{"version":"1.0.0","segments":[{"startTime":0.15,"endTime":3.09,"body":"- So what I want to talk"},{"startTime":0.15,"endTime":3.09,"body":"to you tonight about is,"},{"startTime":3.09,"endTime":4.56,"body":"as I did in the previous lecture,"},{"startTime":4.56,"endTime":7.35,"body":"about the invisible,"},{"startTime":4.56,"endTime":7.35,"body":"about very small microbes,"},{"startTime":7.35,"endTime":9.72,"body":"but tonight, I want to focus primarily"},{"startTime":9.72,"endTime":13.14,"body":"on what these things create"},{"startTime":9.72,"endTime":13.14,"body":"that we can see with our eyes,"},{"startTime":13.14,"endTime":16.2,"body":"and in fact, what we can see"},{"startTime":13.14,"endTime":16.2,"body":"in truly gargantuan fashion."},{"startTime":16.2,"endTime":18.03,"body":"I want to talk a bit about"},{"startTime":18.03,"endTime":21.54,"body":"how tiny, invisible things"},{"startTime":18.03,"endTime":21.54,"body":"can create the world around us"},{"startTime":21.54,"endTime":24.6,"body":"and some of the largest"},{"startTime":21.54,"endTime":24.6,"body":"structures on the planet."},{"startTime":24.6,"endTime":26.13,"body":"I'm going to start with this picture"},{"startTime":26.13,"endTime":27.78,"body":"that you can see in front of you."},{"startTime":27.78,"endTime":29.61,"body":"So this, for anyone who's been there,"},{"startTime":29.61,"endTime":32.22,"body":"is Shark Bay, in Australia,"},{"startTime":32.22,"endTime":34.32,"body":"a very nice place to visit on holiday,"},{"startTime":34.32,"endTime":36.96,"body":"and it's full of these"},{"startTime":34.32,"endTime":36.96,"body":"structures in the water,"},{"startTime":36.96,"endTime":39.81,"body":"which, in this image, look like rocks,"},{"startTime":39.81,"endTime":41.76,"body":"but these are not rocks, actually,"},{"startTime":41.76,"endTime":43.71,"body":"these are things called stromatolites,"},{"startTime":43.71,"endTime":46.38,"body":"and these are one of the oldest and still,"},{"startTime":46.38,"endTime":50.37,"body":"I think, most amazing"},{"startTime":46.38,"endTime":50.37,"body":"microbial structures we have."},{"startTime":50.37,"endTime":51.203,"body":"They're very large,"},{"startTime":51.203,"endTime":52.83,"body":"you can stand on one of these things,"},{"startTime":52.83,"endTime":55.41,"body":"but if you slice through a stromatolite,"},{"startTime":55.41,"endTime":57.99,"body":"you see an image that looks"},{"startTime":55.41,"endTime":57.99,"body":"a little bit like this,"},{"startTime":57.99,"endTime":60.27,"body":"layer upon layer, a bit like a tree ring,"},{"startTime":60.27,"endTime":63.933,"body":"or some kind of layered pancake structure,"},{"startTime":65.01,"endTime":68.13,"body":"and this tells you that a"},{"startTime":65.01,"endTime":68.13,"body":"stromatolite is not a rock,"},{"startTime":68.13,"endTime":71.1,"body":"it's not a boulder, it is"},{"startTime":68.13,"endTime":71.1,"body":"something that has been created,"},{"startTime":71.1,"endTime":72.66,"body":"and it's been created by microbes,"},{"startTime":72.66,"endTime":74.28,"body":"because each of these layers"},{"startTime":74.28,"endTime":77.91,"body":"is a layer of photosynthetic"},{"startTime":74.28,"endTime":77.91,"body":"microorganisms"},{"startTime":77.91,"endTime":81.272,"body":"that have sat, and they"},{"startTime":77.91,"endTime":81.272,"body":"have photosynthesized,"},{"startTime":81.272,"endTime":84.93,"body":"they have secreted and"},{"startTime":81.272,"endTime":84.93,"body":"gained around them minerals"},{"startTime":84.93,"endTime":87.84,"body":"that have, over time,"},{"startTime":84.93,"endTime":87.84,"body":"formed into a stony layer,"},{"startTime":87.84,"endTime":90.27,"body":"actually trapping the"},{"startTime":87.84,"endTime":90.27,"body":"microbes and killing them,"},{"startTime":90.27,"endTime":92.91,"body":"and then a new layer of"},{"startTime":90.27,"endTime":92.91,"body":"microbes forms on top,"},{"startTime":92.91,"endTime":95.19,"body":"starts depositing more minerals,"},{"startTime":95.19,"endTime":97.5,"body":"and so the stromatolite grows."},{"startTime":97.5,"endTime":99.33,"body":"And over a long period of time,"},{"startTime":99.33,"endTime":102.42,"body":"you get these really"},{"startTime":99.33,"endTime":102.42,"body":"gargantuan rock structures"},{"startTime":102.42,"endTime":106.173,"body":"that are entirely products"},{"startTime":102.42,"endTime":106.173,"body":"of a microbial source."},{"startTime":107.34,"endTime":109.8,"body":"This is one of the oldest"},{"startTime":107.34,"endTime":109.8,"body":"types of microbial structure"},{"startTime":109.8,"endTime":110.633,"body":"we know about."},{"startTime":110.633,"endTime":114.12,"body":"And we know that stromatolites"},{"startTime":110.633,"endTime":114.12,"body":"back billions of years ago"},{"startTime":114.12,"endTime":115.71,"body":"actually were incredibly abundant."},{"startTime":115.71,"endTime":117.54,"body":"Today we see very few of them."},{"startTime":117.54,"endTime":120.244,"body":"And one of the reasons"},{"startTime":117.54,"endTime":120.244,"body":"we think that may be"},{"startTime":120.244,"endTime":123.0,"body":"is that later on during evolutionary time,"},{"startTime":123.0,"endTime":125.37,"body":"animals evolved at eight that grazed"},{"startTime":125.37,"endTime":127.59,"body":"these frozen synthetic organisms."},{"startTime":127.59,"endTime":128.97,"body":"And so they removed the layer"},{"startTime":128.97,"endTime":131.4,"body":"before the stromatolites"},{"startTime":128.97,"endTime":131.4,"body":"could get started,"},{"startTime":131.4,"endTime":133.47,"body":"which is why today we"},{"startTime":131.4,"endTime":133.47,"body":"only see stromatolites"},{"startTime":133.47,"endTime":136.32,"body":"in certain geographical locations."},{"startTime":136.32,"endTime":139.17,"body":"But about one and a"},{"startTime":136.32,"endTime":139.17,"body":"quarter billion years ago,"},{"startTime":139.17,"endTime":141.99,"body":"these were incredibly abundant"},{"startTime":139.17,"endTime":141.99,"body":"over most of the world."},{"startTime":141.99,"endTime":144.09,"body":"And in fact today their"},{"startTime":141.99,"endTime":144.09,"body":"fossil stromatolites"},{"startTime":144.09,"endTime":147.27,"body":"tells us a lot about the"},{"startTime":144.09,"endTime":147.27,"body":"kind of microbial history"},{"startTime":147.27,"endTime":148.86,"body":"of the earth."},{"startTime":148.86,"endTime":152.07,"body":"So this is one example"},{"startTime":148.86,"endTime":152.07,"body":"of a microscopic organism"},{"startTime":152.07,"endTime":155.46,"body":"creating something that"},{"startTime":152.07,"endTime":155.46,"body":"is truly macroscopic"},{"startTime":155.46,"endTime":158.553,"body":"and invisible to us without"},{"startTime":155.46,"endTime":158.553,"body":"the aid of any instrumentation."},{"startTime":159.75,"endTime":160.74,"body":"So what I want to do tonight"},{"startTime":160.74,"endTime":163.23,"body":"is start really with the very small scale"},{"startTime":163.23,"endTime":165.42,"body":"and work through to the"},{"startTime":163.23,"endTime":165.42,"body":"truly enormous scale"},{"startTime":165.42,"endTime":167.16,"body":"and think a little bit at the end also"},{"startTime":167.16,"endTime":169.32,"body":"about how we might be able to harness"},{"startTime":169.32,"endTime":172.983,"body":"these microbial production"},{"startTime":169.32,"endTime":172.983,"body":"facilities for human gain."},{"startTime":174.48,"endTime":175.313,"body":"But before I do that,"},{"startTime":175.313,"endTime":177.54,"body":"I want to take you back"},{"startTime":175.313,"endTime":177.54,"body":"into the world of microbes"},{"startTime":177.54,"endTime":179.55,"body":"and tell you and remind you, I guess,"},{"startTime":179.55,"endTime":181.62,"body":"about the fact that the world"},{"startTime":179.55,"endTime":181.62,"body":"is actually very different"},{"startTime":181.62,"endTime":182.453,"body":"if you're a microbe."},{"startTime":182.453,"endTime":185.13,"body":"So we, I think we are"},{"startTime":182.453,"endTime":185.13,"body":"macroscopic individuals."},{"startTime":185.13,"endTime":187.5,"body":"We think of the world I think very often"},{"startTime":187.5,"endTime":189.42,"body":"as being divided into"},{"startTime":187.5,"endTime":189.42,"body":"two sorts of organism."},{"startTime":189.42,"endTime":192.96,"body":"There's big stuff, us,"},{"startTime":189.42,"endTime":192.96,"body":"elephants, aardvarks, trees,"},{"startTime":192.96,"endTime":194.88,"body":"things you can see and touch."},{"startTime":194.88,"endTime":197.28,"body":"And then we all know there"},{"startTime":194.88,"endTime":197.28,"body":"are these microscopic things,"},{"startTime":197.28,"endTime":199.319,"body":"some of which are quite good,"},{"startTime":199.319,"endTime":200.97,"body":"like yeast that makes"},{"startTime":199.319,"endTime":200.97,"body":"your bread or your beer."},{"startTime":200.97,"endTime":203.61,"body":"Some are pretty bad like Covid 19 virus,"},{"startTime":203.61,"endTime":206.67,"body":"but they're all sort"},{"startTime":203.61,"endTime":206.67,"body":"of invisible and small."},{"startTime":206.67,"endTime":207.503,"body":"But actually,"},{"startTime":207.503,"endTime":210.27,"body":"if you are one of those"},{"startTime":207.503,"endTime":210.27,"body":"invisible small microbes,"},{"startTime":210.27,"endTime":213.69,"body":"there is still massive scale"},{"startTime":210.27,"endTime":213.69,"body":"within your microbial world."},{"startTime":213.69,"endTime":215.67,"body":"And let me illustrate that"},{"startTime":213.69,"endTime":215.67,"body":"with a couple of pictures."},{"startTime":215.67,"endTime":219.6,"body":"So this rather grainy image"},{"startTime":215.67,"endTime":219.6,"body":"here is a Picornavirus"},{"startTime":219.6,"endTime":220.65,"body":"it's a virus particles."},{"startTime":220.65,"endTime":222.791,"body":"So there are about, I dunno,"},{"startTime":222.791,"endTime":224.832,"body":"12 or 13 of these virus particles"},{"startTime":224.832,"endTime":226.86,"body":"in this electron microscope image."},{"startTime":226.86,"endTime":228.6,"body":"And these are really, really small."},{"startTime":228.6,"endTime":230.85,"body":"They're about 30 nanometers across,"},{"startTime":230.85,"endTime":234.243,"body":"so 30 millionth of a"},{"startTime":230.85,"endTime":234.243,"body":"millimeter across in diameter."},{"startTime":235.444,"endTime":237.39,"body":"And they are microscopic."},{"startTime":237.39,"endTime":238.92,"body":"Clearly we can't see them"},{"startTime":238.92,"endTime":240.78,"body":"but there are many other things"},{"startTime":240.78,"endTime":243.24,"body":"that are vastly bigger"},{"startTime":240.78,"endTime":243.24,"body":"that are still microscopic."},{"startTime":243.24,"endTime":244.65,"body":"So here is another microbe."},{"startTime":244.65,"endTime":249.361,"body":"This is E. coli, Escherichia"},{"startTime":244.65,"endTime":249.361,"body":"coli, very common bacteria."},{"startTime":249.361,"endTime":250.86,"body":"You have this in all your intestines."},{"startTime":250.86,"endTime":253.26,"body":"It's a kind of laboratory workhorse."},{"startTime":253.26,"endTime":255.423,"body":"We use a lot for investigating microbes."},{"startTime":256.41,"endTime":258.728,"body":"This is about one micron long one,"},{"startTime":258.728,"endTime":262.44,"body":"1000th of a millimeter long,"},{"startTime":262.44,"endTime":265.53,"body":"still far, far below the"},{"startTime":262.44,"endTime":265.53,"body":"resolution of our eyes,"},{"startTime":265.53,"endTime":268.02,"body":"but already 7,000 times bigger"},{"startTime":268.02,"endTime":269.79,"body":"than one of these virus particles."},{"startTime":269.79,"endTime":271.23,"body":"So if you're an E. coli,"},{"startTime":271.23,"endTime":274.323,"body":"this is your microbial world"},{"startTime":271.23,"endTime":274.323,"body":"and everything else is huge."},{"startTime":275.64,"endTime":277.827,"body":"And then you can go a"},{"startTime":275.64,"endTime":277.827,"body":"scale up even from that"},{"startTime":277.827,"endTime":279.473,"body":"and this rather attractive chap here"},{"startTime":279.473,"endTime":281.673,"body":"that is hopefully"},{"startTime":279.473,"endTime":281.673,"body":"crawling across the screen"},{"startTime":282.549,"endTime":284.349,"body":"in front of you, this is amoeba proteus."},{"startTime":284.349,"endTime":287.64,"body":"This is a typical single"},{"startTime":284.349,"endTime":287.64,"body":"celled ameba, still a microbe."},{"startTime":287.64,"endTime":289.47,"body":"You still need a microscope to see this."