTime":93.997,"endTime":97.86,"body":"\"The Great Cat Massacre,\" 1730s."},{"startTime":97.86,"endTime":100.71,"body":"Rather, it was a massacre sparked"},{"startTime":100.71,"endTime":104.55,"body":"by epidemic levels of"},{"startTime":100.71,"endTime":104.55,"body":"polio in New York City,"},{"startTime":104.55,"endTime":107.16,"body":"as well as throughout the US."},{"startTime":107.16,"endTime":111.99,"body":"The Crippler, as polio was"},{"startTime":107.16,"endTime":111.99,"body":"often crudely referred to,"},{"startTime":111.99,"endTime":113.041,"body":"has a long history."},{"startTime":113.041,"endTime":117.42,"body":"We can find it engraved"},{"startTime":113.041,"endTime":117.42,"body":"in Egyptian tablets."},{"startTime":117.42,"endTime":121.23,"body":"But it soared to epidemic"},{"startTime":117.42,"endTime":121.23,"body":"levels in the 20th century,"},{"startTime":121.23,"endTime":124.84,"body":"peaking in the US in 1952"},{"startTime":126.09,"endTime":129.45,"body":"with nearly 14 cases per 100,000 people."},{"startTime":129.45,"endTime":132.36,"body":"I mean, this is serious epidemic."},{"startTime":132.36,"endTime":136.11,"body":"The 1916 polio epidemic, however,"},{"startTime":136.11,"endTime":140.28,"body":"was believed to be the largest"},{"startTime":136.11,"endTime":140.28,"body":"in the developed world."},{"startTime":140.28,"endTime":144.54,"body":"More than 27,000 Americans were infected,"},{"startTime":144.54,"endTime":148.74,"body":"of whom one third lived in New York City."},{"startTime":148.74,"endTime":152.61,"body":"Terror of the disease was intensified"},{"startTime":152.61,"endTime":155.82,"body":"by the fact that 80% of those infected"},{"startTime":155.82,"endTime":157.74,"body":"were children under the age of five,"},{"startTime":157.74,"endTime":160.62,"body":"80% children under the age of five."},{"startTime":160.62,"endTime":164.4,"body":"One quarter died, okay?"},{"startTime":164.4,"endTime":169.4,"body":"Now ironically, the mass"},{"startTime":164.4,"endTime":169.4,"body":"killing of cats and dogs"},{"startTime":170.144,"endTime":171.48,"body":"was orchestrated"},{"startTime":171.48,"endTime":174.813,"body":"by the Society for the"},{"startTime":171.48,"endTime":174.813,"body":"Prevention of Cruelty to Animals."},{"startTime":175.68,"endTime":180.24,"body":"Thomas F. Freel,"},{"startTime":175.68,"endTime":180.24,"body":"superintendent of the SPCA,"},{"startTime":180.24,"endTime":184.5,"body":"complained that his"},{"startTime":180.24,"endTime":184.5,"body":"inspectors were being required"},{"startTime":184.5,"endTime":186.54,"body":"to work from seven in the morning"},{"startTime":186.54,"endTime":189.24,"body":"until one the following morning"},{"startTime":189.24,"endTime":194.24,"body":"in order to entrap and exterminate"},{"startTime":189.24,"endTime":194.24,"body":"scores of unwanted cats."},{"startTime":195.45,"endTime":200.45,"body":"Their lethal gas chambers were"},{"startTime":195.45,"endTime":200.45,"body":"working at maximum capacity."},{"startTime":201.3,"endTime":205.35,"body":"The city's panic was fueled by uncertainty"},{"startTime":205.35,"endTime":210.35,"body":"about what actually spread"},{"startTime":205.35,"endTime":210.35,"body":"this terrifying disease."},{"startTime":211.29,"endTime":215.46,"body":"Theories proliferated were blueberries,"},{"startTime":215.46,"endTime":220.46,"body":"unpasteurized milk, sugar, ice cream,"},{"startTime":220.62,"endTime":224.04,"body":"Italian immigrants to blame,"},{"startTime":224.04,"endTime":227.1,"body":"or as we now know"},{"startTime":227.1,"endTime":229.32,"body":"was the virus spread person to person"},{"startTime":229.32,"endTime":231.99,"body":"through droplets or"},{"startTime":229.32,"endTime":231.99,"body":"fecal-oral contamination"},{"startTime":231.99,"endTime":235.59,"body":"of hands, water, and food."},{"startTime":235.59,"endTime":238.92,"body":"Freel sought to reassure New Yorkers"},{"startTime":238.92,"endTime":241.443,"body":"that their cats were innocent."},{"startTime":242.61,"endTime":246.9,"body":"He told the New York Times that"},{"startTime":242.61,"endTime":246.9,"body":"despite the statement issued"},{"startTime":246.9,"endTime":249.69,"body":"by Health Commissioner Haven Emerson,"},{"startTime":249.69,"endTime":254.55,"body":"that cats do not carry"},{"startTime":249.69,"endTime":254.55,"body":"the germ of the disease."},{"startTime":254.55,"endTime":257.553,"body":"People were afraid, they were panicking."},{"startTime":259.17,"endTime":261.9,"body":"He wrote, \"Since the"},{"startTime":259.17,"endTime":261.9,"body":"beginning of the alarm"},{"startTime":261.9,"endTime":264.06,"body":"of infantile paralysis,"},{"startTime":264.06,"endTime":267.93,"body":"we have been receiving on"},{"startTime":264.06,"endTime":267.93,"body":"average 800 requests a day"},{"startTime":267.93,"endTime":272.46,"body":"for our men to cull for"},{"startTime":267.93,"endTime":272.46,"body":"unwanted domestic pets.\""},{"startTime":272.46,"endTime":274.32,"body":"Mostly cats."},{"startTime":274.32,"endTime":276.3,"body":"So-called animal guardians,"},{"startTime":276.3,"endTime":279.09,"body":"animal guardians is the old term"},{"startTime":279.09,"endTime":282.42,"body":"for what we today would call"},{"startTime":282.42,"endTime":284.493,"body":"animal rights activists,"},{"startTime":285.78,"endTime":289.11,"body":"so animal guardians were"},{"startTime":285.78,"endTime":289.11,"body":"surprised to observe"},{"startTime":289.11,"endTime":292.32,"body":"that on hearing the alarming statistics"},{"startTime":292.32,"endTime":295.47,"body":"on the spread of polio"},{"startTime":292.32,"endTime":295.47,"body":"throughout the city,"},{"startTime":295.47,"endTime":300.03,"body":"families turned their cats"},{"startTime":295.47,"endTime":300.03,"body":"out of doors immediately,"},{"startTime":300.03,"endTime":302.67,"body":"and some who had dogs did the same."},{"startTime":302.67,"endTime":305.55,"body":"Their actions not only"},{"startTime":302.67,"endTime":305.55,"body":"resisted in the massacre"},{"startTime":305.55,"endTime":310.35,"body":"of 72,000 cats, it also, I love this,"},{"startTime":310.35,"endTime":314.973,"body":"led to the appearance of pirate cats,"},{"startTime":315.81,"endTime":319.83,"body":"the leader of whom was called Wang,"},{"startTime":319.83,"endTime":324.66,"body":"a tailless mauve cat from Formosa."},{"startTime":324.66,"endTime":325.493,"body":"Wang."},{"startTime":326.712,"endTime":327.96,"body":"That's a lovely name for a cat."},{"startTime":327.96,"endTime":331.83,"body":"Wang and his cat gang"},{"startTime":331.83,"endTime":335.16,"body":"of between 50 and 100 other cats,"},{"startTime":335.16,"endTime":336.66,"body":"other pirate cats,"},{"startTime":336.66,"endTime":341.61,"body":"terrorized the pious people"},{"startTime":336.66,"endTime":341.61,"body":"of the West 80th Street"},{"startTime":341.61,"endTime":344.46,"body":"and other residents of"},{"startTime":341.61,"endTime":344.46,"body":"the West Upper Side."},{"startTime":344.46,"endTime":347.01,"body":"The cat gang were not only accused"},{"startTime":347.01,"endTime":349.86,"body":"of spreading a paralyzing disease,"},{"startTime":349.86,"endTime":354.15,"body":"but also of stealing legs of mutton,"},{"startTime":354.15,"endTime":356.31,"body":"frightening dogs,"},{"startTime":356.31,"endTime":360.6,"body":"and keeping people awake at"},{"startTime":356.31,"endTime":360.6,"body":"night by their screeches."},{"startTime":360.6,"endTime":363.367,"body":"The SPCA promised residents,"},{"startTime":363.367,"endTime":365.79,"body":"\"We're working as hard as we can"},{"startTime":365.79,"endTime":368.91,"body":"to ensure that Wang and his band of cats"},{"startTime":368.91,"endTime":371.22,"body":"will be rounded up in due course"},{"startTime":371.22,"endTime":376.02,"body":"with the other nocturnal"},{"startTime":371.22,"endTime":376.02,"body":"nomads of the city.\""},{"startTime":376.02,"endTime":381.0,"body":"In other words, the Great"},{"startTime":376.02,"endTime":381.0,"body":"Cat Massacre of July 1916"},{"startTime":381.0,"endTime":384.81,"body":"fused fears of wild cats"},{"startTime":384.81,"endTime":388.05,"body":"who had been cast adrift by their owners"},{"startTime":388.05,"endTime":392.973,"body":"with itinerants and morally"},{"startTime":388.05,"endTime":392.973,"body":"suspect night workers."},{"startTime":394.26,"endTime":397.5,"body":"Well, it's a fun story, but"},{"startTime":394.26,"endTime":397.5,"body":"actually, you know what?"},{"startTime":397.5,"endTime":401.07,"body":"New Yorkers were not wrong to panic."},{"startTime":401.07,"endTime":405.06,"body":"Polio was a disease to fear."},{"startTime":405.06,"endTime":408.3,"body":"Around one quarter of"},{"startTime":405.06,"endTime":408.3,"body":"people diagnosed with polio"},{"startTime":408.3,"endTime":412.29,"body":"woke up to find their limbs"},{"startTime":408.3,"endTime":412.29,"body":"were permanently paralyzed,"},{"startTime":412.29,"endTime":416.433,"body":"and/or they had difficulties"},{"startTime":412.29,"endTime":416.433,"body":"breathing or swallowing."},{"startTime":417.57,"endTime":420.737,"body":"Between 2 and 10% overall died."},{"startTime":420.737,"endTime":425.737,"body":"As a 1941 textbook on the disease said,"},{"startTime":426.367,"endTime":428.7,"body":"\"It is not death that is feared"},{"startTime":428.7,"endTime":433.08,"body":"so much as the crippling"},{"startTime":428.7,"endTime":433.08,"body":"aftermath of the disease,"},{"startTime":433.08,"endTime":437.01,"body":"a physical crippling"},{"startTime":433.08,"endTime":437.01,"body":"which may last a lifetime"},{"startTime":437.01,"endTime":442.01,"body":"and impair the activities of"},{"startTime":437.01,"endTime":442.01,"body":"an otherwise healthy person.\""},{"startTime":442.08,"endTime":445.867,"body":"In the 1950s when Americans were asked,"},{"startTime":445.867,"endTime":448.52,"body":"\"What keeps you awake at night?\","},{"startTime":449.73,"endTime":452.25,"body":"fear of polio with second"},{"startTime":452.25,"endTime":455.19,"body":"only to the atomic bomb, okay?"},{"startTime":455.19,"endTime":458.55,"body":"Fear of polio second"},{"startTime":455.19,"endTime":458.55,"body":"only to the atomic bomb."},{"startTime":458.55,"endTime":460.8,"body":"Such fears were stoked up, of course,"},{"startTime":460.8,"endTime":463.17,"body":"by media representations of the disease."},{"startTime":463.17,"endTime":467.43,"body":"Although at least 150 movies,"},{"startTime":463.17,"endTime":467.43,"body":"at least ones I know of,"},{"startTime":467.43,"endTime":470.7,"body":"referenced polio, the most"},{"startTime":467.43,"endTime":470.7,"body":"famous of these, of course,"},{"startTime":470.7,"endTime":475.41,"body":"is Alfred Hitchcock's \"Rear"},{"startTime":470.7,"endTime":475.41,"body":"Window,\" released in 1954,"},{"startTime":475.41,"endTime":477.97,"body":"just before the massive vaccine campaign"},{"startTime":479.82,"endTime":482.28,"body":"against polio was instigated."},{"startTime":482.28,"endTime":486.51,"body":"The film contributed to"},{"startTime":482.28,"endTime":486.51,"body":"the stigma and terror"},{"startTime":486.51,"endTime":488.4,"body":"associated with polio."},{"startTime":488.4,"endTime":491.34,"body":"Ironically, even organizations"},{"startTime":491.34,"endTime":496.34,"body":"dedicated to funding"},{"startTime":491.34,"endTime":496.34,"body":"public health education"},{"startTime":496.65,"endTime":500.13,"body":"and vaccine research stoked up"},{"startTime":500.13,"endTime":502.74,"body":"terror of the disease."},{"startTime":502.74,"endTime":505.68,"body":"1947, for example,"},{"startTime":505.68,"endTime":508.08,"body":"and this is the one that is, I think,"},{"startTime":508.08,"endTime":509.04,"body":"one of the worst,"},{"startTime":509.04,"endTime":511.89,"body":"the National Foundation"},{"startTime":509.04,"endTime":511.89,"body":"for Infantile Paralysis"},{"startTime":511.89,"endTime":515.79,"body":"released a film called \"In Daily Battle.\""},{"startTime":515.79,"endTime":519.927,"body":"The film, which was unofficially"},{"startTime":515.79,"endTime":519.927,"body":"known as \"The Crippler,\""},{"startTime":522.42,"endTime":526.77,"body":"used techniques drawn from horror films,"},{"startTime":526.77,"endTime":531.54,"body":"especially German expressionist cinema."},{"startTime":531.54,"endTime":535.89,"body":"You know, in other words,"},{"startTime":531.54,"endTime":535.89,"body":"it used shadows a lot,"},{"startTime":535.89,"endTime":538.35,"body":"so there's always a shadow hovering over,"},{"startTime":538.35,"endTime":540.69,"body":"shadows as the embodiment"},{"startTime":540.69,"endTime":545.25,"body":"of the virus poliomyelitis."},{"startTime":545.25,"endTime":549.993,"body":"This ominous shadow"},{"startTime":545.25,"endTime":549.993,"body":"speaks, saying things like,"},{"startTime":551.197,"endTime":554.88,"body":"\"I specialize in grotesque twisting"},{"startTime":554.88,"endTime":557.28,"body":"and deforming human bodies."},{"startTime":557.28,"endTime":560.94,"body":"That's why I'm called The Crippler.\""},{"startTime":560.94,"endTime":565.41,"body":"The shadow moves from the"},{"startTime":560.94,"endTime":565.41,"body":"countryside to the city,"},{"startTime":565.41,"endTime":569.37,"body":"striking down people as it goes,"},{"startTime":569.37,"endTime":572.58,"body":"laughing in a sinister manner."},{"startTime":572.58,"endTime":576.907,"body":"Virus poliomyelitis says,"},{"startTime":576.907,"endTime":580.77,"body":"\"As you probably know,"},{"startTime":576.907,"endTime":580.77,"body":"I'm very fond of children,"},{"startTime":580.77,"endTime":583.677,"body":"especially little children.\""},{"startTime":584.88,"endTime":585.78,"body":"Now, as was the case"},{"startTime":585.78,"endTime":589.453,"body":"during the Great Cat"},{"startTime":585.78,"endTime":589.453,"body":"Massacre of July 1916,"},{"startTime":589.453,"endTime":592.35,"body":"a fear of polio was fueled,"},{"startTime":589.453,"endTime":592.35,"body":"as I've already mentioned,"},{"startTime":592.35,"endTime":594.72,"body":"by uncertainty about"},{"startTime":592.35,"endTime":594.72,"body":"what actually caused it,"},{"startTime":594.72,"endTime":597.21,"body":"and therefore, what steps"},{"startTime":594.72,"endTime":597.21,"body":"could people actually take"},{"startTime":597.21,"endTime":601.65,"body":"to protect themselves and their families."},{"startTime":601.65,"endTime":604.08,"body":"Was polio transmitted through the air?"},{"startTime":604.08,"endTime":607.08,"body":"Through physical contact? By flies?"},{"startTime":607.08,"endTime":609.39,"body":"In 1912, the author of an article"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":609.39,"endTime":612.21,"body":"The New Epidemic,\""},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":612.21,"endTime":614.437,"body":"warned readers that,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":614.437,"endTime":618.75,"body":"\"The fly is a carrier of"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":614.437,"endTime":618.75,"body":"infection. Kill the fly."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":618.75,"endTime":623.1,"body":"Not one fly should ever be"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":618.75,"endTime":623.1,"body":"allowed in or around a house."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":623.1,"endTime":625.17,"body":"This is imperative."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":625.17,"endTime":629.13,"body":"Never let a fly touch a baby.\""},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":629.13,"endTime":631.41,"body":"Or could the root of transmission"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":631.41,"endTime":636.09,"body":"be traced back to classrooms, playgrounds?"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":636.09,"endTime":639.3,"body":"Were school children who shared pencils"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":639.3,"endTime":641.19,"body":"passing on the disease?"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":641.19,"endTime":643.5,"body":"Or were these children being infected"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":643.5,"endTime":646.8,"body":"through swimming in municipal pools?"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":646.8,"endTime":651.15,"body":"These were unanswered"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":646.8,"endTime":651.15,"body":"questions until the 1940s."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":651.15,"endTime":653.4,"body":"Now, without reliable evidence"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":653.4,"endTime":656.73,"body":"about the transmission of the disease,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":656.73,"endTime":661.71,"body":"authorities instigated these"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":656.73,"endTime":661.71,"body":"major public health campaigns,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":661.71,"endTime":666.42,"body":"and they targeted poor and"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":661.71,"endTime":666.42,"body":"marginalized communities"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":666.42,"endTime":668.76,"body":"although there was, and"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":666.42,"endTime":668.76,"body":"there certainly is now,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":668.76,"endTime":671.67,"body":"but there was at the time good evidence"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":671.67,"endTime":674.91,"body":"that polio was actually more prevalent"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":674.91,"endTime":676.923,"body":"in middle class households."