},{"startTime":289.47,"endTime":291.84,"body":"And what we're seeing here is"},{"startTime":289.47,"endTime":291.84,"body":"a microscope image of this guy"},{"startTime":291.84,"endTime":294.899,"body":"very slowly progressing across the amoeba,"},{"startTime":294.899,"endTime":296.97,"body":"it might have eaten me"},{"startTime":294.899,"endTime":296.97,"body":"by tomorrow lunchtime."},{"startTime":296.97,"endTime":298.71,"body":"Moving across the screen,"},{"startTime":298.71,"endTime":303.06,"body":"this is absolutely enormous"},{"startTime":298.71,"endTime":303.06,"body":"relative to E. coli."},{"startTime":303.06,"endTime":306.15,"body":"It's about 200 microns across,"},{"startTime":306.15,"endTime":308.43,"body":"still invisible to the human eye"},{"startTime":308.43,"endTime":311.34,"body":"but about 200,000 times"},{"startTime":308.43,"endTime":311.34,"body":"bigger than one of these."},{"startTime":311.34,"endTime":315.45,"body":"And therefore millions of times"},{"startTime":311.34,"endTime":315.45,"body":"bigger than a Picornavirus."},{"startTime":315.45,"endTime":316.95,"body":"So even on the microbial scale,"},{"startTime":316.95,"endTime":319.5,"body":"structures vary over log orders,"},{"startTime":319.5,"endTime":321.87,"body":"over tens of orders of differences."},{"startTime":321.87,"endTime":323.73,"body":"And this is really important"},{"startTime":321.87,"endTime":323.73,"body":"I think to think about"},{"startTime":323.73,"endTime":325.789,"body":"when we think about microbes,"},{"startTime":325.789,"endTime":327.78,"body":"all the things that are"},{"startTime":325.789,"endTime":327.78,"body":"invisible are not all the same"},{"startTime":327.78,"endTime":329.46,"body":"within this microbial world."},{"startTime":329.46,"endTime":331.2,"body":"There's massive variation in scale."},{"startTime":331.2,"endTime":333.603,"body":"It's really important to understand that."},{"startTime":335.37,"endTime":338.019,"body":"So if we dive into that microbial world"},{"startTime":338.019,"endTime":339.836,"body":"and its that tiny world there,"},{"startTime":339.836,"endTime":341.13,"body":"we can start to see some of"},{"startTime":339.836,"endTime":341.13,"body":"these amazing structures."},{"startTime":341.13,"endTime":343.41,"body":"And one of the things I really"},{"startTime":341.13,"endTime":343.41,"body":"want to get across to you"},{"startTime":343.41,"endTime":346.83,"body":"is just how spectacular"},{"startTime":343.41,"endTime":346.83,"body":"feats of engineering are"},{"startTime":346.83,"endTime":348.09,"body":"at the microbial scale."},{"startTime":348.09,"endTime":351.48,"body":"Let's zoom in first of all,"},{"startTime":348.09,"endTime":351.48,"body":"right to a single cell level."},{"startTime":351.48,"endTime":354.63,"body":"So here in front of you,"},{"startTime":351.48,"endTime":354.63,"body":"you see two fungal cells,"},{"startTime":354.63,"endTime":356.52,"body":"two different fungi."},{"startTime":356.52,"endTime":360.0,"body":"This one, the great black and"},{"startTime":356.52,"endTime":360.0,"body":"white one is candida albicans."},{"startTime":360.0,"endTime":364.29,"body":"This is a yeast that is all"},{"startTime":360.0,"endTime":364.29,"body":"too familiar to most of us."},{"startTime":364.29,"endTime":368.16,"body":"This lives on and in"},{"startTime":364.29,"endTime":368.16,"body":"all of us all the time,"},{"startTime":368.16,"endTime":370.26,"body":"we're all colonized by candida albicans."},{"startTime":370.26,"endTime":371.82,"body":"If you've just had a last minute run"},{"startTime":371.82,"endTime":373.02,"body":"'cause you were running a bit late"},{"startTime":373.02,"endTime":374.688,"body":"and you're sitting there thinking,"},{"startTime":374.688,"endTime":375.521,"body":"\"Gosh, I'm a bit sweaty and sticky.\""},{"startTime":375.521,"endTime":378.15,"body":"Your candida albicans"},{"startTime":375.521,"endTime":378.15,"body":"are having a feel day"},{"startTime":378.15,"endTime":379.56,"body":"and growing away on your skin"},{"startTime":379.56,"endTime":381.75,"body":"and all your kind of mucosal membranes"},{"startTime":381.75,"endTime":384.54,"body":"without any problem most of the time."},{"startTime":384.54,"endTime":386.79,"body":"But this is the organism"},{"startTime":384.54,"endTime":386.79,"body":"that when it overgrows"},{"startTime":386.79,"endTime":389.01,"body":"causes thrush, genital or oral thrush"},{"startTime":389.01,"endTime":391.383,"body":"and so can be quite"},{"startTime":389.01,"endTime":391.383,"body":"problematic clinically."},{"startTime":392.82,"endTime":394.56,"body":"Next to it and looking broadly similar"},{"startTime":394.56,"endTime":396.838,"body":"although blue rather than black and white"},{"startTime":396.838,"endTime":398.472,"body":"is cryptococcus neoformans,"},{"startTime":398.472,"endTime":400.86,"body":"another fungal cell, single cell."},{"startTime":400.86,"endTime":402.78,"body":"This again is an abundant yeast"},{"startTime":402.78,"endTime":403.95,"body":"found out in the environment."},{"startTime":403.95,"endTime":405.12,"body":"You've probably breathed it in"},{"startTime":405.12,"endTime":408.02,"body":"actually as you came down the"},{"startTime":405.12,"endTime":408.02,"body":"street towards this lecture."},{"startTime":408.99,"endTime":411.78,"body":"This organism also"},{"startTime":408.99,"endTime":411.78,"body":"generally does us no harm"},{"startTime":411.78,"endTime":413.58,"body":"unless your immune system is impaired,"},{"startTime":413.58,"endTime":417.42,"body":"for example, by HIV or"},{"startTime":413.58,"endTime":417.42,"body":"organ transplantation,"},{"startTime":417.42,"endTime":419.16,"body":"at which point it can become very serious"},{"startTime":419.16,"endTime":421.62,"body":"and indeed a fatal disease."},{"startTime":421.62,"endTime":424.47,"body":"But the reason for showing"},{"startTime":421.62,"endTime":424.47,"body":"you these two fungi tonight"},{"startTime":424.47,"endTime":428.55,"body":"is that these are masterpieces"},{"startTime":424.47,"endTime":428.55,"body":"in microbial engineering."},{"startTime":428.55,"endTime":431.04,"body":"So if we zoom in on"},{"startTime":428.55,"endTime":431.04,"body":"this, candida albicans,"},{"startTime":431.04,"endTime":432.57,"body":"what looks like a kind of black line"},{"startTime":432.57,"endTime":434.34,"body":"on the outside its cell wall."},{"startTime":434.34,"endTime":437.58,"body":"It's actually something that"},{"startTime":434.34,"endTime":437.58,"body":"is remarkably elaborate."},{"startTime":437.58,"endTime":440.61,"body":"So here you have the inside"},{"startTime":437.58,"endTime":440.61,"body":"of the candida outer sight."},{"startTime":440.61,"endTime":441.69,"body":"And this single cell wall,"},{"startTime":441.69,"endTime":444.09,"body":"as you can see is composed"},{"startTime":441.69,"endTime":444.09,"body":"of multiple layers,"},{"startTime":444.09,"endTime":447.238,"body":"each layer with a"},{"startTime":444.09,"endTime":447.238,"body":"different set of chemicals,"},{"startTime":447.238,"endTime":450.18,"body":"including these rather"},{"startTime":447.238,"endTime":450.18,"body":"elegant fibers on the outside"},{"startTime":450.18,"endTime":452.76,"body":"which are extremely good"},{"startTime":450.18,"endTime":452.76,"body":"at distinguishing things"},{"startTime":452.76,"endTime":455.264,"body":"that should or should not"},{"startTime":452.76,"endTime":455.264,"body":"go into that fungal cell."},{"startTime":455.264,"endTime":457.74,"body":"For example, resisting"},{"startTime":455.264,"endTime":457.74,"body":"things like antibodies"},{"startTime":457.74,"endTime":459.423,"body":"from a human immune system."},{"startTime":461.16,"endTime":462.9,"body":"If we look at the other"},{"startTime":461.16,"endTime":462.9,"body":"example cryptococcus"},{"startTime":462.9,"endTime":464.22,"body":"and we look at its cell surface,"},{"startTime":464.22,"endTime":466.74,"body":"it produces this amazing"},{"startTime":464.22,"endTime":466.74,"body":"caption on the outside"},{"startTime":466.74,"endTime":469.17,"body":"which looks like a blue"},{"startTime":466.74,"endTime":469.17,"body":"haze in this diagram,"},{"startTime":469.17,"endTime":470.52,"body":"but under an electron microscope"},{"startTime":470.52,"endTime":473.7,"body":"is truly spectacular as"},{"startTime":470.52,"endTime":473.7,"body":"these incredible fibers."},{"startTime":473.7,"endTime":476.7,"body":"And in fact this really"},{"startTime":473.7,"endTime":476.7,"body":"elaborate capsular structure"},{"startTime":476.7,"endTime":477.87,"body":"is what is responsible"},{"startTime":477.87,"endTime":480.639,"body":"for this fungus being able"},{"startTime":477.87,"endTime":480.639,"body":"to avoid our immune systems,"},{"startTime":480.639,"endTime":483.33,"body":"to avoid being eaten when it's in the soil"},{"startTime":483.33,"endTime":485.25,"body":"by lots of different predators out there."},{"startTime":485.25,"endTime":486.87,"body":"And in fact, we're only"},{"startTime":485.25,"endTime":486.87,"body":"just starting to learn"},{"startTime":486.87,"endTime":489.15,"body":"that some of the chemistry in this capsule"},{"startTime":489.15,"endTime":492.6,"body":"may have potential, for example"},{"startTime":489.15,"endTime":492.6,"body":"as immunosuppressive drugs"},{"startTime":492.6,"endTime":494.28,"body":"for medicine in the future."},{"startTime":494.28,"endTime":496.38,"body":"And so here at this single cell scale,"},{"startTime":496.38,"endTime":499.2,"body":"you can already start to"},{"startTime":496.38,"endTime":499.2,"body":"see some of the structures"},{"startTime":499.2,"endTime":501.45,"body":"that these microbes are"},{"startTime":499.2,"endTime":501.45,"body":"capable of producing."},{"startTime":503.28,"endTime":504.113,"body":"But to my mind,"},{"startTime":504.113,"endTime":506.85,"body":"the most spectacular microscopic structure"},{"startTime":506.85,"endTime":510.45,"body":"that many microbes make is the"},{"startTime":506.85,"endTime":510.45,"body":"thing called the flagellum."},{"startTime":510.45,"endTime":512.73,"body":"And here I'm looking at"},{"startTime":510.45,"endTime":512.73,"body":"the bacterial flagellum."},{"startTime":512.73,"endTime":515.73,"body":"Many, many bacteria produce these things."},{"startTime":515.73,"endTime":518.13,"body":"These are the kind of whip like structures"},{"startTime":518.13,"endTime":519.147,"body":"at the end of some bacteria."},{"startTime":519.147,"endTime":520.86,"body":"And you can see them in this diagram here,"},{"startTime":520.86,"endTime":523.2,"body":"these long green trailing things."},{"startTime":523.2,"endTime":524.49,"body":"Some bacteria have none,"},{"startTime":524.49,"endTime":526.91,"body":"some have one, two, or"},{"startTime":524.49,"endTime":526.91,"body":"many as is the case here."},{"startTime":526.91,"endTime":529.796,"body":"And these are responsible for propelling"},{"startTime":529.796,"endTime":533.28,"body":"bacteria through fluid,"},{"startTime":529.796,"endTime":533.28,"body":"through blood, through urine,"},{"startTime":533.28,"endTime":536.28,"body":"through wherever they might"},{"startTime":533.28,"endTime":536.28,"body":"happen to be swimming."},{"startTime":536.28,"endTime":539.16,"body":"And when we look at the"},{"startTime":536.28,"endTime":539.16,"body":"ability of this flagellum"},{"startTime":539.16,"endTime":541.23,"body":"to drive bacteria forwards,"},{"startTime":539.16,"endTime":541.23,"body":"it's truly remarkable."},{"startTime":541.23,"endTime":542.67,"body":"So here's a very nice movie"},{"startTime":542.67,"endTime":544.56,"body":"of a bacterium called rhodobacter."},{"startTime":544.56,"endTime":546.18,"body":"And you can just about see here"},{"startTime":546.18,"endTime":548.52,"body":"these long flagella spinning around"},{"startTime":548.52,"endTime":551.374,"body":"the back of this bacterium as it swims"},{"startTime":551.374,"endTime":554.583,"body":"through its media in this"},{"startTime":551.374,"endTime":554.583,"body":"case under a microscope."},{"startTime":555.84,"endTime":558.575,"body":"This is a remarkable piece"},{"startTime":555.84,"endTime":558.575,"body":"of mechanical engineering"},{"startTime":558.575,"endTime":561.63,"body":"because this motor is"},{"startTime":558.575,"endTime":561.63,"body":"able to drive the bacteria"},{"startTime":561.63,"endTime":563.28,"body":"at speeds that we can only dream of."},{"startTime":563.28,"endTime":565.14,"body":"In fact, if you scaled up that road"},{"startTime":565.14,"endTime":567.3,"body":"back to the size of a human,"},{"startTime":567.3,"endTime":569.25,"body":"it would be able to"},{"startTime":567.3,"endTime":569.25,"body":"complete the London marathon"},{"startTime":569.25,"endTime":572.58,"body":"in about seven minutes, which"},{"startTime":569.25,"endTime":572.58,"body":"I think is pretty good going,"},{"startTime":572.58,"endTime":574.485,"body":"I couldn't compete it in seven days."},{"startTime":574.485,"endTime":575.61,"body":"Imagine in seven minutes."},{"startTime":575.61,"endTime":578.43,"body":"So why am I telling you this"},{"startTime":575.61,"endTime":578.43,"body":"about the bacterial flagellum?"},{"startTime":578.43,"endTime":580.65,"body":"Because this is a piece of engineering"},{"startTime":580.65,"endTime":582.39,"body":"that is far superior,"},{"startTime":582.39,"endTime":585.0,"body":"anything that humans have ever created."},{"startTime":585.0,"endTime":587.4,"body":"And let me show you that"},{"startTime":585.0,"endTime":587.4,"body":"in this diagram here."},{"startTime":587.4,"endTime":589.92,"body":"So if you can imagine now our rhodobacter"},{"startTime":589.92,"endTime":592.14,"body":"is swimming down into the ground,"},{"startTime":592.14,"endTime":594.427,"body":"it's tail is protruding right up here."},{"startTime":594.427,"endTime":595.26,"body":"And in fact on this scale,"},{"startTime":595.26,"endTime":596.7,"body":"its tail will go right through the roof"},{"startTime":596.7,"endTime":599.65,"body":"of this beautiful building and"},{"startTime":596.7,"endTime":599.65,"body":"out into the London skyline."},{"startTime":600.69,"endTime":603.03,"body":"Sitting at the membrane of that bacteria"},{"startTime":603.03,"endTime":606.99,"body":"is an incredible motor here"},{"startTime":603.03,"endTime":606.99,"body":"that spins the flagellum"},{"startTime":606.99,"endTime":609.96,"body":"and drives the bacteria forwards."},{"startTime":609.96,"endTime":611.79,"body":"It does that using a principle"},{"startTime":611.79,"endTime":615.09,"body":"that is actually exactly like"},{"startTime":611.79,"endTime":615.09,"body":"a human based water wheel."},{"startTime":615.09,"endTime":618.21,"body":"So inside the bacteria are chemicals,"},{"startTime":618.21,"endTime":622.23,"body":"hydrogen irons, protons,"},{"startTime":618.21,"endTime":622.23,"body":"little blue things here,"},{"startTime":622.23,"endTime":624.9,"body":"the bacteria uses energy to pump those out"},{"startTime":624.9,"endTime":625.8,"body":"and form a gradient."},{"startTime":625.8,"endTime":628.323,"body":"There's more of those here than in here."},{"startTime":629.16,"endTime":630.81,"body":"And then when it needs to move,"},{"startTime":630.81,"endTime":634.23,"body":"it allows these to flow"},{"startTime":630.81,"endTime":634.23,"body":"back through this motor"},{"startTime":634.23,"endTime":637.077,"body":"and spin the wheel just like this."},{"startTime":637.077,"endTime":638.654,"body":"And in doing so, it spins this motor,"},{"startTime":638.654,"endTime":640.5,"body":"the motor spins the tail,"},{"startTime":640.5,"endTime":643.15,"body":"the tail rotates and it"},{"startTime":640.5,"endTime":643.15,"body":"pushes the bacteria forwards."},{"startTime":644.04,"endTime":645.36,"body":"The amazing thing about this motor"},{"startTime":645.36,"endTime":647.01,"body":"is it is absolutely precise."},{"startTime":647.01,"endTime":649.31,"body":"It has exactly the right"},{"startTime":647.01,"endTime":649.31,"body":"number of subunit here."},{"startTime":649.31,"endTime":651.72,"body":"If it misses a subunit, it doesn't work."},{"startTime":651.72,"endTime":653.46,"body":"It has gears, it has rotors,"},{"startTime":653.46,"endTime":655.86,"body":"it has channels to start and stop."},{"startTime":655.86,"endTime":657.12,"body":"And it does all of this in a way"},{"startTime":657.12,"endTime":658.59,"body":"that is almost friction free."},{"startTime":658.59,"endTime":661.534,"body":"So it is far better than"},{"startTime":658.59,"endTime":661.534,"body":"the motor that drives,"},{"startTime":661.534,"endTime":663.06,"body":"for example your latest electric car."},{"startTime":663.06,"endTime":665.34,"body":"And something that we"},{"startTime":663.06,"endTime":665.34,"body":"have not yet recapitulated"},{"startTime":665.34,"endTime":666.57,"body":"on human scale."},{"startTime":666.57,"endTime":668.88,"body":"And yet millions and millions of bacteria"},{"startTime":668.88,"endTime":672.269,"body":"have done this for for millions of years."},{"startTime":672.269,"endTime":673.95,"body":"And so I think there's a lot we can learn"},{"startTime":673.95,"endTime":676.38,"body":"from these microbial feats of engineering,"},{"startTime":676.38,"endTime":678.57,"body":"as we look forwards to"},{"startTime":676.38,"endTime":678.57,"body":"kind of human engineering"},{"startTime":678.57,"endTime":679.413,"body":"in the future."},{"startTime":682.08,"endTime":683.64,"body":"So these are all structures"},{"startTime":683.64,"endTime":685.65,"body":"that you can only see with"},{"startTime":683.64,"endTime":685.65,"body":"the aid of microscopes"},{"startTime":685.65,"endTime":687.75,"body":"already advanced imaging techniques."},{"startTime":687.75,"endTime":689.43,"body":"But what I want us to do"},{"startTime":687.75,"endTime":689.43,"body":"for the rest of lecture"},{"startTime":689.43,"endTime":692.072,"body":"is think about structures"},{"startTime":689.43,"endTime":692.072,"body":"that we can actually see,"},{"startTime":692.072,"endTime":694.17,"body":"that you don't need any kind"},{"startTime":692.072,"endTime":694.17,"body":"of advanced qualifications"},{"startTime":694.17,"endTime":696.03,"body":"for or any sort of instrumentation."},{"startTime":696.03,"endTime":698.915,"body":"You can go out and see these products"},{"startTime":698.915,"endTime":701.013,"body":"of microbial engineering in life."},{"startTime":702.36,"endTime":704.145,"body":"And the scale of some of these"},{"startTime":704.145,"endTime":705.48,"body":"can be really, really quite remarkable."},{"startTime":705.48,"endTime":707.76,"body":"And we're going to start with an example"},{"startTime":707.76,"endTime":710.91,"body":"that we can all have"},{"startTime":707.76,"endTime":710.91,"body":"very close to hand here."},{"startTime":710.91,"endTime":713.37,"body":"And that's the example of the biofilm."},{"startTime":713.37,"endTime":716.64,"body":"So a biofilm is an"},{"startTime":713.37,"endTime":716.64,"body":"accumulation of microbes,"},{"startTime":716.64,"endTime":718.08,"body":"sometimes all the same one,"},{"startTime":718.08,"endTime":720.87,"body":"sometimes a mixed bag"},{"startTime":718.08,"endTime":720.87,"body":"of different microbes"},{"startTime":720.87,"endTime":722.76,"body":"and they're living together in a community"},{"startTime":722.76,"endTime":725.04,"body":"but not just kind of, ad hoc"},{"startTime":725.04,"endTime":726.78,"body":"or ended up here together"},{"startTime":726.78,"endTime":728.817,"body":"but in a structured ordered sort of way."},{"startTime":728.817,"endTime":732.84,"body":"And in particular what biofilms"},{"startTime":728.817,"endTime":732.84,"body":"have that is fairly unique"},{"startTime":732.84,"endTime":734.55,"body":"is their individual microbes."},{"startTime":734.55,"endTime":739.14,"body":"Here the bacteria are producing,"},{"startTime":734.55,"endTime":739.14,"body":"secreting a kind of glue,"},{"startTime":739.14,"endTime":743.34,"body":"a polysaccharide typically"},{"startTime":739.14,"endTime":743.34,"body":"matrix that sticks them together."},{"startTime":743.34,"endTime":745.29,"body":"So they just didn't just end up here."},{"startTime":745.29,"endTime":748.623,"body":"They actually want to be"},{"startTime":745.29,"endTime":748.623,"body":"accumulated together in a biofilm."},{"startTime":749.7,"endTime":751.32,"body":"Lots of microbes make biofilms"},{"startTime":751.32,"endTime":752.82,"body":"and they do it for all sorts of reasons."},{"startTime":752.82,"endTime":754.98,"body":"They might want to stick"},{"startTime":752.82,"endTime":754.98,"body":"to a rock in the sea"},{"startTime":754.98,"endTime":756.84,"body":"to prevent themselves"},{"startTime":754.98,"endTime":756.84,"body":"from being washed off."},{"startTime":756.84,"endTime":759.78,"body":"They might want to stick to your drainpipe"},{"startTime":759.78,"endTime":762.065,"body":"and prevent the sink from getting"},{"startTime":762.065,"endTime":763.68,"body":"or trigger the sink to be blocked up."},{"startTime":763.68,"endTime":765.33,"body":"And these biofilms are really important."},{"startTime":765.33,"endTime":767.37,"body":"They're important 'cause"},{"startTime":765.33,"endTime":767.37,"body":"they're often a problem for us."},{"startTime":767.37,"endTime":770.13,"body":"Biofilms on intravenous"},{"startTime":767.37,"endTime":770.13,"body":"lines in a hospital"},{"startTime":770.13,"endTime":772.83,"body":"are a major cause of clinical problems."},{"startTime":772.83,"endTime":774.421,"body":"They're also good."},{"startTime":774.421,"endTime":776.97,"body":"They can create sort of"},{"startTime":774.421,"endTime":776.97,"body":"ecologies whole ecosystems"},{"startTime":776.97,"endTime":777.84,"body":"in very small areas."},{"startTime":777.84,"endTime":779.91,"body":"If you have a a fish tank at home"},{"startTime":779.91,"endTime":780.96,"body":"and you've got fish tanks stick your hand,"},{"startTime":780.96,"endTime":784.74,"body":"you have a fish tank"},{"startTime":780.96,"endTime":784.74,"body":"at home, I thought no,"},{"startTime":784.74,"endTime":786.21,"body":"a couple of people have fish tanks."},{"startTime":786.21,"endTime":787.98,"body":"So when you try, and ask this lady here,"},{"startTime":787.98,"endTime":788.88,"body":"when you have your fish tank,"},{"startTime":788.88,"endTime":790.876,"body":"do you just throw the"},{"startTime":788.88,"endTime":790.876,"body":"filter away and that's it?"},{"startTime":790.876,"endTime":791.709,"body":"Or do you take good care of the filter?"},{"startTime":791.709,"endTime":792.66,"body":"- [Audience Member] Oh no."},{"startTime":792.66,"endTime":795.028,"body":"It's a massive problem with koi"},{"startTime":795.028,"endTime":797.459,"body":"and we have to be really"},{"startTime":795.028,"endTime":797.459,"body":"protective of the bacteria"},{"startTime":797.459,"endTime":800.25,"body":"because of the koi you have"},{"startTime":797.459,"endTime":800.25,"body":"to look after the water,"},{"startTime":800.25,"endTime":801.21,"body":"not the koi."},{"startTime":801.21,"endTime":804.12,"body":"- Perfect, see, that's, there"},{"startTime":801.21,"endTime":804.12,"body":"was not a scripted answer."},{"startTime":804.12,"endTime":805.08,"body":"You have to look after the bacteria"},{"startTime":805.08,"endTime":807.69,"body":"because inside that filter"},{"startTime":805.08,"endTime":807.69,"body":"is a biofilm, right?"},{"startTime":807.69,"endTime":809.877,"body":"You've said a long time"},{"startTime":807.69,"endTime":809.877,"body":"creating a mixture of bacteria"},{"startTime":809.877,"endTime":813.03,"body":"and microbes in that filter"},{"startTime":809.877,"endTime":813.03,"body":"that stick to the filter"},{"startTime":813.03,"endTime":814.44,"body":"and purify the water."},{"startTime":814.44,"endTime":817.04,"body":"And they're doing that"},{"startTime":814.44,"endTime":817.04,"body":"through the aid of a biofilm."},{"startTime":818.31,"endTime":819.75,"body":"We find biofilms all over the place."},{"startTime":819.75,"endTime":821.25,"body":"Some of them are quite problematic."},{"startTime":821.25,"endTime":823.016,"body":"One that we've probably"},{"startTime":823.016,"endTime":824.371,"body":"many of you have probably encountered"},{"startTime":824.371,"endTime":825.78,"body":"when you really didn't want"},{"startTime":824.371,"endTime":825.78,"body":"to is this kind of biofilm."},{"startTime":825.78,"endTime":827.16,"body":"This is the one that you typically find"},{"startTime":827.16,"endTime":828.75,"body":"when you go into your plug hole."},{"startTime":828.75,"endTime":831.21,"body":"'Cause your kitchen sink has"},{"startTime":828.75,"endTime":831.21,"body":"got blocked up and outcomes."},{"startTime":831.21,"endTime":833.43,"body":"This yicky brown sticky goo,"},{"startTime":833.43,"endTime":836.58,"body":"this is actually a"},{"startTime":833.43,"endTime":836.58,"body":"spectacular microbial biofilm."},{"startTime":836.58,"endTime":837.84,"body":"What's probably not what you think"},{"startTime":837.84,"endTime":839.34,"body":"at sort of seven o'clock"},{"startTime":837.84,"endTime":839.34,"body":"on a Monday morning"},{"startTime":839.34,"endTime":840.579,"body":"when the shower's clogged."},{"startTime":840.579,"endTime":843.153,"body":"But nonetheless it is"},{"startTime":840.579,"endTime":843.153,"body":"a spectacular biofilm."