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":678.39,"endTime":680.58,"body":"The poor were stigmatized,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":680.58,"endTime":685.58,"body":"and particularly Italian"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":680.58,"endTime":685.58,"body":"and Jewish immigrants"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":685.68,"endTime":688.47,"body":"as well as, of course, no surprise here"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":688.47,"endTime":691.293,"body":"for those of you who heard my talk on TB,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":692.76,"endTime":694.923,"body":"residents of urban slums."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":695.79,"endTime":698.34,"body":"Vegetables had to be washed before eating,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":698.34,"endTime":700.71,"body":"unpasteurized milk avoided."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":700.71,"endTime":704.31,"body":"Playgrounds, swimming pools,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":700.71,"endTime":704.31,"body":"and theaters were shut down."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":704.31,"endTime":706.95,"body":"Library books were fumigated."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":706.95,"endTime":709.92,"body":"Areas with high incidence"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":706.95,"endTime":709.92,"body":"of polio infections"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":709.92,"endTime":711.93,"body":"were placed in lockdowns."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":711.93,"endTime":714.21,"body":"Patrols were set up to ensure"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":714.21,"endTime":716.34,"body":"that potentially infected people"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":716.34,"endTime":720.0,"body":"remained in their homes and"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":716.34,"endTime":720.0,"body":"immediate neighborhoods."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":720.0,"endTime":723.93,"body":"Swat the Fly campaigns were instigated"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":723.93,"endTime":726.543,"body":"because flies were thought"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":723.93,"endTime":726.543,"body":"to transmit the virus."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":728.4,"endTime":731.07,"body":"You know, flies were believed"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":728.4,"endTime":731.07,"body":"to transmit the virus"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":731.07,"endTime":735.66,"body":"from the so-called unhygienic"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":731.07,"endTime":735.66,"body":"homes of poor people"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":735.66,"endTime":737.77,"body":"to wealthy suburbs."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":737.77,"endTime":739.02,"body":"It's really interesting."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":739.02,"endTime":741.369,"body":"Flies never seem to fly"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":739.02,"endTime":741.369,"body":"in the opposite direction."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":741.369,"endTime":743.01,"body":"(audience laughing)"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":743.01,"endTime":746.91,"body":"Anyway, in the midst of"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":743.01,"endTime":746.91,"body":"this kind of uncertainty,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":746.91,"endTime":749.58,"body":"scientists worked day and night"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":749.58,"endTime":754.58,"body":"to identify the causes of"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":749.58,"endTime":754.58,"body":"this devastating disease."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":754.95,"endTime":759.123,"body":"Part of the reason they"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":754.95,"endTime":759.123,"body":"struggled so long to identify it,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":761.37,"endTime":763.98,"body":"to identify the precise nature of polio,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":763.98,"endTime":767.22,"body":"was because the disease"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":763.98,"endTime":767.22,"body":"was caused by a virus,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":767.22,"endTime":768.603,"body":"not bacterium."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":769.71,"endTime":771.129,"body":"It was too small to be seen"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":771.129,"endTime":774.183,"body":"under microscopes used at the time."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":775.02,"endTime":777.78,"body":"In the end, solving the mystery of polio"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":777.78,"endTime":782.19,"body":"was central to the growth"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":777.78,"endTime":782.19,"body":"of the scientific discipline"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":782.19,"endTime":786.84,"body":"or scientific specialty"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":782.19,"endTime":786.84,"body":"of virology itself."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":786.84,"endTime":789.69,"body":"The virus was only identified in 1909"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":789.69,"endTime":794.13,"body":"by the Viennese physician"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":789.69,"endTime":794.13,"body":"Karl Landsteiner."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":794.13,"endTime":798.21,"body":"The following year, Simon"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":794.13,"endTime":798.21,"body":"Flexner, laboratory director"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":798.21,"endTime":802.2,"body":"of the Rockefeller Institute"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":798.21,"endTime":802.2,"body":"for Medical Research,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":802.2,"endTime":805.049,"body":"was able to show that it was infectious."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":805.049,"endTime":810.049,"body":"Flexner believed that it was"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":805.049,"endTime":810.049,"body":"spread through inhalation"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":810.09,"endTime":814.29,"body":"and did not circulate in the"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":810.09,"endTime":814.29,"body":"digestive tract or blood,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":814.29,"endTime":816.93,"body":"and he was wrong in this."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":816.93,"endTime":821.26,"body":"He and his collaborator, Hideyo Noguchi,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":822.18,"endTime":826.83,"body":"insisted that polio was a"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":822.18,"endTime":826.83,"body":"disease of the nervous system,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":826.83,"endTime":830.16,"body":"and they had this wonderful"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":826.83,"endTime":830.16,"body":"poetic descriptions"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":830.16,"endTime":835.16,"body":"about the innumerable"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":830.16,"endTime":835.16,"body":"bright dancing points"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":835.29,"endTime":838.413,"body":"that they began to see"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":835.29,"endTime":838.413,"body":"through their microscopes."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":839.31,"endTime":840.82,"body":"A major step forward"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":843.825,"endTime":847.41,"body":"to an understanding of the"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":843.825,"endTime":847.41,"body":"transmission of the virus"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":847.41,"endTime":851.52,"body":"was made in the 1930s"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":847.41,"endTime":851.52,"body":"by these two men here,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":851.52,"endTime":853.92,"body":"John Paul and James Trask"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":853.92,"endTime":857.52,"body":"of the Yale University School of Medicine."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":857.52,"endTime":859.74,"body":"They were the ones who established"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":859.74,"endTime":864.24,"body":"that the virus entered the"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":859.74,"endTime":864.24,"body":"body through the mouth,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":864.24,"endTime":867.57,"body":"where it replicated in"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":864.24,"endTime":867.57,"body":"the lymphatic tissues"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":867.57,"endTime":872.41,"body":"of the intestines or oropharynx"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":873.3,"endTime":875.31,"body":"before entering the bloodstream"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":875.31,"endTime":877.203,"body":"and then the central nervous system."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":878.19,"endTime":881.19,"body":"These scientists also solved the mystery"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":881.19,"endTime":884.687,"body":"of why in the world was this disease"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":886.89,"endTime":891.89,"body":"more likely to affect middle"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":886.89,"endTime":891.89,"body":"class children, okay, why?"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":892.436,"endTime":897.436,"body":"As early as 1912, Canadian"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":892.436,"endTime":897.436,"body":"physician Helen MacMurchy"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":898.62,"endTime":901.297,"body":"informed readers that,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":901.297,"endTime":906.27,"body":"\"victims of this disease are"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":901.297,"endTime":906.27,"body":"not among the poor or delicate."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":906.27,"endTime":908.82,"body":"Often the vigorous and"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":906.27,"endTime":908.82,"body":"healthy are attacked,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":908.82,"endTime":913.05,"body":"and those who have comfortable"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":908.82,"endTime":913.05,"body":"homes and good care.\""},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":913.05,"endTime":917.94,"body":"In the past, most children"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":913.05,"endTime":917.94,"body":"would have been infected"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":917.94,"endTime":919.86,"body":"with polio as infants,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":919.86,"endTime":924.72,"body":"but they would've only experienced"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":919.86,"endTime":924.72,"body":"mild flu-like symptoms."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":924.72,"endTime":927.21,"body":"Being infected in infancy, however,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":927.21,"endTime":930.42,"body":"would have given them immunity for life."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":930.42,"endTime":933.96,"body":"The increased obsession with cleanliness"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":933.96,"endTime":937.38,"body":"in wealthier homes changed this."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":937.38,"endTime":940.47,"body":"By cutting exposure in infancy,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":940.47,"endTime":943.95,"body":"children were more at risk"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":943.95,"endTime":948.51,"body":"of developing polio later in their life."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":948.51,"endTime":952.35,"body":"In other words, polio"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":948.51,"endTime":952.35,"body":"outbreaks were a direct outcome"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":952.35,"endTime":956.28,"body":"of sanitization of homes and workplaces,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":956.28,"endTime":959.73,"body":"making polio a classic"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":956.28,"endTime":959.73,"body":"example of a disease"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":959.73,"endTime":962.16,"body":"made worse by progress."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":962.16,"endTime":964.47,"body":"A relatively mild epidemic,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":964.47,"endTime":967.11,"body":"endemic, sorry, endemic disease"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":967.11,"endTime":969.72,"body":"became a deadly epidemic one."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":969.72,"endTime":971.31,"body":"Now, as with TB,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":971.31,"endTime":974.49,"body":"as we saw in the last"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":971.31,"endTime":974.49,"body":"lecture I gave on the series,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":974.49,"endTime":977.85,"body":"most patients were treated"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":974.49,"endTime":977.85,"body":"in their communities"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":977.85,"endTime":980.82,"body":"by local medical professionals."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":980.82,"endTime":985.05,"body":"These local doctors watched in horror"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":985.05,"endTime":989.52,"body":"as young patients who they"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":985.05,"endTime":989.52,"body":"might have treated since infancy"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":989.52,"endTime":994.5,"body":"appeared with symptoms"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":989.52,"endTime":994.5,"body":"typical of a summer cold,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":994.5,"endTime":999.06,"body":"for example, headaches,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":994.5,"endTime":999.06,"body":"upset stomachs, fever,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":999.06,"endTime":1003.44,"body":"but then advanced with terrifying rapidity"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1003.44,"endTime":1007.403,"body":"to paralysis or difficulties"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1003.44,"endTime":1007.403,"body":"breathing or swallowing."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1008.27,"endTime":1011.03,"body":"Many of these physicians"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1008.27,"endTime":1011.03,"body":"would've found the task"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1011.03,"endTime":1015.41,"body":"of distinguishing polio"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1011.03,"endTime":1015.41,"body":"from other diseases,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1015.41,"endTime":1019.82,"body":"such as cerebral spinal"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1015.41,"endTime":1019.82,"body":"meningitis, impossible."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1019.82,"endTime":1023.66,"body":"Now, it could be done by"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1019.82,"endTime":1023.66,"body":"examining spinal fluid,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1023.66,"endTime":1028.07,"body":"but lumbar puncture would've"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1023.66,"endTime":1028.07,"body":"been beyond the capacities"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1028.07,"endTime":1031.85,"body":"of most local doctors,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1028.07,"endTime":1031.85,"body":"most regional doctors."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1031.85,"endTime":1034.4,"body":"It was also a very painful procedure,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1034.4,"endTime":1037.94,"body":"making, you know, local doctors"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1034.4,"endTime":1037.94,"body":"actually quite reluctant"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1037.94,"endTime":1041.486,"body":"to inflict yet more pain on people,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1041.486,"endTime":1042.47,"body":"and children particularly,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1042.47,"endTime":1043.853,"body":"who were already suffering."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1045.05,"endTime":1048.38,"body":"Not surprisingly, many"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1045.05,"endTime":1048.38,"body":"polio sufferers therefore"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1048.38,"endTime":1053.38,"body":"turned to alternative means"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1048.38,"endTime":1053.38,"body":"of managing the disease."