},{"startTime":844.68,"endTime":846.51,"body":"When you zoom in on these biofilms,"},{"startTime":846.51,"endTime":849.03,"body":"some of them have really"},{"startTime":846.51,"endTime":849.03,"body":"remarkable beautiful structures."},{"startTime":849.03,"endTime":852.42,"body":"So here is an image of laboratory biofilm"},{"startTime":852.42,"endTime":856.05,"body":"with multiple organisms in"},{"startTime":852.42,"endTime":856.05,"body":"it, some fungi, some bacteria."},{"startTime":856.05,"endTime":857.28,"body":"And what you can hopefully see,"},{"startTime":857.28,"endTime":858.72,"body":"we've colored them all differently,"},{"startTime":858.72,"endTime":860.85,"body":"is they're occupying distinct zones."},{"startTime":860.85,"endTime":863.13,"body":"So the fungi in greener at the bottom,"},{"startTime":863.13,"endTime":864.6,"body":"bacteria and blue are at the top."},{"startTime":864.6,"endTime":866.13,"body":"And there is a structure,"},{"startTime":866.13,"endTime":867.72,"body":"there's an order to this community."},{"startTime":867.72,"endTime":869.76,"body":"It's not just that"},{"startTime":867.72,"endTime":869.76,"body":"everyone's living everywhere,"},{"startTime":869.76,"endTime":871.593,"body":"they know their own place,"},{"startTime":871.593,"endTime":874.44,"body":"but there's a a place"},{"startTime":871.593,"endTime":874.44,"body":"that we can see biofilms"},{"startTime":874.44,"endTime":877.02,"body":"or at least experienced"},{"startTime":874.44,"endTime":877.02,"body":"bio films on a daily basis."},{"startTime":877.02,"endTime":878.91,"body":"And I'm hoping I can rope up a volunteer,"},{"startTime":878.91,"endTime":880.707,"body":"maybe somebody who's at the row."},{"startTime":880.707,"endTime":882.18,"body":"Would you mind volunteering?"},{"startTime":882.18,"endTime":883.013,"body":"Excellent."},{"startTime":883.013,"endTime":883.846,"body":"Come and stand up here."},{"startTime":883.846,"endTime":885.079,"body":"What's your name sorry?"},{"startTime":885.079,"endTime":885.912,"body":"- [Sona] Sona."},{"startTime":885.079,"endTime":885.912,"body":"- Sonam?"},{"startTime":885.912,"endTime":886.745,"body":"- [Sona] Sona."},{"startTime":885.912,"endTime":886.745,"body":"- Sona."},{"startTime":886.745,"endTime":888.45,"body":"So let's stand here, smile at the camera."},{"startTime":888.45,"endTime":891.72,"body":"Millions of people are"},{"startTime":888.45,"endTime":891.72,"body":"now witnessing you here."},{"startTime":891.72,"endTime":893.614,"body":"Hopefully you did tell people"},{"startTime":893.614,"endTime":894.687,"body":"that you're coming to this lecture"},{"startTime":894.687,"endTime":895.62,"body":"and they're not expecting"},{"startTime":894.687,"endTime":895.62,"body":"you to be somewhere else."},{"startTime":895.62,"endTime":897.733,"body":"So could you give us a big smile?"},{"startTime":897.733,"endTime":899.583,"body":"Please give the audience a big smile."},{"startTime":900.53,"endTime":901.363,"body":"Thank you."},{"startTime":901.363,"endTime":902.608,"body":"That's a brilliant smile."},{"startTime":902.608,"endTime":904.8,"body":"This is a prime example"},{"startTime":902.608,"endTime":904.8,"body":"of a wonderful biofilm."},{"startTime":904.8,"endTime":905.633,"body":"Thank you very much."},{"startTime":905.633,"endTime":906.918,"body":"Do you brush your teeth?"},{"startTime":906.918,"endTime":909.18,"body":"You look like you brush"},{"startTime":906.918,"endTime":909.18,"body":"your teeth religiously well,"},{"startTime":909.18,"endTime":911.07,"body":"yes, you nodded, very"},{"startTime":909.18,"endTime":911.07,"body":"brilliant, well done."},{"startTime":911.07,"endTime":913.958,"body":"So even though you brush"},{"startTime":911.07,"endTime":913.958,"body":"your teeth really well,"},{"startTime":913.958,"endTime":914.791,"body":"which I hope everyone does,"},{"startTime":914.791,"endTime":916.65,"body":"still within a few minutes of brushing,"},{"startTime":916.65,"endTime":919.56,"body":"you have restored on your"},{"startTime":916.65,"endTime":919.56,"body":"teeth a beautiful biofilm."},{"startTime":919.56,"endTime":920.393,"body":"Thank you very much."},{"startTime":920.393,"endTime":923.13,"body":"You can sit there, a beautiful biofilm."},{"startTime":923.13,"endTime":924.39,"body":"So when you have a smile like this,"},{"startTime":924.39,"endTime":925.89,"body":"you think, \"My teeth are sparkly clean,\""},{"startTime":925.89,"endTime":927.15,"body":"they're not sparkly clean."},{"startTime":927.15,"endTime":931.23,"body":"If we scrape away your teeth"},{"startTime":927.15,"endTime":931.23,"body":"even immediately after brushing"},{"startTime":931.23,"endTime":932.73,"body":"and stick it under microscope,"},{"startTime":932.73,"endTime":935.36,"body":"what you end up with is"},{"startTime":932.73,"endTime":935.36,"body":"something that looks like this."},{"startTime":935.36,"endTime":937.23,"body":"So if you look really"},{"startTime":935.36,"endTime":937.23,"body":"carefully at this image,"},{"startTime":937.23,"endTime":938.79,"body":"you can see it's just about moving."},{"startTime":938.79,"endTime":942.57,"body":"So this is a typical healthy oral biofilm"},{"startTime":942.57,"endTime":946.05,"body":"from nicely brushed, well"},{"startTime":942.57,"endTime":946.05,"body":"maintained human teeth,"},{"startTime":946.05,"endTime":947.592,"body":"in this case mine."},{"startTime":947.592,"endTime":950.1,"body":"And so what you see under a microscope is,"},{"startTime":950.1,"endTime":953.58,"body":"so this is a gum cell or"},{"startTime":950.1,"endTime":953.58,"body":"a cheek cell, one of mine."},{"startTime":953.58,"endTime":955.68,"body":"But you can see around"},{"startTime":953.58,"endTime":955.68,"body":"these big lumps of stuff,"},{"startTime":955.68,"endTime":958.77,"body":"this is biofilm, these"},{"startTime":955.68,"endTime":958.77,"body":"are bacteria, some fungi,"},{"startTime":958.77,"endTime":960.9,"body":"maybe even some kind of amoebae"},{"startTime":960.9,"endTime":963.33,"body":"that are living in between my teeth."},{"startTime":963.33,"endTime":966.21,"body":"The reason they have survived"},{"startTime":963.33,"endTime":966.21,"body":"my best efforts to brush them"},{"startTime":966.21,"endTime":968.1,"body":"is because biofilms are really sticky."},{"startTime":968.1,"endTime":969.33,"body":"They coat surfaces."},{"startTime":969.33,"endTime":972.33,"body":"They have evolved deliberately"},{"startTime":969.33,"endTime":972.33,"body":"to live in an environment"},{"startTime":972.33,"endTime":974.67,"body":"like the mouth that is"},{"startTime":972.33,"endTime":974.67,"body":"washed really regularly."},{"startTime":974.67,"endTime":977.55,"body":"And you can just about see"},{"startTime":974.67,"endTime":977.55,"body":"some of the little live things"},{"startTime":977.55,"endTime":978.55,"body":"zipping around here."},{"startTime":979.59,"endTime":980.423,"body":"This is not a problem."},{"startTime":980.423,"endTime":982.072,"body":"In fact, this is quite healthy."},{"startTime":982.072,"endTime":983.408,"body":"Of course it is a problem"},{"startTime":983.408,"endTime":984.241,"body":"if you don't look after your teeth well"},{"startTime":984.241,"endTime":986.1,"body":"and if you end up really"},{"startTime":984.241,"endTime":986.1,"body":"not looking after them well"},{"startTime":986.1,"endTime":987.54,"body":"and get periodontitis,"},{"startTime":987.54,"endTime":989.43,"body":"you end up with a biofilm"},{"startTime":987.54,"endTime":989.43,"body":"that looks like this one,"},{"startTime":989.43,"endTime":991.35,"body":"which I think you can"},{"startTime":989.43,"endTime":991.35,"body":"immediately recognize"},{"startTime":991.35,"endTime":993.24,"body":"is a lot scarier than this one."},{"startTime":993.24,"endTime":995.199,"body":"Particularly like the little zippy things"},{"startTime":995.199,"endTime":996.21,"body":"in the middle here, zooming around."},{"startTime":996.21,"endTime":998.88,"body":"So these biofilms are whole ecologies,"},{"startTime":998.88,"endTime":1002.66,"body":"whole ecosystems living inside your mouth."},{"startTime":1002.66,"endTime":1004.67,"body":"They're also in all sorts of"},{"startTime":1002.66,"endTime":1004.67,"body":"other sticky parts of your body"},{"startTime":1004.67,"endTime":1005.96,"body":"that we won't talk about."},{"startTime":1005.96,"endTime":1008.96,"body":"But they are central to"},{"startTime":1005.96,"endTime":1008.96,"body":"the colonization of humans"},{"startTime":1008.96,"endTime":1011.723,"body":"and indeed all other animals by microbes."},{"startTime":1014.09,"endTime":1016.4,"body":"These are biofilms that are close to home."},{"startTime":1016.4,"endTime":1018.71,"body":"You can't usually see them"},{"startTime":1016.4,"endTime":1018.71,"body":"without the aid of a microscope,"},{"startTime":1018.71,"endTime":1021.98,"body":"but some biofilms you"},{"startTime":1018.71,"endTime":1021.98,"body":"can see so spectacularly"},{"startTime":1021.98,"endTime":1024.23,"body":"you can even see them from space."},{"startTime":1024.23,"endTime":1026.06,"body":"And here is a really good example."},{"startTime":1026.06,"endTime":1027.5,"body":"This is an algal bloom"},{"startTime":1027.5,"endTime":1030.92,"body":"you've probably heard of"},{"startTime":1027.5,"endTime":1030.92,"body":"algal blooms in the sea."},{"startTime":1030.92,"endTime":1032.48,"body":"When you get a sudden increase"},{"startTime":1032.48,"endTime":1035.18,"body":"in the number of microscopic arguing,"},{"startTime":1035.18,"endTime":1036.74,"body":"many of which stick together"},{"startTime":1036.74,"endTime":1039.77,"body":"by those same biofilm"},{"startTime":1036.74,"endTime":1039.77,"body":"forming characteristics"},{"startTime":1039.77,"endTime":1042.578,"body":"that you see in a mouth for example."},{"startTime":1042.578,"endTime":1045.47,"body":"And you can see here in this"},{"startTime":1042.578,"endTime":1045.47,"body":"image, this pale blue color,"},{"startTime":1045.47,"endTime":1046.91,"body":"which is an algal bloom in the sea."},{"startTime":1046.91,"endTime":1048.26,"body":"And you can see already from the clouds."},{"startTime":1048.26,"endTime":1050.3,"body":"This is a satellite photo."},{"startTime":1050.3,"endTime":1052.52,"body":"The scale of these natural biofilms,"},{"startTime":1052.52,"endTime":1054.2,"body":"however, can be truly spectacular."},{"startTime":1054.2,"endTime":1056.3,"body":"And you'll see that"},{"startTime":1054.2,"endTime":1056.3,"body":"because when we zoom out"},{"startTime":1056.3,"endTime":1058.61,"body":"and you see where I got this image from,"},{"startTime":1058.61,"endTime":1060.635,"body":"you can hopefully recognize,"},{"startTime":1060.635,"endTime":1062.048,"body":"at least those of you from the UK"},{"startTime":1062.048,"endTime":1064.34,"body":"or listening from the UK"},{"startTime":1062.048,"endTime":1064.34,"body":"that this algal biofilm"},{"startTime":1064.34,"endTime":1067.28,"body":"stretches from the tip"},{"startTime":1064.34,"endTime":1067.28,"body":"of the island of Ireland"},{"startTime":1067.28,"endTime":1068.6,"body":"all the way to the bottom,"},{"startTime":1068.6,"endTime":1072.53,"body":"hundreds of miles of microbial biofilm"},{"startTime":1072.53,"endTime":1074.93,"body":"that has literally appeared"},{"startTime":1072.53,"endTime":1074.93,"body":"within a couple of days"},{"startTime":1074.93,"endTime":1077.66,"body":"and will disappear again a few days later."},{"startTime":1077.66,"endTime":1080.69,"body":"And yet this is a massive"},{"startTime":1077.66,"endTime":1080.69,"body":"community of microbes"},{"startTime":1080.69,"endTime":1081.523,"body":"sticking together."},{"startTime":1081.523,"endTime":1083.96,"body":"Living together can"},{"startTime":1081.523,"endTime":1083.96,"body":"cause enormous problems."},{"startTime":1083.96,"endTime":1087.83,"body":"Blocking ship engines can"},{"startTime":1083.96,"endTime":1087.83,"body":"also be incredibly important."},{"startTime":1087.83,"endTime":1091.31,"body":"This is the founding principle"},{"startTime":1087.83,"endTime":1091.31,"body":"of lots of marine ecosystems"},{"startTime":1091.31,"endTime":1095.057,"body":"because this biofilm allows"},{"startTime":1091.31,"endTime":1095.057,"body":"larger organisms to colonize it."},{"startTime":1095.057,"endTime":1098.72,"body":"And so these biofilms are a"},{"startTime":1095.057,"endTime":1098.72,"body":"fundamental part, if you like,"},{"startTime":1098.72,"endTime":1102.533,"body":"of the global ecosystem rather"},{"startTime":1098.72,"endTime":1102.533,"body":"than just the microbial one."