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1053.9,"endTime":1058.61,"body":"After all, treatments, formal treatments,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1058.61,"endTime":1060.11,"body":"were expensive."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1060.11,"endTime":1064.43,"body":"At a time when the median"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1060.11,"endTime":1064.43,"body":"annual wage was less than $900,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1066.32,"endTime":1068.6,"body":"treatment, that's a year,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1068.6,"endTime":1073.07,"body":"treatments ranged from 2,000"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1068.6,"endTime":1073.07,"body":"to 3,000 the first year,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1073.07,"endTime":1078.07,"body":"and between $75 and $150"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1073.07,"endTime":1078.07,"body":"every year thereafter."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1078.5,"endTime":1083.21,"body":"So in rural areas, desperate"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1078.5,"endTime":1083.21,"body":"families might, for example,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1083.21,"endTime":1085.793,"body":"seek the expertise of bone setters,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1086.66,"endTime":1090.71,"body":"who would vigorously"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1086.66,"endTime":1090.71,"body":"massage the affected limbs."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1090.71,"endTime":1092.99,"body":"Others were driven into the arms"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1092.99,"endTime":1095.39,"body":"of unorthodox practitioners,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1095.39,"endTime":1099.98,"body":"who resorted to a vast"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1095.39,"endTime":1099.98,"body":"range of unproven practices."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1099.98,"endTime":1101.27,"body":"And one of my favorites"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1101.27,"endTime":1103.493,"body":"is they would rub the body with kerosene."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1104.81,"endTime":1107.69,"body":"Okay, now, orthodox medicine"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1107.69,"endTime":1111.47,"body":"prescribed absolute rest"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1111.47,"endTime":1113.423,"body":"and immobilization."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1114.41,"endTime":1116.963,"body":"Splints, braces,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1116.963,"endTime":1119.9,"body":"were used to immobilize limbs,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1119.9,"endTime":1123.44,"body":"sometimes for nine months,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1119.9,"endTime":1123.44,"body":"sometimes, in fact, for a year."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1123.44,"endTime":1126.35,"body":"But, you know, for long periods."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1126.35,"endTime":1130.46,"body":"Many patients underwent"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1126.35,"endTime":1130.46,"body":"painful orthopedic surgeries"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1130.46,"endTime":1133.28,"body":"aimed at straightening their limbs."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1133.28,"endTime":1138.28,"body":"From 1928, severely"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1133.28,"endTime":1138.28,"body":"paralyzed people, patients,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1138.38,"endTime":1142.79,"body":"were encased in iron lungs,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1142.79,"endTime":1147.17,"body":"most commonly the Drinker tank respirator,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1147.17,"endTime":1150.98,"body":"named after Philip Drinker"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1147.17,"endTime":1150.98,"body":"of Harvard University,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1150.98,"endTime":1153.53,"body":"which was a negative pressure ventilator."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1153.53,"endTime":1156.59,"body":"So what happened is"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1153.53,"endTime":1156.59,"body":"patients would be sealed"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1156.59,"endTime":1161.59,"body":"in these heavy, bulky"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1156.59,"endTime":1161.59,"body":"cylinders from the neck down"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1161.671,"endTime":1165.92,"body":"while alternating positive"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1161.671,"endTime":1165.92,"body":"and negative air pressure"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1165.92,"endTime":1167.271,"body":"enabled them to breathe."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1167.271,"endTime":1170.21,"body":"(Joanna deeply breathing)"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1170.21,"endTime":1171.271,"body":"They remained in the device"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1171.271,"endTime":1175.76,"body":"until their recovered"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1171.271,"endTime":1175.76,"body":"muscles strengthened."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1175.76,"endTime":1177.38,"body":"Many died."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1177.38,"endTime":1180.664,"body":"Imprisonment inside an iron lung"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1180.664,"endTime":1184.1,"body":"meant that patients were thrown overnight"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1184.1,"endTime":1187.43,"body":"into a situation where they"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1184.1,"endTime":1187.43,"body":"were entirely dependent"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1187.43,"endTime":1190.49,"body":"on nurses, family"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1187.43,"endTime":1190.49,"body":"members, other caregivers,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1190.49,"endTime":1192.413,"body":"just for everyday survival."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1194.06,"endTime":1198.23,"body":"Marshall Barr, he developed polio in 1949"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1198.23,"endTime":1200.42,"body":"when he was seven years old,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1200.42,"endTime":1202.4,"body":"he had to be placed in an iron lung"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1202.4,"endTime":1205.673,"body":"after he had a relapse in his twenties."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1207.83,"endTime":1212.83,"body":"He found that even the"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1207.83,"endTime":1212.83,"body":"most basic activities,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1212.9,"endTime":1214.61,"body":"eating for example,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1214.61,"endTime":1219.41,"body":"required incredible amount"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1214.61,"endTime":1219.41,"body":"of thought and care."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1219.41,"endTime":1222.95,"body":"He recalled, \"You can eat in the iron lung"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1222.95,"endTime":1225.41,"body":"because your head is outside,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1225.41,"endTime":1228.56,"body":"but the rest of your body is inside."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1228.56,"endTime":1231.74,"body":"However, since you're flat on your back,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1231.74,"endTime":1234.65,"body":"you really need to be"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1231.74,"endTime":1234.65,"body":"careful when you swallow."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1234.65,"endTime":1236.81,"body":"You have to swallow in"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1234.65,"endTime":1236.81,"body":"rhythm with the machine"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1236.81,"endTime":1238.88,"body":"because it's pulling your diaphragm in"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1238.88,"endTime":1241.94,"body":"and then pulling it out"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1238.88,"endTime":1241.94,"body":"again, pushing it out again."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1241.94,"endTime":1244.55,"body":"You just wait until it's breathing out"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1244.55,"endTime":1245.65,"body":"and then you swallow.\""},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1246.5,"endTime":1249.44,"body":"Although Barr was actually"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1246.5,"endTime":1249.44,"body":"remarkably stoical"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1249.44,"endTime":1252.68,"body":"about his life in the iron lung,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1252.68,"endTime":1256.182,"body":"really remarkably stoical,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1252.68,"endTime":1256.182,"body":"I'll get to that in a minute,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1256.182,"endTime":1258.14,"body":"others lamented, of course,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1258.14,"endTime":1261.26,"body":"their loss of autonomy and privacy"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1261.26,"endTime":1265.16,"body":"with its accompanying infantilization."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1265.16,"endTime":1268.46,"body":"Their only access to the wider world"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1268.46,"endTime":1270.323,"body":"was provided by a mirror."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1271.61,"endTime":1272.443,"body":"There we go."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1272.443,"endTime":1277.443,"body":"A mirror that suspended above their face"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1277.49,"endTime":1279.94,"body":"so they could see what"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1277.49,"endTime":1279.94,"body":"was happening behind them."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1280.79,"endTime":1282.95,"body":"The death of fellow patients"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1282.95,"endTime":1287.95,"body":"was signaled by a sudden sinister silence"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1288.5,"endTime":1290.06,"body":"that fell on the ward"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1290.06,"endTime":1295.06,"body":"when one of the noisy breathing"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1290.06,"endTime":1295.06,"body":"machines was switched off,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1295.7,"endTime":1298.76,"body":"and nurses would then"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1295.7,"endTime":1298.76,"body":"all of a sudden rush in"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1298.76,"endTime":1302.39,"body":"to turn everyone's mirror to"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1298.76,"endTime":1302.39,"body":"face the rear of the machine"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1302.39,"endTime":1304.85,"body":"so that survivors wouldn't see the corpses"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1304.85,"endTime":1306.593,"body":"being wheeled out behind them."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1307.43,"endTime":1308.81,"body":"Now, from the early 1940s,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1308.81,"endTime":1311.96,"body":"polio patients who did"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1308.81,"endTime":1311.96,"body":"not need the assistance"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1311.96,"endTime":1313.192,"body":"of the iron lung,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1313.192,"endTime":1315.95,"body":"but had been left with twisted limbs,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1315.95,"endTime":1317.81,"body":"were presented with an alternative"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1317.81,"endTime":1322.19,"body":"to the standard treatment"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1317.81,"endTime":1322.19,"body":"involving immobilization."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1322.19,"endTime":1325.67,"body":"Okay, now until this"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1322.19,"endTime":1325.67,"body":"point, till this time,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1325.67,"endTime":1328.28,"body":"the medical establishment had concluded"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1328.28,"endTime":1331.853,"body":"that polio was a neurological affliction,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1333.65,"endTime":1334.483,"body":"they believed."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1334.483,"endTime":1335.75,"body":"When connections between"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1335.75,"endTime":1338.21,"body":"the muscles and the nerves were severed,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1338.21,"endTime":1341.33,"body":"the weakened muscles atrophied,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1341.33,"endTime":1344.393,"body":"distorting limbs or paralyzing patients."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1345.26,"endTime":1349.94,"body":"This was their rationale for"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1345.26,"endTime":1349.94,"body":"forcibly straightening limbs"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1349.94,"endTime":1351.593,"body":"and immobilizing them."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1353.45,"endTime":1355.853,"body":"Sister Elizabeth Kenny."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1356.78,"endTime":1360.65,"body":"Sister, she's not a nun,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1356.78,"endTime":1360.65,"body":"that's not a religious title,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1360.65,"endTime":1362.33,"body":"it's a medical title."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1362.33,"endTime":1364.31,"body":"Sister Elizabeth Kenny,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1364.31,"endTime":1368.18,"body":"snowy-haired Australian bush nurse"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1368.18,"endTime":1371.24,"body":"who had immigrated to Britain,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1371.24,"endTime":1373.58,"body":"she had different ideas."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1373.58,"endTime":1376.64,"body":"She argued that immobilization"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1376.64,"endTime":1379.14,"body":"was exacerbating the problem"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1380.03,"endTime":1382.58,"body":"faced by polio sufferers."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1382.58,"endTime":1386.3,"body":"Believing polio to be a systemic disease,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1386.3,"endTime":1389.69,"body":"she wanted to focus, she"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1386.3,"endTime":1389.69,"body":"believed they should focus,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1389.69,"endTime":1394.613,"body":"on muscles, in particular muscular spasms."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1395.6,"endTime":1397.85,"body":"Rather than immobilization,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1397.85,"endTime":1402.85,"body":"she argued that patients"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1397.85,"endTime":1402.85,"body":"needed intense physical therapy"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1403.01,"endTime":1407.003,"body":"carried out by nurses, or indeed"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1403.01,"endTime":1407.003,"body":"by the patients themselves,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1408.05,"endTime":1412.82,"body":"using hot compressors to reduce spasms."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1412.82,"endTime":1417.82,"body":"Now, this was extremely"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1412.82,"endTime":1417.82,"body":"innovative to put it mildly."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1417.95,"endTime":1421.34,"body":"Kenny promoted a shift"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1417.95,"endTime":1421.34,"body":"away, and this is important,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1421.34,"endTime":1426.34,"body":"a shift away from viewing"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1421.34,"endTime":1426.34,"body":"polio as a deformity"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1426.83,"endTime":1430.13,"body":"which required the straightening of limbs,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1430.13,"endTime":1433.553,"body":"to polio as creating a disability."