},{"startTime":1108.08,"endTime":1111.29,"body":"Biofilms are very often"},{"startTime":1108.08,"endTime":1111.29,"body":"an example of a symbiosis,"},{"startTime":1111.29,"endTime":1113.81,"body":"multiple different"},{"startTime":1111.29,"endTime":1113.81,"body":"species living together,"},{"startTime":1113.81,"endTime":1116.69,"body":"benefiting each other kind"},{"startTime":1113.81,"endTime":1116.69,"body":"of teamwork if you like,"},{"startTime":1116.69,"endTime":1118.073,"body":"on a microbial level."},{"startTime":1119.33,"endTime":1122.93,"body":"Those kind of symbiosis have shaped"},{"startTime":1122.93,"endTime":1124.79,"body":"much of what we remember about"},{"startTime":1124.79,"endTime":1127.187,"body":"what we experience about"},{"startTime":1124.79,"endTime":1127.187,"body":"the world around us."},{"startTime":1127.187,"endTime":1128.87,"body":"And I want to spend a few minutes"},{"startTime":1128.87,"endTime":1131.96,"body":"talking about some of the"},{"startTime":1128.87,"endTime":1131.96,"body":"really interesting symbiosis"},{"startTime":1131.96,"endTime":1134.117,"body":"that have created structures"},{"startTime":1134.117,"endTime":1136.85,"body":"that are probably quite"},{"startTime":1134.117,"endTime":1136.85,"body":"familiar to most of us."},{"startTime":1136.85,"endTime":1139.1,"body":"And the first one I want to"},{"startTime":1136.85,"endTime":1139.1,"body":"talk about is this one here."},{"startTime":1139.1,"endTime":1142.58,"body":"This is a plant root,"},{"startTime":1139.1,"endTime":1142.58,"body":"okay, hoked out the ground,"},{"startTime":1142.58,"endTime":1144.2,"body":"imaged under a microscope."},{"startTime":1144.2,"endTime":1146.99,"body":"And what you can see hopefully"},{"startTime":1144.2,"endTime":1146.99,"body":"is the plant root here,"},{"startTime":1146.99,"endTime":1149.99,"body":"but around it these"},{"startTime":1146.99,"endTime":1149.99,"body":"very, very tiny filaments"},{"startTime":1149.99,"endTime":1152.51,"body":"that look like their"},{"startTime":1149.99,"endTime":1152.51,"body":"root hairs of the plant."},{"startTime":1152.51,"endTime":1154.263,"body":"But in fact they're not."},{"startTime":1154.263,"endTime":1157.16,"body":"This is a symbiotic fungus"},{"startTime":1154.263,"endTime":1157.16,"body":"so-called mycorrhiza"},{"startTime":1157.16,"endTime":1159.92,"body":"that is growing in"},{"startTime":1157.16,"endTime":1159.92,"body":"really close association"},{"startTime":1159.92,"endTime":1161.75,"body":"with this plant root."},{"startTime":1161.75,"endTime":1164.24,"body":"In fact, such close association"},{"startTime":1164.24,"endTime":1167.48,"body":"that if you zoom in on the"},{"startTime":1164.24,"endTime":1167.48,"body":"plant root microscopically,"},{"startTime":1167.48,"endTime":1169.97,"body":"what you see is that"},{"startTime":1167.48,"endTime":1169.97,"body":"the fungus here in blue"},{"startTime":1169.97,"endTime":1172.76,"body":"has actually penetrated"},{"startTime":1169.97,"endTime":1172.76,"body":"into the plant root,"},{"startTime":1172.76,"endTime":1174.44,"body":"which are these large cells here."},{"startTime":1174.44,"endTime":1177.95,"body":"These are the plant cells,"},{"startTime":1174.44,"endTime":1177.95,"body":"the fungus has penetrated in"},{"startTime":1177.95,"endTime":1181.97,"body":"and in individual plant"},{"startTime":1177.95,"endTime":1181.97,"body":"cells has grown into the cell"},{"startTime":1181.97,"endTime":1183.62,"body":"and produced this structure"},{"startTime":1183.62,"endTime":1185.42,"body":"that looks a bit like a bunch of grapes"},{"startTime":1185.42,"endTime":1187.763,"body":"or a kind of tiny human lung or something."},{"startTime":1189.29,"endTime":1193.91,"body":"This is arbuscular mycorrhiza"},{"startTime":1189.29,"endTime":1193.91,"body":"this fungus is a symbiote."},{"startTime":1193.91,"endTime":1195.29,"body":"It's growing in association with the plant"},{"startTime":1195.29,"endTime":1197.78,"body":"and the plant has"},{"startTime":1195.29,"endTime":1197.78,"body":"deliberately let it do this"},{"startTime":1197.78,"endTime":1200.99,"body":"because these two"},{"startTime":1197.78,"endTime":1200.99,"body":"organisms are trading off,"},{"startTime":1200.99,"endTime":1204.44,"body":"plants as we know photosynthesize,"},{"startTime":1200.99,"endTime":1204.44,"body":"they produce sugars,"},{"startTime":1204.44,"endTime":1207.14,"body":"they are giving some of"},{"startTime":1204.44,"endTime":1207.14,"body":"those sugars to this fungus"},{"startTime":1207.14,"endTime":1211.37,"body":"across these really intricate"},{"startTime":1207.14,"endTime":1211.37,"body":"intracellular structures."},{"startTime":1211.37,"endTime":1215.03,"body":"In return, the fungus is able"},{"startTime":1211.37,"endTime":1215.03,"body":"to spread through the soil"},{"startTime":1215.03,"endTime":1217.49,"body":"far further than any"},{"startTime":1215.03,"endTime":1217.49,"body":"plant root can make it."},{"startTime":1217.49,"endTime":1219.95,"body":"It's particularly good"},{"startTime":1217.49,"endTime":1219.95,"body":"at harvesting minerals,"},{"startTime":1219.95,"endTime":1222.02,"body":"things like phosphates from the soil"},{"startTime":1222.02,"endTime":1224.84,"body":"and it gives some of those"},{"startTime":1222.02,"endTime":1224.84,"body":"minerals back to the plant."},{"startTime":1224.84,"endTime":1228.95,"body":"This is a true symbiosis"},{"startTime":1224.84,"endTime":1228.95,"body":"and this is not unusual."},{"startTime":1228.95,"endTime":1231.14,"body":"In fact it's very far from unusual."},{"startTime":1231.14,"endTime":1235.22,"body":"In fact, we believe that these"},{"startTime":1231.14,"endTime":1235.22,"body":"mycorrhiza plant associations"},{"startTime":1235.22,"endTime":1237.8,"body":"are what allowed plants to colonize land,"},{"startTime":1237.8,"endTime":1239.33,"body":"plants evolved in the sea."},{"startTime":1239.33,"endTime":1242.81,"body":"Like most organisms getting"},{"startTime":1239.33,"endTime":1242.81,"body":"onto land is pretty tricky."},{"startTime":1242.81,"endTime":1244.58,"body":"If you're dependent on water,"},{"startTime":1244.58,"endTime":1246.8,"body":"moving out of water onto land"},{"startTime":1246.8,"endTime":1249.32,"body":"is not an easy obstacle to overcome."},{"startTime":1249.32,"endTime":1251.06,"body":"And there's quite good fossil evidence"},{"startTime":1251.06,"endTime":1253.43,"body":"to suggest that a very early interaction"},{"startTime":1253.43,"endTime":1255.23,"body":"was this association with fungi"},{"startTime":1255.23,"endTime":1257.57,"body":"that allowed those early land plants"},{"startTime":1257.57,"endTime":1262.01,"body":"to get nutrients out of this"},{"startTime":1257.57,"endTime":1262.01,"body":"very difficult dry environment."},{"startTime":1262.01,"endTime":1264.05,"body":"And in fact, I think is reasonably fair"},{"startTime":1264.05,"endTime":1265.7,"body":"to say that without mycorrhiza,"},{"startTime":1265.7,"endTime":1266.533,"body":"the world as we know,"},{"startTime":1266.533,"endTime":1269.0,"body":"it would not exist in the"},{"startTime":1266.533,"endTime":1269.0,"body":"way that we know it today."},{"startTime":1269.0,"endTime":1271.67,"body":"Because we know that today about 80 to 90%"},{"startTime":1271.67,"endTime":1275.15,"body":"of all land plants form"},{"startTime":1271.67,"endTime":1275.15,"body":"these interactions,"},{"startTime":1275.15,"endTime":1277.76,"body":"it's very rare not to"},{"startTime":1275.15,"endTime":1277.76,"body":"have a symbiotic fungus"},{"startTime":1277.76,"endTime":1279.26,"body":"living in your roots."},{"startTime":1279.26,"endTime":1280.94,"body":"And so this is what shapes"},{"startTime":1280.94,"endTime":1283.913,"body":"the kind of plant life around"},{"startTime":1280.94,"endTime":1283.913,"body":"the green planet around us."},{"startTime":1285.26,"endTime":1287.72,"body":"Some of these mycorrhiza interactions"},{"startTime":1287.72,"endTime":1289.16,"body":"are absolutely critical."},{"startTime":1289.16,"endTime":1290.84,"body":"So if you are a fan of orchids,"},{"startTime":1290.84,"endTime":1293.33,"body":"many of us I suspect have"},{"startTime":1290.84,"endTime":1293.33,"body":"these growing at home."},{"startTime":1293.33,"endTime":1294.68,"body":"If you're a fan of orchids,"},{"startTime":1294.68,"endTime":1298.22,"body":"orchids cannot germinate"},{"startTime":1294.68,"endTime":1298.22,"body":"without this symbiotic fungus."},{"startTime":1298.22,"endTime":1300.44,"body":"If you have orchid seeds"},{"startTime":1298.22,"endTime":1300.44,"body":"that are completely sterile,"},{"startTime":1300.44,"endTime":1301.34,"body":"they will not germinate."},{"startTime":1301.34,"endTime":1304.25,"body":"So this entire family of"},{"startTime":1301.34,"endTime":1304.25,"body":"all the beautiful orchids"},{"startTime":1304.25,"endTime":1305.39,"body":"we know around the world"},{"startTime":1305.39,"endTime":1308.213,"body":"are totally dependent on"},{"startTime":1305.39,"endTime":1308.213,"body":"this fungal interaction."},{"startTime":1309.47,"endTime":1310.67,"body":"Perhaps slightly less critically,"},{"startTime":1310.67,"endTime":1312.701,"body":"but really, really tastily truffles"},{"startTime":1312.701,"endTime":1315.32,"body":"are also the product"},{"startTime":1312.701,"endTime":1315.32,"body":"of a mycorrhiza fungus."},{"startTime":1315.32,"endTime":1319.37,"body":"This is the fruiting body of"},{"startTime":1315.32,"endTime":1319.37,"body":"a hidden network of mycorrhiza"},{"startTime":1319.37,"endTime":1321.11,"body":"in particular woodland habitats."},{"startTime":1321.11,"endTime":1323.39,"body":"And so for many of us, a significant,"},{"startTime":1323.39,"endTime":1325.776,"body":"not a significant part of our diet side,"},{"startTime":1325.776,"endTime":1326.84,"body":"a really nice part of our diet"},{"startTime":1326.84,"endTime":1329.72,"body":"is derived from mycorrhiza products."},{"startTime":1329.72,"endTime":1332.3,"body":"But most fundamentally,"},{"startTime":1329.72,"endTime":1332.3,"body":"some of the most beautiful,"},{"startTime":1332.3,"endTime":1335.93,"body":"most important, most fragile"},{"startTime":1332.3,"endTime":1335.93,"body":"ecosystems on the planet"},{"startTime":1335.93,"endTime":1338.87,"body":"are totally dependent on mycorrhiza fungi."},{"startTime":1338.87,"endTime":1341.42,"body":"So if you go to the"},{"startTime":1338.87,"endTime":1341.42,"body":"rainforest of South America"},{"startTime":1341.42,"endTime":1342.725,"body":"or central Africa,"},{"startTime":1342.725,"endTime":1346.88,"body":"you can find millions of"},{"startTime":1342.725,"endTime":1346.88,"body":"mycorrhiza associations"},{"startTime":1346.88,"endTime":1348.65,"body":"within just a meter of soil."},{"startTime":1348.65,"endTime":1351.62,"body":"And it's this that allows"},{"startTime":1348.65,"endTime":1351.62,"body":"this incredible biodiversity"},{"startTime":1351.62,"endTime":1353.42,"body":"to form on the planet."},{"startTime":1353.42,"endTime":1355.67,"body":"So here I think to a first approximation,"},{"startTime":1355.67,"endTime":1357.56,"body":"we can say large sways of the,"},{"startTime":1357.56,"endTime":1359.63,"body":"at least the terrestrial"},{"startTime":1357.56,"endTime":1359.63,"body":"planet we live on,"},{"startTime":1359.63,"endTime":1362.213,"body":"are products of a microbial interaction."},{"startTime":1364.97,"endTime":1367.58,"body":"The rainforest is pretty"},{"startTime":1364.97,"endTime":1367.58,"body":"big, plants are pretty big."},{"startTime":1367.58,"endTime":1370.076,"body":"But a spectacularly even bigger example"},{"startTime":1370.076,"endTime":1372.29,"body":"of a microbial structure"},{"startTime":1372.29,"endTime":1374.51,"body":"is one that attracts millions of tourists."},{"startTime":1374.51,"endTime":1376.28,"body":"And many of us are sort of vicariously"},{"startTime":1376.28,"endTime":1380.63,"body":"via Discovery channel,"},{"startTime":1376.28,"endTime":1380.63,"body":"National Geographic type images"},{"startTime":1380.63,"endTime":1383.21,"body":"every year, because one of the largest,"},{"startTime":1383.21,"endTime":1387.11,"body":"spectacular structures on the"},{"startTime":1383.21,"endTime":1387.11,"body":"planet is a microbial one."},{"startTime":1387.11,"endTime":1390.74,"body":"And it's this one here, the"},{"startTime":1387.11,"endTime":1390.74,"body":"Great Barrier Reef in Australia,"},{"startTime":1390.74,"endTime":1393.08,"body":"which you can see in this image."},{"startTime":1393.08,"endTime":1395.54,"body":"The Great Barrier Reef as"},{"startTime":1393.08,"endTime":1395.54,"body":"we know is a coral reef."