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1434.69,"endTime":1439.28,"body":"The emphasis on deformity"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1434.69,"endTime":1439.28,"body":"had encouraged, you know,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1439.28,"endTime":1443.75,"body":"techniques that tried"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1439.28,"endTime":1443.75,"body":"to make people normal,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1443.75,"endTime":1448.75,"body":"while Kenny's focus on"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1443.75,"endTime":1448.75,"body":"disability stressed functionality"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1449.12,"endTime":1454.12,"body":"and the need to enable polio"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1449.12,"endTime":1454.12,"body":"sufferers to live full lives."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1455.87,"endTime":1459.62,"body":"Her therapeutics were also"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1455.87,"endTime":1459.62,"body":"presented a different way"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1459.62,"endTime":1462.15,"body":"to think about the role of pain"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1463.19,"endTime":1466.07,"body":"in treating polio patients."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1466.07,"endTime":1468.59,"body":"For many orthodox physicians,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1468.59,"endTime":1472.67,"body":"pain was actually regarded as necessary"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1472.67,"endTime":1475.82,"body":"for any return to normality,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1475.82,"endTime":1480.62,"body":"while for Kenny, it was a"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1475.82,"endTime":1480.62,"body":"symptom of underlying pathology"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1480.62,"endTime":1483.08,"body":"that needed to be eradicated, okay?"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1483.08,"endTime":1485.93,"body":"So it's a big shift, these things."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1485.93,"endTime":1490.93,"body":"Now, the male medical establishment"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1485.93,"endTime":1490.93,"body":"(growls) were appalled."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1491.272,"endTime":1494.24,"body":"They held Kenny in contempt,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1494.24,"endTime":1496.79,"body":"claiming that she was"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1494.24,"endTime":1496.79,"body":"an ignorant fraudster"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1496.79,"endTime":1499.04,"body":"or even mentally unhinged."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1499.04,"endTime":1501.8,"body":"They were not impressed by her trust"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1501.8,"endTime":1505.34,"body":"in hands-on experience with patients"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1505.34,"endTime":1509.66,"body":"as opposed to laboratory"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1505.34,"endTime":1509.66,"body":"experiments and clinical trials."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1509.66,"endTime":1514.66,"body":"They were, and not without good cause,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1514.85,"endTime":1519.76,"body":"they were riled by her brash,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1514.85,"endTime":1519.76,"body":"opinionated mannerisms."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1521.06,"endTime":1525.443,"body":"Now, polio patients and their"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1521.06,"endTime":1525.443,"body":"families tended to disagree."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1526.34,"endTime":1530.81,"body":"Such was her celebrity"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1526.34,"endTime":1530.81,"body":"status that in 1946,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1530.81,"endTime":1534.29,"body":"Kenny was immortalized in film."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1534.29,"endTime":1536.03,"body":"It's a brilliant film, by the way."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1536.03,"endTime":1538.493,"body":"The glamorous star Rosalind Russell,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1539.36,"endTime":1543.71,"body":"who played Sister Kenny"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1539.36,"endTime":1543.71,"body":"in the film of that name,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1543.71,"endTime":1547.97,"body":"won a Golden Globe Award for"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1543.71,"endTime":1547.97,"body":"Best Actress in a Leading Role"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1547.97,"endTime":1552.59,"body":"and was nominated for an"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1547.97,"endTime":1552.59,"body":"Academic Award for Best Actress."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1552.59,"endTime":1557.59,"body":"Five years later, a Gallup poll"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1552.59,"endTime":1557.59,"body":"ranked Kenny in first place"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1558.95,"endTime":1562.073,"body":"as America's most admired woman,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1563.03,"endTime":1567.98,"body":"beating the celebrated Eleanor"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1563.03,"endTime":1567.98,"body":"Roosevelt. (tongue clicks)"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1567.98,"endTime":1572.48,"body":"Not surprisingly, this further"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1567.98,"endTime":1572.48,"body":"irked orthodox practitioners."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1572.48,"endTime":1575.9,"body":"Their clashes with Kenny were legendary,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1575.9,"endTime":1578.33,"body":"exposing the gendered tensions"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1578.33,"endTime":1580.83,"body":"between a largely male establishment"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1580.83,"endTime":1584.33,"body":"and a woman without scientific credentials"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1584.33,"endTime":1587.27,"body":"who challenged their authority."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1587.27,"endTime":1590.42,"body":"Kenny's popularity with"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1587.27,"endTime":1590.42,"body":"patients and their families"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1590.42,"endTime":1594.44,"body":"was part of a wider move"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1590.42,"endTime":1594.44,"body":"towards understanding"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1594.44,"endTime":1598.97,"body":"the harms carelessly and"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1594.44,"endTime":1598.97,"body":"thoughtlessly inflicted on people"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1598.97,"endTime":1603.08,"body":"who were regarded by some as abnormal"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1603.08,"endTime":1605.0,"body":"due to physical difference."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1605.0,"endTime":1609.53,"body":"The stigma associated with being disabled"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1609.53,"endTime":1614.53,"body":"meant that families sometimes"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1609.53,"endTime":1614.53,"body":"sought to hide them away."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1615.41,"endTime":1619.82,"body":"Employers preferred to"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1615.41,"endTime":1619.82,"body":"give jobs to able bodied."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1619.82,"endTime":1624.82,"body":"In the street, strangers"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1619.82,"endTime":1624.82,"body":"gawked voyeuristically."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1625.04,"endTime":1626.664,"body":"A large proportion of polio sufferers"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1626.664,"endTime":1631.664,"body":"ended up confined to"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1626.664,"endTime":1631.664,"body":"institutions for cripples,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1633.05,"endTime":1636.32,"body":"where visiting hours were"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1633.05,"endTime":1636.32,"body":"restricted, facilities were bare,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1636.32,"endTime":1640.31,"body":"and there was little investment"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1636.32,"endTime":1640.31,"body":"in up to date technologies."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1640.31,"endTime":1645.31,"body":"Isolation and loneliness were endemic."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1645.35,"endTime":1650.09,"body":"In his memoir, \"Bottom"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1645.35,"endTime":1650.09,"body":"High to the Crowd,\" 1973,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1650.09,"endTime":1652.85,"body":"polio sufferer Don Krikendall"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1652.85,"endTime":1656.78,"body":"described visiting the"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1652.85,"endTime":1656.78,"body":"crippled children's home"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1656.78,"endTime":1660.35,"body":"in Fargo, North Dakota in the 1930s."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1660.35,"endTime":1665.35,"body":"He was shocked to see the unkempt children"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1665.54,"endTime":1667.64,"body":"in drab hospital garb,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1667.64,"endTime":1672.2,"body":"children with listless"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1667.64,"endTime":1672.2,"body":"limbs and vacant stares."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1672.2,"endTime":1674.78,"body":"He observed that the"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1672.2,"endTime":1674.78,"body":"children in wheelchairs"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1674.78,"endTime":1679.78,"body":"all had sad, unsmiling eyes."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1680.42,"endTime":1683.603,"body":"For such patients, the"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1680.42,"endTime":1683.603,"body":"range of activities,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1684.53,"endTime":1689.33,"body":"sorry, the range of anxieties"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1684.53,"endTime":1689.33,"body":"could be overwhelming."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1689.33,"endTime":1691.613,"body":"Would they ever become normal?"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1692.72,"endTime":1694.16,"body":"Would they always have to endure"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1694.16,"endTime":1696.593,"body":"the shame and humiliation of dependency?"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1698.33,"endTime":1701.933,"body":"Had they been abandoned"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1698.33,"endTime":1701.933,"body":"by their family, friends?"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1702.83,"endTime":1705.89,"body":"Would they be able to catch up with peers"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1705.89,"endTime":1709.01,"body":"in terms of education or careers?"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1709.01,"endTime":1713.42,"body":"Were they to be forever"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1709.01,"endTime":1713.42,"body":"condemned to fall short,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1713.42,"endTime":1715.61,"body":"letting everyone down?"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1715.61,"endTime":1717.98,"body":"Physical rehabilitation firmly founded"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1717.98,"endTime":1721.07,"body":"on Protestant self-help doctrines"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1721.07,"endTime":1724.25,"body":"and the need to pursue normalization"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1724.25,"endTime":1727.043,"body":"dominated their waking lives."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1727.94,"endTime":1730.88,"body":"This helps explain why"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1727.94,"endTime":1730.88,"body":"many polio sufferers,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1730.88,"endTime":1732.68,"body":"especially in the US,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1732.68,"endTime":1737.06,"body":"turned for inspiration to"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1732.68,"endTime":1737.06,"body":"Franklin D, Roosevelt, FDR,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1738.35,"endTime":1741.26,"body":"who had contracted polio in 1921"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1741.26,"endTime":1744.71,"body":"and went on to become US"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1741.26,"endTime":1744.71,"body":"Senator, Governor of New York,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1744.71,"endTime":1748.52,"body":"and then President of the United States."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1748.52,"endTime":1751.58,"body":"Of course, FDR was able to mask"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1751.58,"endTime":1754.61,"body":"the full extent of his disability"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1754.61,"endTime":1757.91,"body":"through the resources made"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1754.61,"endTime":1757.91,"body":"available to him as president"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1757.91,"endTime":1760.46,"body":"and through the tacit"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1757.91,"endTime":1760.46,"body":"agreement by journalists"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1760.46,"endTime":1763.76,"body":"not to often, he was an exception,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1763.76,"endTime":1768.17,"body":"not to photograph him in his"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1763.76,"endTime":1768.17,"body":"wheelchair or wearing braces."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1768.17,"endTime":1770.0,"body":"However, the thousands,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1770.0,"endTime":1775.0,"body":"many thousands of letters written"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1770.0,"endTime":1775.0,"body":"to him by polio sufferers,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1775.16,"endTime":1779.45,"body":"testify to the strength of"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1775.16,"endTime":1779.45,"body":"their identification with him."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1779.45,"endTime":1782.483,"body":"And just reading these"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1779.45,"endTime":1782.483,"body":"letters is heartbreaking."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1783.47,"endTime":1784.85,"body":"Now, this is not to deny"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1784.85,"endTime":1788.36,"body":"that there was extreme"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1784.85,"endTime":1788.36,"body":"bitterness and anger"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1788.36,"endTime":1790.37,"body":"expressed by polio sufferers"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1790.37,"endTime":1794.72,"body":"about being constantly"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1790.37,"endTime":1794.72,"body":"reduced to their disease."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1794.72,"endTime":1795.937,"body":"They were polios,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1797.84,"endTime":1801.95,"body":"as if their illness kind of constituted"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1801.95,"endTime":1803.72,"body":"their sole identity."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1803.72,"endTime":1806.66,"body":"Being labeled cripples"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1803.72,"endTime":1806.66,"body":"similarly stamped them"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1806.66,"endTime":1808.97,"body":"as deformed, hideous even."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1808.97,"endTime":1812.397,"body":"as Jim Marugg explained,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1812.397,"endTime":1814.31,"body":"\"I am not polio."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1814.31,"endTime":1818.45,"body":"I am bigger than this thing"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1814.31,"endTime":1818.45,"body":"that has happened to me.\""},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1818.45,"endTime":1820.88,"body":"Polio sufferers complained"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1818.45,"endTime":1820.88,"body":"about the huge pressures"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1820.88,"endTime":1824.42,"body":"placed upon them to"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1820.88,"endTime":1824.42,"body":"behave in certain ways."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1824.42,"endTime":1828.443,"body":"And by the way, these"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1824.42,"endTime":1828.443,"body":"things continue today."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1829.7,"endTime":1831.89,"body":"Perhaps most galling was the mantra"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1831.89,"endTime":1835.52,"body":"that cure, if not survival itself,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1835.52,"endTime":1839.15,"body":"depended on them fighting the virus"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1839.15,"endTime":1841.823,"body":"with every inch of strength"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1839.15,"endTime":1841.823,"body":"that they possessed."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1843.86,"endTime":1846.14,"body":"And they were expected to accept, embrace,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1846.14,"endTime":1851.14,"body":"the tough love of nurses and"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1846.14,"endTime":1851.14,"body":"other caregivers with a smile."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1851.51,"endTime":1855.17,"body":"In the 1930s, J. Brooks Emory"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1851.51,"endTime":1855.17,"body":"insisted that what was needed"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1855.17,"endTime":1860.123,"body":"was proper medical treatment"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1855.17,"endTime":1860.123,"body":"and the right attitude."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1860.99,"endTime":1863.15,"body":"Exaltations to be cheerful, gutsy,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1863.15,"endTime":1866.3,"body":"and relentlessly positive were endorsed"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1866.3,"endTime":1870.83,"body":"by the association for the"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1866.3,"endTime":1870.83,"body":"Aid of Crippled Children."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1870.83,"endTime":1874.61,"body":"They contended, so this is a"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1870.83,"endTime":1874.61,"body":"formal association for them,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1874.61,"endTime":1875.443,"body":"they contended that,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1875.443,"endTime":1879.707,"body":"\"The crippled child had"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1875.443,"endTime":1879.707,"body":"to express his, hmm,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1879.707,"endTime":1883.954,"body":"express his pain, his desires,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1879.707,"endTime":1883.954,"body":"his hopes, and his anguish"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1883.954,"endTime":1886.43,"body":"only in the most superficial manner."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1886.43,"endTime":1888.83,"body":"If he expresses his bitterness deeply"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1888.83,"endTime":1891.2,"body":"or with any sense of personal tragedy,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1891.2,"endTime":1894.41,"body":"he risks alienating the non-handicapped."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1894.41,"endTime":1896.45,"body":"As long as the handicapped individual"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1896.45,"endTime":1898.52,"body":"is cheerful and lighthearted,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1898.52,"endTime":1901.07,"body":"he is, like the jolly fat boy,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1901.07,"endTime":1904.67,"body":"usually accepted by his peers.\""},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1904.67,"endTime":1906.14,"body":"Posters published"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1906.14,"endTime":1909.89,"body":"by the National Foundation"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1906.14,"endTime":1909.89,"body":"for Infantile Paralysis"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1909.89,"endTime":1913.16,"body":"also sported cheery, brave children"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1913.16,"endTime":1915.26,"body":"who through sheer willpower"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1915.26,"endTime":1919.64,"body":"and passive submission"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1915.26,"endTime":1919.64,"body":"to doctors and nurses"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1919.64,"endTime":1921.38,"body":"would eventually be able to walk"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1921.38,"endTime":1925.01,"body":"across a fundraising"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1921.38,"endTime":1925.01,"body":"catwalk or sports field."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1925.01,"endTime":1928.76,"body":"Polio sufferers sought to"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1925.01,"endTime":1928.76,"body":"live up to such demands,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1928.76,"endTime":1932.84,"body":"nervous about not seeming"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1928.76,"endTime":1932.84,"body":"sufficiently grateful."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1932.84,"endTime":1935.81,"body":"This was the point being"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1932.84,"endTime":1935.81,"body":"made by Brenda Serotte"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1935.81,"endTime":1938.457,"body":"in her 2006 memoir entitled"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1938.457,"endTime":1941.78,"body":"\"The Fortune Teller's Kiss.\""},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1941.78,"endTime":1942.8,"body":"Serotte had been brought up"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1942.8,"endTime":1945.53,"body":"in a Jewish household of Turkish descent,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1945.53,"endTime":1947.27,"body":"living in the Bronx."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1947.27,"endTime":1950.81,"body":"1954, when she was eight years"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1947.27,"endTime":1950.81,"body":"old, she contracted polio"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1950.81,"endTime":1954.05,"body":"and was sent away to be cured."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1954.05,"endTime":1955.19,"body":"Like many young children,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1955.19,"endTime":1959.27,"body":"she believed that she was to"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1955.19,"endTime":1959.27,"body":"blame for becoming paralyzed."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1959.27,"endTime":1961.79,"body":"In her words, \"I got the impression"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1961.79,"endTime":1964.73,"body":"that I'd done something"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1961.79,"endTime":1964.73,"body":"really bad this time"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1964.73,"endTime":1966.65,"body":"to warrant such punishment.\""},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1966.65,"endTime":1967.587,"body":"She later recalled that she,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1967.587,"endTime":1972.47,"body":"\"heard the words guts so often"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1967.587,"endTime":1972.47,"body":"that by the time I was 10,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1972.47,"endTime":1975.23,"body":"it had become my mantra and middle name."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1975.23,"endTime":1978.17,"body":"All of us, every kid"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1975.23,"endTime":1978.17,"body":"at all three hospitals,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1978.17,"endTime":1981.89,"body":"was brave, courageous, gutsy.\""},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1981.89,"endTime":1984.77,"body":"Serotte admitted that"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1981.89,"endTime":1984.77,"body":"she was indoctrinated"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1984.77,"endTime":1986.037,"body":"with the idea that,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1986.037,"endTime":1989.393,"body":"\"I could do anything, miraculous things,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1992.193,"endTime":1995.12,"body":"but that I'd never, ever achieve"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1995.12,"endTime":1997.13,"body":"the physical mobility I wanted"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1997.13,"endTime":2001.78,"body":"unless I pushed harder than"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":1997.13,"endTime":2001.78,"body":"anyone else in the world."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2001.78,"endTime":2003.31,"body":"And if I did not reach my goal,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2003.31,"endTime":2005.212,"body":"it meant that I didn't work hard enough,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2005.212,"endTime":2007.27,"body":"didn't try my best.\""},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2007.27,"endTime":2011.11,"body":"Guts were necessary not"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2007.27,"endTime":2011.11,"body":"only for her own wellbeing,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2011.11,"endTime":2014.443,"body":"but also in order not"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2011.11,"endTime":2014.443,"body":"to let everyone down."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2015.88,"endTime":2019.15,"body":"A puritan worth ethic"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2015.88,"endTime":2019.15,"body":"pervaded the treatment,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2019.15,"endTime":2024.15,"body":"convincing polio patients to"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2019.15,"endTime":2024.15,"body":"work hard, harder, cheerfully"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2024.22,"endTime":2028.81,"body":"if they were to reap the"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2024.22,"endTime":2028.81,"body":"rewards of normality."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2028.81,"endTime":2029.89,"body":"Even in more recent years,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2029.89,"endTime":2033.19,"body":"the idea that suffering makes"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2029.89,"endTime":2033.19,"body":"a person better, stronger,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2033.19,"endTime":2034.87,"body":"appears time and again."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2034.87,"endTime":2038.62,"body":"As late as 1996, this was"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2034.87,"endTime":2038.62,"body":"the view of George Will"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2038.62,"endTime":2042.317,"body":"in an article about Roosevelt entitled,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2042.317,"endTime":2045.49,"body":"\"Don't Hide His Source of Strength.\""},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2045.49,"endTime":2047.65,"body":"According to Will's"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2045.49,"endTime":2047.65,"body":"Washington Post article,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2047.65,"endTime":2050.53,"body":"Roosevelt probably would"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2047.65,"endTime":2050.53,"body":"not have become president"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2050.53,"endTime":2052.3,"body":"and certainly would not have become"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2052.3,"endTime":2054.19,"body":"the tough president that he was"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2054.19,"endTime":2057.973,"body":"without passing through"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2054.19,"endTime":2057.973,"body":"the furnace of polio."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2059.86,"endTime":2062.35,"body":"In the US, major campaigns were started"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2062.35,"endTime":2065.8,"body":"to help alleviate the"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2062.35,"endTime":2065.8,"body":"sufferings of polio patients"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2065.8,"endTime":2067.03,"body":"and promote research."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2067.03,"endTime":2069.55,"body":"The most prominent is one"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2067.03,"endTime":2069.55,"body":"I've already mentioned;"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2069.55,"endTime":2073.68,"body":"that is, the National Foundation"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2069.55,"endTime":2073.68,"body":"for Infantile Paralysis."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2073.68,"endTime":2076.54,"body":"This was instigated by Roosevelt"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2076.54,"endTime":2078.97,"body":"who passed it on then to Basil O'Connor."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2078.97,"endTime":2082.453,"body":"They urged people to send"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2078.97,"endTime":2082.453,"body":"in small donations, dimes,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2083.95,"endTime":2085.9,"body":"directly to President Roosevelt."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2085.9,"endTime":2089.14,"body":"This was the March of Dimes,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2089.14,"endTime":2091.6,"body":"a term coined by the"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2089.14,"endTime":2091.6,"body":"comedian Eddie Cantor,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2091.6,"endTime":2093.67,"body":"a witty play on \"The March of Time,\""},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2093.67,"endTime":2097.45,"body":"which was a very popular newsreel series"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2097.45,"endTime":2098.803,"body":"shown in movie theaters."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2100.422,"endTime":2104.35,"body":"1938 alone, the March of Dimes"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2104.35,"endTime":2107.38,"body":"received $1.8 million worth of donations."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2107.38,"endTime":2111.94,"body":"By 1945, annual contributions"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2107.38,"endTime":2111.94,"body":"had reached 19 million."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2111.94,"endTime":2115.667,"body":"As one White House employer complained,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2115.667,"endTime":2118.24,"body":"\"The government of the United States"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2118.24,"endTime":2120.7,"body":"darned near stopped functioning"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2120.7,"endTime":2123.847,"body":"because we couldn't"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2120.7,"endTime":2123.847,"body":"clear away enough dimes.\""},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2124.84,"endTime":2126.91,"body":"These campaigns were based on a new model"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2126.91,"endTime":2130.84,"body":"of bottom up philanthropic fundraising."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2130.84,"endTime":2133.39,"body":"They saw mothers knocking"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2130.84,"endTime":2133.39,"body":"on neighbors doors,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2133.39,"endTime":2134.65,"body":"collecting money."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2134.65,"endTime":2137.38,"body":"The National Foundation"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2134.65,"endTime":2137.38,"body":"for Infantile Paralysis"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2137.38,"endTime":2142.38,"body":"actively argued against"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2137.38,"endTime":2142.38,"body":"federal funding for research."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2143.41,"endTime":2147.52,"body":"Why? It's communistic, anti-American."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2147.52,"endTime":2149.59,"body":"Of course, polio suffers fought back."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2149.59,"endTime":2151.93,"body":"Some survivors even claimed"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2151.93,"endTime":2154.0,"body":"that polio enhanced their talents."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2154.0,"endTime":2155.86,"body":"And I'm not going to"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2154.0,"endTime":2155.86,"body":"go through all of this,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2155.86,"endTime":2159.543,"body":"but there's a vast range"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2155.86,"endTime":2159.543,"body":"of artists and musicians"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2159.543,"endTime":2162.1,"body":"who survived polio."