},{"startTime":1395.54,"endTime":1397.34,"body":"A coral is a kind of hard stony thing,"},{"startTime":1397.34,"endTime":1399.99,"body":"but of course what produces the coral reef"},{"startTime":1400.994,"endTime":1404.18,"body":"is not the stone itself but"},{"startTime":1400.994,"endTime":1404.18,"body":"the organisms within it."},{"startTime":1404.18,"endTime":1407.54,"body":"So if you look at a typical"},{"startTime":1404.18,"endTime":1407.54,"body":"coral reef like this one here,"},{"startTime":1407.54,"endTime":1409.73,"body":"the each of these individual corals"},{"startTime":1409.73,"endTime":1412.46,"body":"is produced actually by"},{"startTime":1409.73,"endTime":1412.46,"body":"tiny microscopic animals"},{"startTime":1412.46,"endTime":1414.02,"body":"called anthozoa."},{"startTime":1414.02,"endTime":1416.96,"body":"Which look a little bit"},{"startTime":1414.02,"endTime":1416.96,"body":"like this in cross section,"},{"startTime":1416.96,"endTime":1417.793,"body":"these are very small,"},{"startTime":1417.793,"endTime":1420.41,"body":"but they're not specifically microscopic,"},{"startTime":1420.41,"endTime":1424.82,"body":"but they are totally dependent"},{"startTime":1420.41,"endTime":1424.82,"body":"on microscopic symbiont."},{"startTime":1424.82,"endTime":1427.82,"body":"So these coral themselves gain food"},{"startTime":1427.82,"endTime":1430.88,"body":"by filter feeding from"},{"startTime":1427.82,"endTime":1430.88,"body":"the surrounding sea,"},{"startTime":1430.88,"endTime":1433.91,"body":"but that's usually not"},{"startTime":1430.88,"endTime":1433.91,"body":"enough to provide the energy,"},{"startTime":1433.91,"endTime":1435.65,"body":"the high energy they require"},{"startTime":1435.65,"endTime":1437.87,"body":"to secrete the calcium carbonate"},{"startTime":1437.87,"endTime":1440.33,"body":"that will go on to form"},{"startTime":1437.87,"endTime":1440.33,"body":"these stony corals."},{"startTime":1440.33,"endTime":1443.177,"body":"They need more energy than"},{"startTime":1440.33,"endTime":1443.177,"body":"they themselves can feed on."},{"startTime":1443.177,"endTime":1445.01,"body":"And so they are colonized"},{"startTime":1445.01,"endTime":1449.72,"body":"by symbiotic photosynthetic"},{"startTime":1445.01,"endTime":1449.72,"body":"organisms like these ones here,"},{"startTime":1449.72,"endTime":1453.77,"body":"these little tiny algae"},{"startTime":1449.72,"endTime":1453.77,"body":"live inside the anthozoa."},{"startTime":1453.77,"endTime":1454.97,"body":"They photosynthesize,"},{"startTime":1454.97,"endTime":1457.64,"body":"they give some of the"},{"startTime":1454.97,"endTime":1457.64,"body":"nutrients they gain from that"},{"startTime":1457.64,"endTime":1460.82,"body":"to the coral, which uses"},{"startTime":1457.64,"endTime":1460.82,"body":"them to build the coral reef."},{"startTime":1460.82,"endTime":1463.58,"body":"And in return the coral gives"},{"startTime":1460.82,"endTime":1463.58,"body":"it a nice protected home"},{"startTime":1463.58,"endTime":1466.85,"body":"away from predators for"},{"startTime":1463.58,"endTime":1466.85,"body":"the rest of its existence."},{"startTime":1466.85,"endTime":1469.04,"body":"This really important symbiosis"},{"startTime":1469.04,"endTime":1472.283,"body":"has created all of the coral"},{"startTime":1469.04,"endTime":1472.283,"body":"reefs around the world."},{"startTime":1473.27,"endTime":1474.95,"body":"And we know it's fundamentally important"},{"startTime":1474.95,"endTime":1478.46,"body":"because when it goes wrong,"},{"startTime":1474.95,"endTime":1478.46,"body":"it goes spectacularly wrong."},{"startTime":1478.46,"endTime":1479.99,"body":"If the coral becomes stressed,"},{"startTime":1479.99,"endTime":1482.42,"body":"if the coral organism becomes stressed,"},{"startTime":1482.42,"endTime":1484.7,"body":"in particular by rising sea temperatures,"},{"startTime":1484.7,"endTime":1486.83,"body":"but also by things like pollution,"},{"startTime":1486.83,"endTime":1489.02,"body":"it responds to that"},{"startTime":1486.83,"endTime":1489.02,"body":"stress kind of generically"},{"startTime":1489.02,"endTime":1492.2,"body":"by throwing out the algae,"},{"startTime":1489.02,"endTime":1492.2,"body":"it expels the algae,"},{"startTime":1492.2,"endTime":1493.55,"body":"which is a pretty fatal mistake."},{"startTime":1493.55,"endTime":1496.01,"body":"Without the algae, it"},{"startTime":1493.55,"endTime":1496.01,"body":"can't get enough energy"},{"startTime":1496.01,"endTime":1498.65,"body":"and ultimately this coral animal dies"},{"startTime":1498.65,"endTime":1501.02,"body":"and you end up with this"},{"startTime":1498.65,"endTime":1501.02,"body":"a terrible phenomenon"},{"startTime":1501.02,"endTime":1503.803,"body":"of coral bleaching in"},{"startTime":1501.02,"endTime":1503.803,"body":"which the stony structure"},{"startTime":1503.803,"endTime":1506.27,"body":"is still there, the"},{"startTime":1503.803,"endTime":1506.27,"body":"skeleton is still there,"},{"startTime":1506.27,"endTime":1508.72,"body":"but the animals are dead"},{"startTime":1506.27,"endTime":1508.72,"body":"and the algae have gone."},{"startTime":1510.17,"endTime":1512.09,"body":"One of the most interesting"},{"startTime":1510.17,"endTime":1512.09,"body":"twists in this tale"},{"startTime":1512.09,"endTime":1514.4,"body":"I think is we've known"},{"startTime":1512.09,"endTime":1514.4,"body":"about this coral symbiosis"},{"startTime":1514.4,"endTime":1515.81,"body":"for a very long time,"},{"startTime":1515.81,"endTime":1519.02,"body":"but very, very recently it's"},{"startTime":1515.81,"endTime":1519.02,"body":"turned out this symbiosis"},{"startTime":1519.02,"endTime":1521.417,"body":"is even more complicated than that."},{"startTime":1521.417,"endTime":1523.85,"body":"But it's just about two"},{"startTime":1521.417,"endTime":1523.85,"body":"or three years ago now,"},{"startTime":1523.85,"endTime":1528.02,"body":"a group investigated"},{"startTime":1523.85,"endTime":1528.02,"body":"coral by DNA sequencing"},{"startTime":1528.02,"endTime":1530.3,"body":"and discovered that within"},{"startTime":1528.02,"endTime":1530.3,"body":"the coral is the algae,"},{"startTime":1530.3,"endTime":1531.26,"body":"we knew that already,"},{"startTime":1531.26,"endTime":1534.11,"body":"but also this unusual group of organisms"},{"startTime":1534.11,"endTime":1537.74,"body":"not previously found that"},{"startTime":1534.11,"endTime":1537.74,"body":"are now called corallicolids."},{"startTime":1537.74,"endTime":1540.47,"body":"And these, this is the"},{"startTime":1537.74,"endTime":1540.47,"body":"little gray organism here,"},{"startTime":1540.47,"endTime":1544.793,"body":"seem to inhabit many, perhaps"},{"startTime":1540.47,"endTime":1544.793,"body":"all corals around the world."},{"startTime":1545.63,"endTime":1547.94,"body":"They are a microwave"},{"startTime":1545.63,"endTime":1547.94,"body":"called an apicomplexa,"},{"startTime":1547.94,"endTime":1550.398,"body":"which makes them quite closely related"},{"startTime":1550.398,"endTime":1552.53,"body":"to things like malaria in humans."},{"startTime":1552.53,"endTime":1553.79,"body":"And as far as we can tell,"},{"startTime":1553.79,"endTime":1555.86,"body":"these we think are parasites of coral,"},{"startTime":1555.86,"endTime":1558.83,"body":"although it's very early days"},{"startTime":1555.86,"endTime":1558.83,"body":"to truly know how they behave."},{"startTime":1558.83,"endTime":1559.866,"body":"And so even now,"},{"startTime":1559.866,"endTime":1562.22,"body":"we've known about coral"},{"startTime":1559.866,"endTime":1562.22,"body":"reef for hundreds of years,"},{"startTime":1562.22,"endTime":1565.04,"body":"we've known by the symbiosis"},{"startTime":1562.22,"endTime":1565.04,"body":"for many, many decades."},{"startTime":1565.04,"endTime":1567.17,"body":"But it turns out there's"},{"startTime":1565.04,"endTime":1567.17,"body":"a whole new dimension"},{"startTime":1567.17,"endTime":1568.003,"body":"to this relationship"},{"startTime":1568.003,"endTime":1569.96,"body":"that we are only just"},{"startTime":1568.003,"endTime":1569.96,"body":"starting to dig into."},{"startTime":1569.96,"endTime":1571.67,"body":"And it'll be really interesting I think,"},{"startTime":1571.67,"endTime":1573.53,"body":"over the coming years try and work out"},{"startTime":1573.53,"endTime":1575.6,"body":"what the role of corallicolids is"},{"startTime":1575.6,"endTime":1579.45,"body":"in driving coral biodiversity."},{"startTime":1579.45,"endTime":1582.2,"body":"(glass clanking)"},{"startTime":1584.3,"endTime":1586.13,"body":"So what I hope I'm kind"},{"startTime":1584.3,"endTime":1586.13,"body":"of convincing you of"},{"startTime":1586.13,"endTime":1588.11,"body":"is that microbes are actually fundamental"},{"startTime":1588.11,"endTime":1590.84,"body":"to many of the world's largest structures."},{"startTime":1590.84,"endTime":1592.88,"body":"Many of the things that"},{"startTime":1590.84,"endTime":1592.88,"body":"we often go on holiday"},{"startTime":1592.88,"endTime":1593.903,"body":"and see actually,"},{"startTime":1594.803,"endTime":1598.34,"body":"and some of those landscapes are,"},{"startTime":1598.34,"endTime":1600.26,"body":"you wouldn't intuitively"},{"startTime":1598.34,"endTime":1600.26,"body":"think of as being microbial,"},{"startTime":1600.26,"endTime":1602.06,"body":"but they are, they totally depend on it."},{"startTime":1602.06,"endTime":1603.77,"body":"And here's one I appreciate."},{"startTime":1603.77,"endTime":1606.26,"body":"You might not go on a holiday"},{"startTime":1603.77,"endTime":1606.26,"body":"to see this particular bit"},{"startTime":1606.26,"endTime":1609.35,"body":"of a peat bog but bogs and tundra"},{"startTime":1609.35,"endTime":1613.28,"body":"are something that is incredibly"},{"startTime":1609.35,"endTime":1613.28,"body":"important to biodiversity,"},{"startTime":1613.28,"endTime":1614.78,"body":"in terms of biodiversity"},{"startTime":1614.78,"endTime":1618.2,"body":"and also in terms of very"},{"startTime":1614.78,"endTime":1618.2,"body":"often of surrounding wildlife,"},{"startTime":1618.2,"endTime":1619.82,"body":"in terms of ecotourism."},{"startTime":1619.82,"endTime":1622.19,"body":"And of course in terms of carbon capture,"},{"startTime":1622.19,"endTime":1625.37,"body":"we now know that peat bogs"},{"startTime":1622.19,"endTime":1625.37,"body":"are incredibly important"},{"startTime":1625.37,"endTime":1628.763,"body":"in sequestering carbon and"},{"startTime":1625.37,"endTime":1628.763,"body":"helping fight climate change."},{"startTime":1630.2,"endTime":1632.18,"body":"Peat bogs, as you probably already know,"},{"startTime":1632.18,"endTime":1634.31,"body":"are composed largely of a single plant."},{"startTime":1634.31,"endTime":1636.14,"body":"This is Sphagnum Moss, okay?"},{"startTime":1636.14,"endTime":1637.64,"body":"And it's this remarkable moss,"},{"startTime":1637.64,"endTime":1638.81,"body":"which if you had a move of it,"},{"startTime":1638.81,"endTime":1641.621,"body":"you can dip into water and it"},{"startTime":1638.81,"endTime":1641.621,"body":"holds a huge amount of water,"},{"startTime":1641.621,"endTime":1643.85,"body":"you can squeeze it out like a sponge."},{"startTime":1643.85,"endTime":1646.37,"body":"Sphagnum Moss is clearly not a microbe,"},{"startTime":1646.37,"endTime":1647.57,"body":"but what I want to convince you of"},{"startTime":1647.57,"endTime":1649.79,"body":"is that it's really dependent"},{"startTime":1647.57,"endTime":1649.79,"body":"on microbes for its life"},{"startTime":1649.79,"endTime":1651.62,"body":"because Sphagnum Moss is quite clever."},{"startTime":1651.62,"endTime":1654.38,"body":"It grows in very damp people conditions,"},{"startTime":1654.38,"endTime":1656.09,"body":"it grows very tightly together"},{"startTime":1656.09,"endTime":1659.33,"body":"and essentially creates a"},{"startTime":1656.09,"endTime":1659.33,"body":"very anaerobic environment"},{"startTime":1659.33,"endTime":1662.33,"body":"and the environment underneath"},{"startTime":1659.33,"endTime":1662.33,"body":"it that is lacking in oxygen."},{"startTime":1663.23,"endTime":1665.15,"body":"This dramatically reduces the ability"},{"startTime":1665.15,"endTime":1666.53,"body":"of other plants to grow"},{"startTime":1666.53,"endTime":1668.87,"body":"'cause they can't handle"},{"startTime":1666.53,"endTime":1668.87,"body":"the water load conditions,"},{"startTime":1668.87,"endTime":1670.85,"body":"they can't handle the lack of oxygen."},{"startTime":1670.85,"endTime":1673.643,"body":"And so Sphagnum has the"},{"startTime":1670.85,"endTime":1673.643,"body":"bog essentially to itself."