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2162.1,"endTime":2165.04,"body":"This is just a tiny, tiny group"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2165.04,"endTime":2166.93,"body":"of some of my favorites. (laughs)"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2166.93,"endTime":2170.47,"body":"You get my musical"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2166.93,"endTime":2170.47,"body":"tastes, I hope. (laughs)"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2170.47,"endTime":2173.083,"body":"And theater tastes. Anyway."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2174.73,"endTime":2177.071,"body":"Including, you know, Joni Mitchell,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2177.071,"endTime":2181.75,"body":"the reggae group Israel"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2177.071,"endTime":2181.75,"body":"Vibration, and so on and so on."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2181.75,"endTime":2185.74,"body":"And of course Ian Dury, if"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2181.75,"endTime":2185.74,"body":"you really want what I think."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2185.74,"endTime":2187.17,"body":"I mean, I dislike..."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2189.46,"endTime":2191.59,"body":"Not my kind of music, (laughs)"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2191.59,"endTime":2194.11,"body":"but if you really want"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2191.59,"endTime":2194.11,"body":"some really interesting"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2194.11,"endTime":2196.112,"body":"musical reflections on polio,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2196.112,"endTime":2198.85,"body":"this is where you go."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2198.85,"endTime":2200.86,"body":"You know, just go into YouTube,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2200.86,"endTime":2203.56,"body":"the \"Dance of the Screamers.\""},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2203.56,"endTime":2205.09,"body":"The title says it all."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2205.09,"endTime":2207.73,"body":"And \"Hey, Hey, Take Me Away,\""},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2207.73,"endTime":2209.32,"body":"which is about the institution"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2209.32,"endTime":2211.12,"body":"where he spent some time,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2211.12,"endTime":2213.88,"body":"really graphic descriptions"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2211.12,"endTime":2213.88,"body":"of sexual abuse"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2213.88,"endTime":2215.86,"body":"and casual violence."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2215.86,"endTime":2218.71,"body":"So just type that in and have a look,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2218.71,"endTime":2220.54,"body":"but turn down the volume."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2220.54,"endTime":2224.74,"body":"The campaign to reduce and"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2220.54,"endTime":2224.74,"body":"eventually eradicate polio"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2224.74,"endTime":2228.373,"body":"was led by scientists searching"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2224.74,"endTime":2228.373,"body":"for an effective vaccine."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2229.57,"endTime":2231.94,"body":"1930s saw some failed experiments."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2231.94,"endTime":2234.7,"body":"Most tragically, the vaccines created"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2234.7,"endTime":2236.08,"body":"independently, incidentally,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2236.08,"endTime":2239.98,"body":"by John Kolmer and Maurice Brodie"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2239.98,"endTime":2243.61,"body":"infected recipients and killed others"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2243.61,"endTime":2248.429,"body":"and did really damage in terms"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2243.61,"endTime":2248.429,"body":"of reputation of vaccines."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2248.429,"endTime":2250.87,"body":"Kolmer had tried to weaken the poliovirus"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2250.87,"endTime":2252.951,"body":"so that when it was injected into people,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2252.951,"endTime":2256.21,"body":"they would develop protective immunity."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2256.21,"endTime":2257.68,"body":"But when he tested his vaccine"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2257.68,"endTime":2261.25,"body":"on 10,000 American and Canadian children,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2261.25,"endTime":2264.58,"body":"10 became paralyzed and five died."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2264.58,"endTime":2269.58,"body":"Jonas Salk and Albert"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2264.58,"endTime":2269.58,"body":"Sabin were more fortunate."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2269.71,"endTime":2272.11,"body":"Salk created a killed vaccine"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2272.11,"endTime":2276.19,"body":"while Sabin experimented"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2272.11,"endTime":2276.19,"body":"with a live but weakened one."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2276.19,"endTime":2278.62,"body":"Now, the advantages of Sabin's vaccine"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2278.62,"endTime":2280.81,"body":"included the fact that it"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2278.62,"endTime":2280.81,"body":"could be administered orally,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2280.81,"endTime":2282.313,"body":"just on a sugar cube,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2283.27,"endTime":2287.5,"body":"and it stimulated the immune"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2283.27,"endTime":2287.5,"body":"system really, really quickly,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2287.5,"endTime":2290.447,"body":"while Salk's vaccine"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2287.5,"endTime":2290.447,"body":"required three injections"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2290.447,"endTime":2292.22,"body":"in addition to a booster"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2295.27,"endTime":2298.54,"body":"while Sabins only needed a single dose."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2298.54,"endTime":2302.831,"body":"Now, the story of the bitter"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2298.54,"endTime":2302.831,"body":"rivalry between these two men,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2302.831,"endTime":2307.831,"body":"both extremely competitive"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2302.831,"endTime":2307.831,"body":"and disagreeable men,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2308.44,"endTime":2310.3,"body":"has been told innumerable times"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2310.3,"endTime":2313.873,"body":"so I'm not going to tell this"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2310.3,"endTime":2313.873,"body":"very familiar story here."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2315.04,"endTime":2318.22,"body":"Their differences were really"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2315.04,"endTime":2318.22,"body":"as much about personal style"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2318.22,"endTime":2321.19,"body":"as about scientific content."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2321.19,"endTime":2323.29,"body":"It was a medical drama"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2321.19,"endTime":2323.29,"body":"that drew its oxygen"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2323.29,"endTime":2326.32,"body":"from the structure of"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2323.29,"endTime":2326.32,"body":"the US healthcare system,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2326.32,"endTime":2329.59,"body":"the early growth of"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2326.32,"endTime":2329.59,"body":"virology as a discipline,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2329.59,"endTime":2333.64,"body":"the politics of the"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2329.59,"endTime":2333.64,"body":"Depression and the Cold War."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2333.64,"endTime":2337.45,"body":"Unfortunately, their legendary rivalry"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2337.45,"endTime":2339.16,"body":"has led historians of science"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2339.16,"endTime":2342.22,"body":"to overlook the scientific genius"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2342.22,"endTime":2345.31,"body":"of a John's Hopkins University virologist"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2345.31,"endTime":2347.65,"body":"called Isabel Morgan."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2347.65,"endTime":2350.02,"body":"She was actually the first scientist"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2350.02,"endTime":2353.323,"body":"to identify the three"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2350.02,"endTime":2353.323,"body":"serotypes of poliovirus,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2354.517,"endTime":2356.53,"body":"all of which needed to"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2354.517,"endTime":2356.53,"body":"be taken into account"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2356.53,"endTime":2359.02,"body":"if you're going to have"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2356.53,"endTime":2359.02,"body":"a successful vaccine."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2359.02,"endTime":2360.91,"body":"Her killed virus vaccine"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2360.91,"endTime":2365.29,"body":"culminated in the approval"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2360.91,"endTime":2365.29,"body":"of Salk's vaccine in 1955."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2365.29,"endTime":2368.39,"body":"Morgan did not reap the"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2365.29,"endTime":2368.39,"body":"benefits of her research"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2369.49,"endTime":2373.18,"body":"because in 1949, when she was"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2369.49,"endTime":2373.18,"body":"at the height of her career,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2373.18,"endTime":2377.14,"body":"she married, leaving"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2373.18,"endTime":2377.14,"body":"her laboratory behind."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2377.14,"endTime":2380.08,"body":"It was Salk's research"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2377.14,"endTime":2380.08,"body":"that initially triumphed."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2380.08,"endTime":2383.56,"body":"He was ruthless, keen for"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2380.08,"endTime":2383.56,"body":"scientific breakthroughs."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2383.56,"endTime":2386.27,"body":"He tested the virus on"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2383.56,"endTime":2386.27,"body":"his wife and children"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2387.31,"endTime":2388.72,"body":"before setting out to persuade"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2388.72,"endTime":2391.39,"body":"millions of parents and teachers"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2391.39,"endTime":2395.38,"body":"to allow their children to"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2391.39,"endTime":2395.38,"body":"become guinea pigs, effectively."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2395.38,"endTime":2397.84,"body":"His field trial was the largest test"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2397.84,"endTime":2400.99,"body":"of a medical product in the US."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2400.99,"endTime":2405.91,"body":"It eventually involved 1.8 million people,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2405.91,"endTime":2408.16,"body":"some of whom were given the vaccine,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2408.16,"endTime":2412.0,"body":"others were given a"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2408.16,"endTime":2412.0,"body":"placebo, a saline injection,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2412.0,"endTime":2413.5,"body":"others were given nothing."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2413.5,"endTime":2416.44,"body":"So it was also a double blind trial,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2416.44,"endTime":2418.53,"body":"so this was a really big trial."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2418.53,"endTime":2421.27,"body":"It was also a double blind trial."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2421.27,"endTime":2424.87,"body":"In other words, neither the"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2421.27,"endTime":2424.87,"body":"doctors giving the injections,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2424.87,"endTime":2427.81,"body":"nor the participants knew whether or not"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2427.81,"endTime":2429.703,"body":"they had actually been vaccinated."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2430.57,"endTime":2433.06,"body":"The trial was a sensation,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2433.06,"endTime":2437.02,"body":"with the first shot being given"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2433.06,"endTime":2437.02,"body":"on the 26th of April, 1954,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2437.02,"endTime":2438.97,"body":"to this little boy here,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2438.97,"endTime":2442.9,"body":"Randy Kerr of Fairfax County, Virginia."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2442.9,"endTime":2445.18,"body":"And the results concluded that the vaccine"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2445.18,"endTime":2450.18,"body":"was between 60 and 80% effective."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2450.97,"endTime":2453.73,"body":"Showing a cavalier attitude to accuracy,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2453.73,"endTime":2455.47,"body":"newspapers throughout the country"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2455.47,"endTime":2457.573,"body":"declared polio was conquered."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2458.837,"endTime":2460.54,"body":"60 to 80% efficiency."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2460.54,"endTime":2461.373,"body":"I mean, goodness."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2461.373,"endTime":2462.88,"body":"Anyway, polio was conquered."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2462.88,"endTime":2465.19,"body":"Salk became the celebrity scientist,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2465.19,"endTime":2468.73,"body":"much to the annoyance of his team,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2468.73,"endTime":2470.38,"body":"members of his laboratory,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2470.38,"endTime":2473.473,"body":"whom he somehow forgot to credit."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2474.4,"endTime":2476.38,"body":"Many scientists, including Morgan,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2476.38,"endTime":2478.42,"body":"contributed to Salk's success,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2478.42,"endTime":2482.023,"body":"but their names were buried"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2478.42,"endTime":2482.023,"body":"under a colossal clinical ego."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2482.92,"endTime":2484.87,"body":"The adulation came to an end."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2484.87,"endTime":2486.973,"body":"In the US, unlike Canada,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2488.38,"endTime":2491.87,"body":"private drug companies manufactured"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2492.79,"endTime":2495.493,"body":"and distributed the"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2492.79,"endTime":2495.493,"body":"virus, the vaccine, sorry,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2496.81,"endTime":2498.46,"body":"in the spring of 1955."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2498.46,"endTime":2500.71,"body":"So it's private drug companies,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2500.71,"endTime":2502.483,"body":"unlike in Canada, where it's state."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2503.804,"endTime":2506.5,"body":"Spring 1955, one of these companies,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2506.5,"endTime":2509.5,"body":"Cutter Laboratories in"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2506.5,"endTime":2509.5,"body":"Berkeley, California,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2509.5,"endTime":2514.27,"body":"released six lots of the"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2509.5,"endTime":2514.27,"body":"Salk anti-polio vaccine"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2514.27,"endTime":2517.36,"body":"that contained live poliovirus."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2517.36,"endTime":2522.36,"body":"They had not tested their"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2517.36,"endTime":2522.36,"body":"vaccine lots sufficiently."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2522.4,"endTime":2526.18,"body":"What used to take four"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2522.4,"endTime":2526.18,"body":"weeks to test in 1954"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2526.18,"endTime":2528.79,"body":"was taking only one day in 1955."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2528.79,"endTime":2530.2,"body":"Think profits."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2530.2,"endTime":2532.45,"body":"In other words, their"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2530.2,"endTime":2532.45,"body":"manufacturing processes"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2532.45,"endTime":2536.56,"body":"had not fully inactivated the virus."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2536.56,"endTime":2540.55,"body":"Salk had assumed that there"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2536.56,"endTime":2540.55,"body":"was a linear relationship"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2540.55,"endTime":2543.22,"body":"between the amount of virus"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2543.22,"endTime":2546.88,"body":"that would be killed by these chemicals"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2546.88,"endTime":2549.55,"body":"and the length of time"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2546.88,"endTime":2549.55,"body":"taken to treat the virus."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2549.55,"endTime":2551.41,"body":"This was mistaken."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2551.41,"endTime":2555.22,"body":"200 people became ill with polio. 11 died."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2555.22,"endTime":2557.62,"body":"It was a disaster that is often compared"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2557.62,"endTime":2560.74,"body":"with other tragedies"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2557.62,"endTime":2560.74,"body":"associated with vaccines,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2560.74,"endTime":2564.67,"body":"such as the 1930 Lubeck tragedy"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2564.67,"endTime":2568.093,"body":"in which the BCG vaccine,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2564.67,"endTime":2568.093,"body":"which I spoke about last time,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2570.28,"endTime":2574.09,"body":"infected 173 neonates"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2574.09,"endTime":2577.03,"body":"with TB and killed 72,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2577.03,"endTime":2579.01,"body":"the vaccines against yellow fever"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2579.01,"endTime":2582.37,"body":"administered to US Army troops 1942,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2582.37,"endTime":2586.24,"body":"which led them to contract hepatitis B,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2586.24,"endTime":2587.5,"body":"and so on and so on."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2587.5,"endTime":2592.5,"body":"In the case of polio, a"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2587.5,"endTime":2592.5,"body":"lawsuit subsequently cleared"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2592.96,"endTime":2595.913,"body":"Cutter Laboratories of negligence,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2595.913,"endTime":2600.19,"body":"but made them liable for damages."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2600.19,"endTime":2603.28,"body":"This is an important legal ruling,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2603.28,"endTime":2607.66,"body":"because it meant that even if"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2603.28,"endTime":2607.66,"body":"a company was not at fault,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2607.66,"endTime":2610.27,"body":"they could still be forced to pay damages."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2610.27,"endTime":2612.67,"body":"Some commentators claim"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2610.27,"endTime":2612.67,"body":"that this legal doctrine"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2612.67,"endTime":2614.35,"body":"of liability without fault"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2614.35,"endTime":2616.51,"body":"is at least partially responsible"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2616.51,"endTime":2619.24,"body":"for the hesitancy of"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2616.51,"endTime":2619.24,"body":"pharmaceutical companies"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2619.24,"endTime":2622.21,"body":"to produce vaccines subsequently."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2622.21,"endTime":2625.09,"body":"The Cutter incident had major effects."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2625.09,"endTime":2626.98,"body":"The American Medical Association"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2626.98,"endTime":2630.85,"body":"accused the National Foundation"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2626.98,"endTime":2630.85,"body":"for Infantile Paralysis"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2630.85,"endTime":2633.73,"body":"of chasing profits and acclaim"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2633.73,"endTime":2636.52,"body":"at the expense of scientific precision."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2636.52,"endTime":2638.38,"body":"It was pointed out that too much pressure"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2638.38,"endTime":2640.36,"body":"was being placed on manufacturers"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2640.36,"endTime":2642.5,"body":"to distribute a magic bullet"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2643.6,"endTime":2647.2,"body":"to solve the problems of complex diseases."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2647.2,"endTime":2650.59,"body":"The furore also shifted"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2647.2,"endTime":2650.59,"body":"attention to Sabin's research"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2650.59,"endTime":2653.563,"body":"into the live virus vaccine."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2655.63,"endTime":2658.57,"body":"Due to the fact tensions"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2655.63,"endTime":2658.57,"body":"between the US and Russia"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2658.57,"endTime":2663.57,"body":"had improved with the"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2658.57,"endTime":2663.57,"body":"death of Stalin in 1953,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2663.91,"endTime":2667.39,"body":"Sabin was able to collaborate"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2663.91,"endTime":2667.39,"body":"with Russian scientists."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2667.39,"endTime":2672.13,"body":"Together they vaccinated 10"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2667.39,"endTime":2672.13,"body":"million Russian children,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2672.13,"endTime":2675.73,"body":"demonstrating that"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2672.13,"endTime":2675.73,"body":"Sabin's vaccine was safe."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2675.73,"endTime":2677.35,"body":"Now, the introduction of vaccine"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2677.35,"endTime":2681.533,"body":"was followed by a steep decline"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2677.35,"endTime":2681.533,"body":"in the incidence of polio,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2681.533,"endTime":2684.73,"body":"but it didn't benefit everyone."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2684.73,"endTime":2688.543,"body":"Polio survivors found"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2684.73,"endTime":2688.543,"body":"themselves sidelined."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2689.92,"endTime":2690.82,"body":"There were other"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2690.82,"endTime":2695.23,"body":"more exciting scientific"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2690.82,"endTime":2695.23,"body":"challenges to conquer."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2695.23,"endTime":2699.04,"body":"The vaccine dramatically"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2695.23,"endTime":2699.04,"body":"reduced the incidence of polio,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2699.04,"endTime":2701.44,"body":"however, had a less positive effect"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2701.44,"endTime":2705.04,"body":"for patients who had"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2701.44,"endTime":2705.04,"body":"already been infected."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2705.04,"endTime":2708.58,"body":"These patients had been"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2705.04,"endTime":2708.58,"body":"praised for their guts,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2708.58,"endTime":2710.852,"body":"their courage, their resilience."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2710.852,"endTime":2713.59,"body":"After the success of vaccinations,"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2713.59,"endTime":2716.8,"body":"they were cast aside"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2713.59,"endTime":2716.8,"body":"and basically forgotten."},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2716.8,"endTime":2718.03,"body":"As distinguished writer"},{"speaker":"entitled \"Paralysis","startTime":2718.03,"endTime":2720.4,"body":"and polio survivor Ton Gould put it"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2720.4,"endTime":2724.33,"body":"Polio and its Survivors,\""},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2724.33,"endTime":2727.3,"body":"he came from \"a generation"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2724.33,"endTime":2727.3,"body":"of polio patients"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2727.3,"endTime":2731.17,"body":"who had been born too soon."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2731.17,"endTime":2735.37,"body":"They were suddenly ignored"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2731.17,"endTime":2735.37,"body":"as embarrassing emblems"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2735.37,"endTime":2737.8,"body":"of their own poor timing,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2737.8,"endTime":2741.16,"body":"clumsy enough to get"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2737.8,"endTime":2741.16,"body":"polio before the vaccine"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2741.16,"endTime":2744.19,"body":"that could have protected them was found.\""},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2744.19,"endTime":2748.61,"body":"Even worse, 40 years after"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2749.71,"endTime":2753.67,"body":"the acute polio phase,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2753.67,"endTime":2757.93,"body":"polio sufferers who thought"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2753.67,"endTime":2757.93,"body":"that actually they were better,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2757.93,"endTime":2761.47,"body":"so 40 years after they"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2757.93,"endTime":2761.47,"body":"thought they were better,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2761.47,"endTime":2766.47,"body":"suddenly there was a"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2761.47,"endTime":2766.47,"body":"revival of their symptoms,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2767.53,"endTime":2770.5,"body":"especially severe muscle"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2767.53,"endTime":2770.5,"body":"fatigue, joint and muscle pain,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2770.5,"endTime":2774.19,"body":"cold intolerance, gastrointestinal upsets,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2774.19,"endTime":2775.48,"body":"and sleep difficulties."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2775.48,"endTime":2778.06,"body":"Okay, now so far in this talk,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2778.06,"endTime":2780.763,"body":"my talk has been really"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2778.06,"endTime":2780.763,"body":"terribly homogenizing."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2783.34,"endTime":2785.95,"body":"You know, we have to"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2783.34,"endTime":2785.95,"body":"remember the effect of racism"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2785.95,"endTime":2790.218,"body":"and the effect of ableism to the story."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2790.218,"endTime":2793.78,"body":"Pathographies are illness narratives,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2793.78,"endTime":2796.0,"body":"so people who are ill writing their story,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2796.0,"endTime":2797.89,"body":"illness narratives."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2797.89,"endTime":2800.53,"body":"These are ones that prioritize"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2800.53,"endTime":2804.22,"body":"the voices of the sick, of patients."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2804.22,"endTime":2805.93,"body":"These are highly biased"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2805.93,"endTime":2810.13,"body":"towards white, educated,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2805.93,"endTime":2810.13,"body":"middle class patients,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2810.13,"endTime":2812.77,"body":"many of of whom actually"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2810.13,"endTime":2812.77,"body":"were professional writers"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2812.77,"endTime":2814.6,"body":"before they got the disease."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2814.6,"endTime":2818.74,"body":"Polio survivors of color are"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2814.6,"endTime":2818.74,"body":"less visible to the historians"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2818.74,"endTime":2821.98,"body":"because they're typically"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2818.74,"endTime":2821.98,"body":"cared for in general hospitals,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2821.98,"endTime":2824.92,"body":"which lack specialist treatment facilities"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2824.92,"endTime":2828.439,"body":"and lack the detailed archival traces"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2828.439,"endTime":2833.26,"body":"that specialist and private"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2828.439,"endTime":2833.26,"body":"hospitals often possess."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2833.26,"endTime":2837.34,"body":"The much lauded Polio Hospital"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2833.26,"endTime":2837.34,"body":"at Warm Springs, Georgia,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2837.34,"endTime":2839.53,"body":"which was frequented by Roosevelt,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2839.53,"endTime":2842.239,"body":"who invested huge amount of money in it,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2842.239,"endTime":2845.71,"body":"famously swimming his way to health,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2845.71,"endTime":2848.68,"body":"excluded African Americans from treatment."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2848.68,"endTime":2851.68,"body":"Segregation led to the"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2848.68,"endTime":2851.68,"body":"establishment in 1941"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2851.68,"endTime":2854.17,"body":"of the Tuskegee Infantile Paralysis Center"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2854.17,"endTime":2855.94,"body":"for African American sufferers,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2855.94,"endTime":2857.08,"body":"which also, by the way,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2857.08,"endTime":2859.3,"body":"trained black medical personnel"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2859.3,"endTime":2861.34,"body":"to work in their communities."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2861.34,"endTime":2863.439,"body":"There was even the"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2861.34,"endTime":2863.439,"body":"belief that black people"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2863.439,"endTime":2867.039,"body":"were immune to polio,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2867.039,"endTime":2870.82,"body":"a useful justification for underfunding."