},{"startTime":1675.05,"endTime":1677.124,"body":"That seems like a great idea,"},{"startTime":1677.124,"endTime":1680.0,"body":"except that in a anaerobic"},{"startTime":1677.124,"endTime":1680.0,"body":"damp environment,"},{"startTime":1680.0,"endTime":1682.13,"body":"if you think about what"},{"startTime":1680.0,"endTime":1682.13,"body":"happens if you leave a sort of,"},{"startTime":1682.13,"endTime":1685.237,"body":"I don't know a few dead"},{"startTime":1682.13,"endTime":1685.237,"body":"leaves in a bucket of water"},{"startTime":1685.237,"endTime":1686.205,"body":"with a lid on for a while"},{"startTime":1686.205,"endTime":1687.038,"body":"and then you come back six"},{"startTime":1686.205,"endTime":1687.038,"body":"months later and open the lid"},{"startTime":1687.038,"endTime":1689.06,"body":"and it's a pretty unpleasant experience"},{"startTime":1689.06,"endTime":1690.68,"body":"'cause what has happened in there"},{"startTime":1690.68,"endTime":1692.417,"body":"is this anaerobic fermentation."},{"startTime":1692.417,"endTime":1694.97,"body":"And that happens also in peat bogs."},{"startTime":1694.97,"endTime":1698.45,"body":"In this oxygen free wet environment."},{"startTime":1698.45,"endTime":1702.11,"body":"You have a group of microbes"},{"startTime":1698.45,"endTime":1702.11,"body":"that rapidly colonize"},{"startTime":1702.11,"endTime":1705.419,"body":"and live that generating methane."},{"startTime":1705.419,"endTime":1707.72,"body":"These are so-called the"},{"startTime":1705.419,"endTime":1707.72,"body":"methanogenig archaea."},{"startTime":1707.72,"endTime":1709.73,"body":"These are a group of organisms"},{"startTime":1709.73,"endTime":1711.8,"body":"that are closely related to bacteria,"},{"startTime":1711.8,"endTime":1713.99,"body":"although fundamentally different."},{"startTime":1713.99,"endTime":1714.86,"body":"They have been around"},{"startTime":1714.86,"endTime":1717.928,"body":"since the very earliest origins of life"},{"startTime":1717.928,"endTime":1719.78,"body":"and they don't use oxygen."},{"startTime":1719.78,"endTime":1721.76,"body":"What they generate, they use nutrients"},{"startTime":1721.76,"endTime":1723.89,"body":"and in in generating"},{"startTime":1721.76,"endTime":1723.89,"body":"energy from nutrients,"},{"startTime":1723.89,"endTime":1727.16,"body":"they release often things"},{"startTime":1723.89,"endTime":1727.16,"body":"like sulfurous acid."},{"startTime":1727.16,"endTime":1728.873,"body":"But in this case, methane,"},{"startTime":1730.61,"endTime":1732.14,"body":"many people know that methane"},{"startTime":1732.14,"endTime":1734.6,"body":"is actually a really"},{"startTime":1732.14,"endTime":1734.6,"body":"potent greenhouse gas,"},{"startTime":1734.6,"endTime":1737.84,"body":"shortlived, but extremely potent"},{"startTime":1734.6,"endTime":1737.84,"body":"in terms of global warming."},{"startTime":1737.84,"endTime":1740.81,"body":"So if you think about all the"},{"startTime":1737.84,"endTime":1740.81,"body":"peat bogs around the world,"},{"startTime":1740.81,"endTime":1743.9,"body":"if they're all producing methane rapidly,"},{"startTime":1743.9,"endTime":1745.52,"body":"that sounds like a bit of a disaster."},{"startTime":1745.52,"endTime":1746.93,"body":"And yet we all know that peat bogs"},{"startTime":1746.93,"endTime":1749.84,"body":"are really important for"},{"startTime":1746.93,"endTime":1749.84,"body":"fighting climate change"},{"startTime":1749.84,"endTime":1751.25,"body":"rather than creating climate change."},{"startTime":1751.25,"endTime":1752.2,"body":"So how can this be?"},{"startTime":1753.2,"endTime":1755.72,"body":"And it turns out that's"},{"startTime":1753.2,"endTime":1755.72,"body":"because of another microbe."},{"startTime":1755.72,"endTime":1758.87,"body":"So these archaea live"},{"startTime":1755.72,"endTime":1758.87,"body":"under your Sphagnum Moss"},{"startTime":1758.87,"endTime":1760.733,"body":"producing bubbling up methane."},{"startTime":1761.66,"endTime":1763.49,"body":"But a second group of bacteria,"},{"startTime":1763.49,"endTime":1766.58,"body":"the so-called methanotrophic bacteria,"},{"startTime":1766.58,"endTime":1769.52,"body":"see this as a kind of free buffet."},{"startTime":1769.52,"endTime":1772.43,"body":"They are capable of taking"},{"startTime":1769.52,"endTime":1772.43,"body":"methane and converting it,"},{"startTime":1772.43,"endTime":1774.38,"body":"gaining energy in the process,"},{"startTime":1774.38,"endTime":1776.063,"body":"converting the methane to CO2."},{"startTime":1776.9,"endTime":1780.2,"body":"These methanotrophic bacteria"},{"startTime":1776.9,"endTime":1780.2,"body":"colonize this habitat,"},{"startTime":1780.2,"endTime":1782.483,"body":"convert that methane to CO2."},{"startTime":1783.65,"endTime":1785.81,"body":"That's already a great"},{"startTime":1783.65,"endTime":1785.81,"body":"step in the right direction"},{"startTime":1785.81,"endTime":1788.6,"body":"because CO2 is a much"},{"startTime":1785.81,"endTime":1788.6,"body":"less potent greenhouse gas"},{"startTime":1788.6,"endTime":1789.86,"body":"than methane, but it's still not great."},{"startTime":1789.86,"endTime":1792.02,"body":"We don't want to release CO2 as hopefully"},{"startTime":1792.02,"endTime":1794.75,"body":"every single human being"},{"startTime":1792.02,"endTime":1794.75,"body":"on the planet now knows."},{"startTime":1794.75,"endTime":1796.34,"body":"But that as a matter in a peat bog,"},{"startTime":1796.34,"endTime":1798.893,"body":"because what happens is that CO2"},{"startTime":1798.893,"endTime":1802.13,"body":"is immediately used by"},{"startTime":1798.893,"endTime":1802.13,"body":"Sphagnum Moss to grow."},{"startTime":1802.13,"endTime":1804.227,"body":"And then of course what happens over time"},{"startTime":1804.227,"endTime":1805.67,"body":"is the moss will die or sediment out,"},{"startTime":1805.67,"endTime":1807.2,"body":"the peat gets a bit deeper,"},{"startTime":1807.2,"endTime":1810.83,"body":"new moss comes and you've"},{"startTime":1807.2,"endTime":1810.83,"body":"captured all of that carbon"},{"startTime":1810.83,"endTime":1814.005,"body":"and sequestered it away"},{"startTime":1810.83,"endTime":1814.005,"body":"for thousands of years."},{"startTime":1814.005,"endTime":1817.67,"body":"And so this role of peat bogs in reversing"},{"startTime":1817.67,"endTime":1820.25,"body":"or fighting climate change"},{"startTime":1817.67,"endTime":1820.25,"body":"is driven essentially"},{"startTime":1820.25,"endTime":1822.74,"body":"by this three way"},{"startTime":1820.25,"endTime":1822.74,"body":"interaction between a plant"},{"startTime":1822.74,"endTime":1824.66,"body":"and two different sorts of microbe,"},{"startTime":1824.66,"endTime":1827.87,"body":"all of which depend on each"},{"startTime":1824.66,"endTime":1827.87,"body":"other for their energy source,"},{"startTime":1827.87,"endTime":1829.403,"body":"for their nutrition."},{"startTime":1830.81,"endTime":1833.09,"body":"And so large spectacular habitats"},{"startTime":1833.09,"endTime":1835.55,"body":"like these upland peat bogs in Scotland"},{"startTime":1835.55,"endTime":1839.36,"body":"are there because of these"},{"startTime":1835.55,"endTime":1839.36,"body":"two groups of microbes"},{"startTime":1839.36,"endTime":1841.74,"body":"that are supporting what is to us"},{"startTime":1842.587,"endTime":1844.183,"body":"the visible plant layout on top."},{"startTime":1846.77,"endTime":1849.98,"body":"So my last mega structure"},{"startTime":1846.77,"endTime":1849.98,"body":"example in this evening"},{"startTime":1849.98,"endTime":1852.11,"body":"is one that's even bigger than a peat bog"},{"startTime":1852.11,"endTime":1855.89,"body":"and it's triggered by some"},{"startTime":1852.11,"endTime":1855.89,"body":"of the smallest microbes"},{"startTime":1855.89,"endTime":1857.03,"body":"that we know of in the sea."},{"startTime":1857.03,"endTime":1861.299,"body":"These rather spectacular is"},{"startTime":1857.03,"endTime":1861.299,"body":"rather spectacular. (coughs)"},{"startTime":1861.299,"endTime":1862.91,"body":"Rather spectacular"},{"startTime":1861.299,"endTime":1862.91,"body":"organisms in front of us"},{"startTime":1862.91,"endTime":1865.94,"body":"are tiny marine photosynthetic microbes."},{"startTime":1865.94,"endTime":1866.773,"body":"This is a very,"},{"startTime":1866.773,"endTime":1868.49,"body":"like you can just about"},{"startTime":1866.773,"endTime":1868.49,"body":"see the scale bar here."},{"startTime":1868.49,"endTime":1869.93,"body":"So this is one micrometer."},{"startTime":1869.93,"endTime":1871.88,"body":"So this whole thing is maybe"},{"startTime":1871.88,"endTime":1874.94,"body":"10 thousandths of a millimeter across"},{"startTime":1874.94,"endTime":1879.94,"body":"far below the site of the"},{"startTime":1874.94,"endTime":1879.94,"body":"visible radar for humans"},{"startTime":1880.19,"endTime":1882.23,"body":"but abundant in the ocean."},{"startTime":1882.23,"endTime":1883.64,"body":"In fact there are many, many"},{"startTime":1883.64,"endTime":1887.13,"body":"of these kind of"},{"startTime":1883.64,"endTime":1887.13,"body":"so-called coccolithophores"},{"startTime":1887.13,"endTime":1888.95,"body":"living in marine environments."},{"startTime":1888.95,"endTime":1891.68,"body":"If we take a typical sample of seawater"},{"startTime":1891.68,"endTime":1894.02,"body":"and look at it under"},{"startTime":1891.68,"endTime":1894.02,"body":"an electron microscope,"},{"startTime":1894.02,"endTime":1896.36,"body":"you see all these rather"},{"startTime":1894.02,"endTime":1896.36,"body":"beautiful structures,"},{"startTime":1896.36,"endTime":1899.66,"body":"each of which is a single"},{"startTime":1896.36,"endTime":1899.66,"body":"celled photosynthetic,"},{"startTime":1899.66,"endTime":1900.713,"body":"marine microbe."},{"startTime":1901.58,"endTime":1903.23,"body":"There are literally billions of these"},{"startTime":1903.23,"endTime":1906.74,"body":"in every sort of teaspoon of of sea water."},{"startTime":1906.74,"endTime":1909.53,"body":"They photosensitize,"},{"startTime":1906.74,"endTime":1909.53,"body":"they divide, they die."},{"startTime":1909.53,"endTime":1911.45,"body":"When they die, their shells"},{"startTime":1911.45,"endTime":1914.27,"body":"which are composed of"},{"startTime":1911.45,"endTime":1914.27,"body":"calcium carbonate or chalk"},{"startTime":1914.27,"endTime":1916.63,"body":"fall to the bottom of the sea."},{"startTime":1916.63,"endTime":1919.01,"body":"In the right conditions"},{"startTime":1916.63,"endTime":1919.01,"body":"they will accumulate"},{"startTime":1919.01,"endTime":1921.21,"body":"because this is not easily biodegraded."},{"startTime":1921.21,"endTime":1924.02,"body":"And so bit by bit these"},{"startTime":1921.21,"endTime":1924.02,"body":"organisms accumulate"},{"startTime":1924.02,"endTime":1925.253,"body":"more and more skeletons."},{"startTime":1927.412,"endTime":1928.76,"body":"If you roll the clock back,"},{"startTime":1928.76,"endTime":1932.014,"body":"this is about a hundred million"},{"startTime":1928.76,"endTime":1932.014,"body":"years now we're going back."},{"startTime":1932.014,"endTime":1934.49,"body":"So this is definitely the"},{"startTime":1932.014,"endTime":1934.49,"body":"age of the dinosaurs, okay?"},{"startTime":1934.49,"endTime":1936.931,"body":"The world as we know it"},{"startTime":1934.49,"endTime":1936.931,"body":"looked a little bit like this"},{"startTime":1936.931,"endTime":1938.72,"body":"because of continental drift."},{"startTime":1938.72,"endTime":1941.366,"body":"Obviously most of the"},{"startTime":1938.72,"endTime":1941.366,"body":"countries of the world"},{"startTime":1941.366,"endTime":1943.7,"body":"that we know today were"},{"startTime":1941.366,"endTime":1943.7,"body":"in different locations."},{"startTime":1943.7,"endTime":1945.723,"body":"And you can just about see here,"},{"startTime":1945.723,"endTime":1946.61,"body":"those of you at the front perhaps"},{"startTime":1946.61,"endTime":1948.86,"body":"this is what is now the UK."},{"startTime":1948.86,"endTime":1949.97,"body":"You can see South America"},{"startTime":1949.97,"endTime":1952.15,"body":"you can just about make out Africa,"},{"startTime":1952.15,"endTime":1954.25,"body":"although it's not in its"},{"startTime":1952.15,"endTime":1954.25,"body":"current day position,"},{"startTime":1954.25,"endTime":1955.133,"body":"it needs to move."},{"startTime":1955.133,"endTime":1957.29,"body":"But what you note in particular I hope,"},{"startTime":1957.29,"endTime":1960.65,"body":"is that here what is is now today Europe,"},{"startTime":1960.65,"endTime":1963.44,"body":"there are a lot of very"},{"startTime":1960.65,"endTime":1963.44,"body":"small sort of inlets"},{"startTime":1963.44,"endTime":1965.36,"body":"and very shallow warm seas."