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2870.82,"endTime":2872.89,"body":"The result was a higher mortality rate"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2872.89,"endTime":2874.69,"body":"for black sufferers of polio"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2874.69,"endTime":2876.13,"body":"as John Chenault,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2876.13,"endTime":2880.72,"body":"the head of orthopedic surgery"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2876.13,"endTime":2880.72,"body":"at Tuskegee's University,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2880.72,"endTime":2882.798,"body":"John Andrew Memorial Hospital,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2882.798,"endTime":2884.53,"body":"and later director"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2884.53,"endTime":2887.89,"body":"of the hospital's"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2884.53,"endTime":2887.89,"body":"infantile paralysis unit,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2887.89,"endTime":2889.72,"body":"was able to demonstrate."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2889.72,"endTime":2891.2,"body":"The fact that Sabin"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2892.09,"endTime":2896.563,"body":"tested his vaccines on"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2892.09,"endTime":2896.563,"body":"incarcerated prisoners in Ohio,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2897.88,"endTime":2898.96,"body":"you know, just think about,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2898.96,"endTime":2902.077,"body":"you know, consent issues here,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2902.077,"endTime":2904.24,"body":"the fact that he tested his vaccines"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2904.24,"endTime":2906.28,"body":"on incarcerated prisoners in Ohio"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2906.28,"endTime":2910.24,"body":"also meant that there was a"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2906.28,"endTime":2910.24,"body":"disproportionate experimenting"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2910.24,"endTime":2911.92,"body":"on people of color."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2911.92,"endTime":2915.64,"body":"Ableism was also prominent,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2911.92,"endTime":2915.64,"body":"and I mean this two ways."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2915.64,"endTime":2919.6,"body":"First, humans at the bottom"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2915.64,"endTime":2919.6,"body":"of the ableist pecking order"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2919.6,"endTime":2920.98,"body":"were fair game."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2920.98,"endTime":2925.33,"body":"The first person to test"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2920.98,"endTime":2925.33,"body":"a live virus on humans"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2925.33,"endTime":2927.97,"body":"was Hilary Koprowski"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2927.97,"endTime":2931.99,"body":"at the privately funded"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2927.97,"endTime":2931.99,"body":"Lederle Laboratories."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2931.99,"endTime":2934.69,"body":"His subjects, who did he test them on,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2934.69,"endTime":2939.69,"body":"were young, feeble minded, and epileptics"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2939.877,"endTime":2942.49,"body":"at the Letchworth Village in New York."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2942.49,"endTime":2943.99,"body":"When Salk was given approval"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2943.99,"endTime":2947.44,"body":"by the National Foundation for"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2943.99,"endTime":2947.44,"body":"Infantile Paralysis in 1951"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2947.44,"endTime":2949.96,"body":"to test his vaccine on humans,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2949.96,"endTime":2952.69,"body":"up until this time he"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2949.96,"endTime":2952.69,"body":"was testing on monkeys,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2952.69,"endTime":2954.22,"body":"he turned to the residents"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2954.22,"endTime":2957.31,"body":"of the D.T. Watson Home"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2954.22,"endTime":2957.31,"body":"for Crippled Children"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2957.31,"endTime":2961.72,"body":"and the Polk School for the"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2957.31,"endTime":2961.72,"body":"Retarded and Feeble Minded."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2961.72,"endTime":2966.72,"body":"He bypassed parental"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2961.72,"endTime":2966.72,"body":"consent for the experiments,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2966.88,"endTime":2969.67,"body":"most of the parents of the children"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2969.67,"endTime":2972.13,"body":"had IQs under 50 anyway,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2972.13,"endTime":2975.22,"body":"by persuading the"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2972.13,"endTime":2975.22,"body":"Pennsylvanian state authorities"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2975.22,"endTime":2977.41,"body":"that the experiments"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2977.41,"endTime":2980.92,"body":"were a humanitarian enterprise."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2980.92,"endTime":2985.92,"body":"Second, ableism was"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2980.92,"endTime":2985.92,"body":"contested by polio sufferers."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2986.47,"endTime":2989.89,"body":"Speaking out against the"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2986.47,"endTime":2989.89,"body":"unrealistic expectations"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2989.89,"endTime":2994.48,"body":"and individualization of illness"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2989.89,"endTime":2994.48,"body":"was not a new phenomenon."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2994.48,"endTime":2996.88,"body":"As we have seen, popular"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2994.48,"endTime":2996.88,"body":"prejudices dictated"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2996.88,"endTime":2999.19,"body":"that patients and their families"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2999.19,"endTime":3003.39,"body":"had to adopt, were expected"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":2999.19,"endTime":3003.39,"body":"to adopt the hard way,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3003.39,"endTime":3005.7,"body":"making true men breadwinners"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3005.7,"endTime":3009.06,"body":"and good women wives and"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3005.7,"endTime":3009.06,"body":"mothers of sufferers."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3009.06,"endTime":3012.33,"body":"This is what sociologist"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3009.06,"endTime":3012.33,"body":"Irving Kenneth Zola"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3012.33,"endTime":3015.697,"body":"was fuming against when he noted that,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3015.697,"endTime":3020.16,"body":"\"If a Franklin D. Roosevelt"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3015.697,"endTime":3020.16,"body":"could overcome handicaps,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3020.16,"endTime":3024.12,"body":"so could and should all the disabled."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3024.12,"endTime":3026.137,"body":"And if we fail,\" he was a sufferer,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3026.137,"endTime":3028.8,"body":"\"And if we fail, it's our problem,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3028.8,"endTime":3032.52,"body":"our personality defect, our weakness.\""},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3032.52,"endTime":3035.97,"body":"This is what early disability experts,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3035.97,"endTime":3038.31,"body":"activists, I should say, fought."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3038.31,"endTime":3039.9,"body":"So just to conclude,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3039.9,"endTime":3043.68,"body":"the talk started with the Great"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3039.9,"endTime":3043.68,"body":"Cat Massacre of July 1916,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3043.68,"endTime":3046.83,"body":"during which 72,000 New"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3043.68,"endTime":3046.83,"body":"York cats were killed"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3046.83,"endTime":3048.78,"body":"as a result of a polio scare."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3048.78,"endTime":3053.37,"body":"The Great Cat Massacre"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3048.78,"endTime":3053.37,"body":"fused fears of wild cats,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3053.37,"endTime":3056.19,"body":"including the leader of tack cats,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3056.19,"endTime":3061.19,"body":"the tailless mauve Wang from Formosa,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3061.41,"endTime":3065.97,"body":"with itinerants and morally"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3061.41,"endTime":3065.97,"body":"suspect night workers."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3065.97,"endTime":3069.39,"body":"The virus that caused polio"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3065.97,"endTime":3069.39,"body":"devastated millions of lives,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3069.39,"endTime":3071.67,"body":"and we owe huge debt to the scientists"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3071.67,"endTime":3072.81,"body":"and other medical personnel"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3072.81,"endTime":3076.5,"body":"who sought and eventually"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3072.81,"endTime":3076.5,"body":"succeeded in creating a vaccine"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3076.5,"endTime":3079.14,"body":"that would protect people in the future."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3079.14,"endTime":3080.85,"body":"They did so at a cost"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3080.85,"endTime":3082.38,"body":"through exploiting the vulnerabilities"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3082.38,"endTime":3084.12,"body":"of children from poor homes,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3084.12,"endTime":3086.52,"body":"children and adults with"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3084.12,"endTime":3086.52,"body":"learning difficulties,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3086.52,"endTime":3088.74,"body":"prisoners, and people of color."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3088.74,"endTime":3093.48,"body":"The fight back was slow"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3088.74,"endTime":3093.48,"body":"coming, but determined."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3093.48,"endTime":3098.48,"body":"People who had been stigmatized"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3093.48,"endTime":3098.48,"body":"as polios or cripples"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3098.58,"endTime":3100.74,"body":"refused the label."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3100.74,"endTime":3103.35,"body":"Through consciousness"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3100.74,"endTime":3103.35,"body":"raising and activism,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3103.35,"endTime":3105.6,"body":"they insisted not only on their rights"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3105.6,"endTime":3109.17,"body":"to accessible physical and social spaces,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3109.17,"endTime":3112.35,"body":"but also on their complex humanity."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3112.35,"endTime":3115.14,"body":"In this way, polio"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3112.35,"endTime":3115.14,"body":"survivors were important"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3115.14,"endTime":3117.09,"body":"in the disability"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3117.09,"endTime":3121.17,"body":"and patients' rights movements,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3121.17,"endTime":3123.3,"body":"drawing inspiration from"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3123.3,"endTime":3126.45,"body":"and inspiring LGBT activism,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3126.45,"endTime":3129.42,"body":"women's liberation, students' activism,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3129.42,"endTime":3131.58,"body":"anti-nuclear campaigns."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3131.58,"endTime":3134.64,"body":"They started mobilizing against a world"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3134.64,"endTime":3138.36,"body":"where their needs were willfully ignored,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3138.36,"endTime":3140.583,"body":"or worse, denied."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3141.96,"endTime":3145.92,"body":"Early targets were curbs,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3141.96,"endTime":3145.92,"body":"steps, inaccessible bathrooms."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3145.92,"endTime":3147.63,"body":"Men like Ed Roberts, for example,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3147.63,"endTime":3149.49,"body":"was the first wheelchair user"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3149.49,"endTime":3151.86,"body":"to attend the University"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3149.49,"endTime":3151.86,"body":"of California Berkeley,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3151.86,"endTime":3154.56,"body":"where he lobbied for"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3151.86,"endTime":3154.56,"body":"wheelchair access, counseling,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3154.56,"endTime":3158.4,"body":"and services that would"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3154.56,"endTime":3158.4,"body":"enable disabled people"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3158.4,"endTime":3160.29,"body":"to live in the community."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3160.29,"endTime":3162.72,"body":"He was the founder of the advocacy group,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3162.72,"endTime":3165.98,"body":"The Center for Independent Living."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3165.98,"endTime":3169.2,"body":"Disability activists"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3165.98,"endTime":3169.2,"body":"resisted the assumption"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3169.2,"endTime":3172.32,"body":"by people in \"normal land,\""},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3172.32,"endTime":3177.32,"body":"otherwise known as TABs,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3172.32,"endTime":3177.32,"body":"temporarily able bodied,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3177.36,"endTime":3182.01,"body":"for assuming that polio"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3177.36,"endTime":3182.01,"body":"survivors possessed an identity"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3182.01,"endTime":3184.63,"body":"entirely fixed or fixed entirely"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3185.67,"endTime":3188.37,"body":"according to their impediment."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3188.37,"endTime":3190.71,"body":"They were increasingly suspicious"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3190.71,"endTime":3194.79,"body":"of the tyranny of the medical examiner."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3194.79,"endTime":3198.69,"body":"And crucially, they contested the idea"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3198.69,"endTime":3203.31,"body":"that a virus alone creates a disability."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3203.31,"endTime":3208.29,"body":"Rather, scientific ideologies,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3203.31,"endTime":3208.29,"body":"public understandings,"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3208.29,"endTime":3212.37,"body":"social policy, all interact with a virus"},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3212.37,"endTime":3216.423,"body":"to create a disease labeled a disability."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3217.29,"endTime":3219.27,"body":"And that's all I've got to say."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3219.27,"endTime":3220.181,"body":"Thank you."},{"speaker":"in \"A Summer Plague","startTime":3220.181,"endTime":3223.348,"body":"(audience applauding)"}]}