},{"startTime":1965.36,"endTime":1967.73,"body":"The world at this time a"},{"startTime":1965.36,"endTime":1967.73,"body":"hundred million years ago,"},{"startTime":1967.73,"endTime":1969.89,"body":"was a lot warmer than it is today."},{"startTime":1969.89,"endTime":1973.82,"body":"And so around what is now"},{"startTime":1969.89,"endTime":1973.82,"body":"the UK and western Europe"},{"startTime":1973.82,"endTime":1977.24,"body":"were a load of warm, tropical shallow seas"},{"startTime":1977.24,"endTime":1980.03,"body":"full of these marine microorganisms"},{"startTime":1980.03,"endTime":1981.14,"body":"that I've just shown you."},{"startTime":1981.14,"endTime":1982.67,"body":"Happily growing away,"},{"startTime":1982.67,"endTime":1985.013,"body":"dying sedimenting growing a bit more."},{"startTime":1985.94,"endTime":1988.07,"body":"In fact, we know based"},{"startTime":1985.94,"endTime":1988.07,"body":"on the fossil record"},{"startTime":1988.07,"endTime":1993.07,"body":"that at this time about 0.5"},{"startTime":1988.07,"endTime":1993.07,"body":"millimeters of these dead bodies"},{"startTime":1993.8,"endTime":1996.29,"body":"were laid down every"},{"startTime":1993.8,"endTime":1996.29,"body":"year, roughly speaking,"},{"startTime":1996.29,"endTime":2000.28,"body":"that's about 180 of those"},{"startTime":1996.29,"endTime":2000.28,"body":"individual microbe cells"},{"startTime":2000.28,"endTime":2002.354,"body":"stacked on top of each other."},{"startTime":2002.354,"endTime":2003.61,"body":"If you can think of that,"},{"startTime":2003.61,"endTime":2006.04,"body":"each year half a millimeter"},{"startTime":2003.61,"endTime":2006.04,"body":"is not very much."},{"startTime":2006.04,"endTime":2009.25,"body":"But if you do that for long"},{"startTime":2006.04,"endTime":2009.25,"body":"enough, I.e millions of years,"},{"startTime":2009.25,"endTime":2012.223,"body":"those skeletal bodies pack on"},{"startTime":2009.25,"endTime":2012.223,"body":"top of each other compact down"},{"startTime":2012.223,"endTime":2016.0,"body":"and form some of the most"},{"startTime":2012.223,"endTime":2016.0,"body":"spectacular structures"},{"startTime":2016.0,"endTime":2017.5,"body":"that we now see today."},{"startTime":2017.5,"endTime":2019.673,"body":"Like the White Cliffs of Dover,"},{"startTime":2019.673,"endTime":2021.61,"body":"in this case the seven"},{"startTime":2019.673,"endTime":2021.61,"body":"sisters down in Sussex,"},{"startTime":2021.61,"endTime":2025.09,"body":"these huge spectacular white cliffs"},{"startTime":2025.09,"endTime":2029.23,"body":"are essentially enormous"},{"startTime":2025.09,"endTime":2029.23,"body":"collections of dead microbes."},{"startTime":2029.23,"endTime":2031.33,"body":"And in fact, you can see"},{"startTime":2029.23,"endTime":2031.33,"body":"that if you take this chalk"},{"startTime":2031.33,"endTime":2033.46,"body":"and look at it under the"},{"startTime":2031.33,"endTime":2033.46,"body":"right kind of microscope,"},{"startTime":2033.46,"endTime":2035.83,"body":"you can sometimes see these amazing"},{"startTime":2035.83,"endTime":2038.17,"body":"clearly microbial skeletons in there."},{"startTime":2038.17,"endTime":2040.33,"body":"And so the next time you go"},{"startTime":2038.17,"endTime":2040.33,"body":"for a kind of walk along,"},{"startTime":2040.33,"endTime":2043.12,"body":"a beautiful white cliff,"},{"startTime":2040.33,"endTime":2043.12,"body":"particularly on the south coast,"},{"startTime":2043.12,"endTime":2045.28,"body":"think to yourself, \"How"},{"startTime":2043.12,"endTime":2045.28,"body":"many billions of organisms"},{"startTime":2045.28,"endTime":2047.92,"body":"had to die for me to"},{"startTime":2045.28,"endTime":2047.92,"body":"appreciate this amazing view"},{"startTime":2047.92,"endTime":2049.578,"body":"that I get here.\""},{"startTime":2049.578,"endTime":2051.82,"body":"And this is not true just"},{"startTime":2049.578,"endTime":2051.82,"body":"of course in in the UK"},{"startTime":2051.82,"endTime":2053.888,"body":"it's right around the world."},{"startTime":2053.888,"endTime":2055.482,"body":"These kind of huge lime stain cliffs"},{"startTime":2055.482,"endTime":2056.787,"body":"are all microbial products."},{"startTime":2056.787,"endTime":2058.496,"body":"And so between the great barrier Reef"},{"startTime":2058.496,"endTime":2061.3,"body":"and the rainforests of South"},{"startTime":2058.496,"endTime":2061.3,"body":"America and the chalk cliffs,"},{"startTime":2061.3,"endTime":2063.79,"body":"I think it's fair to say"},{"startTime":2061.3,"endTime":2063.79,"body":"that most of the structures"},{"startTime":2063.79,"endTime":2067.153,"body":"that we see in the world around"},{"startTime":2063.79,"endTime":2067.153,"body":"us are microbial in origin."},{"startTime":2068.53,"endTime":2070.96,"body":"So let me finish by"},{"startTime":2068.53,"endTime":2070.96,"body":"thinking a little bit about"},{"startTime":2070.96,"endTime":2074.68,"body":"all of these microbial structures"},{"startTime":2070.96,"endTime":2074.68,"body":"that have been produced,"},{"startTime":2074.68,"endTime":2076.51,"body":"these incredible feats of engineering"},{"startTime":2076.51,"endTime":2078.82,"body":"and raise the question really,"},{"startTime":2078.82,"endTime":2080.92,"body":"if microbes are capable"},{"startTime":2078.82,"endTime":2080.92,"body":"of doing these things"},{"startTime":2080.92,"endTime":2082.18,"body":"that we've never done before,"},{"startTime":2082.18,"endTime":2084.82,"body":"they can build cliffs that"},{"startTime":2082.18,"endTime":2084.82,"body":"are hundreds of feet high,"},{"startTime":2084.82,"endTime":2086.56,"body":"they can create barrier reefs"},{"startTime":2086.56,"endTime":2089.89,"body":"that are far more beautiful"},{"startTime":2086.56,"endTime":2089.89,"body":"than any human architecture."},{"startTime":2089.89,"endTime":2092.23,"body":"They can make motors at an invisible scale"},{"startTime":2092.23,"endTime":2094.813,"body":"that drive bacteria at"},{"startTime":2092.23,"endTime":2094.813,"body":"speeds that we cannot match."},{"startTime":2095.65,"endTime":2097.57,"body":"Will we ever be able to harness"},{"startTime":2097.57,"endTime":2100.873,"body":"any of this microbial"},{"startTime":2097.57,"endTime":2100.873,"body":"engineering for our own benefits?"},{"startTime":2101.95,"endTime":2103.96,"body":"And I think the answer to that is yes"},{"startTime":2103.96,"endTime":2106.18,"body":"and in fact very early days,"},{"startTime":2106.18,"endTime":2107.68,"body":"but it's starting to already happen."},{"startTime":2107.68,"endTime":2109.73,"body":"And let me give you a couple of examples."},{"startTime":2110.59,"endTime":2114.37,"body":"So most human building in the modern world"},{"startTime":2114.37,"endTime":2117.4,"body":"is built essentially of one"},{"startTime":2114.37,"endTime":2117.4,"body":"really dominant material,"},{"startTime":2117.4,"endTime":2119.65,"body":"which is this one here concrete, okay?"},{"startTime":2119.65,"endTime":2121.84,"body":"We're in a rare example of a building"},{"startTime":2121.84,"endTime":2123.28,"body":"that is not concrete in Central London,"},{"startTime":2123.28,"endTime":2124.69,"body":"but if we walk out of the door here,"},{"startTime":2124.69,"endTime":2126.94,"body":"I can guarantee I'll"},{"startTime":2124.69,"endTime":2126.94,"body":"find a lot of concrete"},{"startTime":2126.94,"endTime":2130.033,"body":"within a few yards of the"},{"startTime":2126.94,"endTime":2130.033,"body":"front door of Gretchen College."},{"startTime":2131.38,"endTime":2134.3,"body":"Concrete's great, it's"},{"startTime":2131.38,"endTime":2134.3,"body":"flexible, you can make things,"},{"startTime":2134.3,"endTime":2135.55,"body":"it's incredibly strong, you"},{"startTime":2134.3,"endTime":2135.55,"body":"can go really, really high."},{"startTime":2135.55,"endTime":2137.242,"body":"It has a problem."},{"startTime":2137.242,"endTime":2139.123,"body":"And that that problem"},{"startTime":2137.242,"endTime":2139.123,"body":"is that it often gets"},{"startTime":2139.123,"endTime":2139.956,"body":"these micro cracks,"},{"startTime":2139.956,"endTime":2143.08,"body":"over time as the concrete"},{"startTime":2139.956,"endTime":2143.08,"body":"expands and contracts"},{"startTime":2143.08,"endTime":2145.33,"body":"you can get very small fractures,"},{"startTime":2145.33,"endTime":2147.79,"body":"very small cracks inside concrete"},{"startTime":2147.79,"endTime":2150.46,"body":"and over time that weakens the concrete"},{"startTime":2150.46,"endTime":2153.7,"body":"and ultimately the building"},{"startTime":2150.46,"endTime":2153.7,"body":"that you've made with it."},{"startTime":2153.7,"endTime":2156.16,"body":"Wouldn't it be great then if"},{"startTime":2153.7,"endTime":2156.16,"body":"we could come up with a way"},{"startTime":2156.16,"endTime":2160.0,"body":"that you could fix these cracks"},{"startTime":2156.16,"endTime":2160.0,"body":"in a building as they happen"},{"startTime":2160.0,"endTime":2161.68,"body":"as opposed to waiting for 20 years"},{"startTime":2161.68,"endTime":2163.181,"body":"and then having to pull"},{"startTime":2161.68,"endTime":2163.181,"body":"the whole thing down"},{"startTime":2163.181,"endTime":2165.063,"body":"because it's got too many micro cracks."},{"startTime":2166.12,"endTime":2167.47,"body":"One way you could think about doing that"},{"startTime":2167.47,"endTime":2170.74,"body":"is by harnessing some of"},{"startTime":2167.47,"endTime":2170.74,"body":"these microbial structures"},{"startTime":2170.74,"endTime":2171.573,"body":"to achieve it."},{"startTime":2171.573,"endTime":2173.32,"body":"And that's exactly what"},{"startTime":2171.573,"endTime":2173.32,"body":"some people have done"},{"startTime":2173.32,"endTime":2176.44,"body":"with a material called"},{"startTime":2173.32,"endTime":2176.44,"body":"self-healing concrete."},{"startTime":2176.44,"endTime":2178.24,"body":"And there are two things you need to know,"},{"startTime":2178.24,"endTime":2179.713,"body":"microbiologically for that."},{"startTime":2180.55,"endTime":2184.12,"body":"The first is that many microbes"},{"startTime":2180.55,"endTime":2184.12,"body":"as you've seen tonight,"},{"startTime":2184.12,"endTime":2186.73,"body":"secrete these kind of stony products."},{"startTime":2186.73,"endTime":2189.193,"body":"These mineral products"},{"startTime":2186.73,"endTime":2189.193,"body":"like calcium carbonate,"},{"startTime":2190.03,"endTime":2191.23,"body":"they do that for their own purposes."},{"startTime":2191.23,"endTime":2193.57,"body":"They're not doing it to help"},{"startTime":2191.23,"endTime":2193.57,"body":"us with our building problems,"},{"startTime":2193.57,"endTime":2194.403,"body":"they're doing it"},{"startTime":2194.403,"endTime":2196.06,"body":"because they might want"},{"startTime":2194.403,"endTime":2196.06,"body":"to cement themselves"},{"startTime":2196.06,"endTime":2199.72,"body":"onto a surface or cement to each other."},{"startTime":2199.72,"endTime":2202.39,"body":"But nonetheless they"},{"startTime":2199.72,"endTime":2202.39,"body":"secrete essentially what is"},{"startTime":2202.39,"endTime":2203.743,"body":"bacterial concrete."},{"startTime":2205.15,"endTime":2207.61,"body":"The second thing to know"},{"startTime":2205.15,"endTime":2207.61,"body":"is that many microbes"},{"startTime":2207.61,"endTime":2210.91,"body":"are capable of really"},{"startTime":2207.61,"endTime":2210.91,"body":"extended periods of dormancy"},{"startTime":2210.91,"endTime":2214.12,"body":"in some cases hundreds of years."},{"startTime":2214.12,"endTime":2216.73,"body":"So you can get things like anthrax spores,"},{"startTime":2216.73,"endTime":2218.65,"body":"you might be familiar with anthraces,"},{"startTime":2218.65,"endTime":2221.743,"body":"this very significant disease"},{"startTime":2218.65,"endTime":2221.743,"body":"of humans and other animals."},{"startTime":2222.88,"endTime":2225.34,"body":"The organism that causes"},{"startTime":2222.88,"endTime":2225.34,"body":"that, bacillus anthracis"},{"startTime":2225.34,"endTime":2227.83,"body":"can produce a spore that"},{"startTime":2225.34,"endTime":2227.83,"body":"is incredibly durable."},{"startTime":2227.83,"endTime":2231.31,"body":"So 50 years later that bit"},{"startTime":2227.83,"endTime":2231.31,"body":"of soil that has a spore"},{"startTime":2231.31,"endTime":2232.48,"body":"is still dangerous,"},{"startTime":2232.48,"endTime":2234.55,"body":"that spore can wake up and cause disease."},{"startTime":2234.55,"endTime":2236.443,"body":"So many microbes can do that."},{"startTime":2237.85,"endTime":2240.1,"body":"So if you could combine these two things,"},{"startTime":2240.1,"endTime":2243.01,"body":"the ability to produce something"},{"startTime":2240.1,"endTime":2243.01,"body":"that's a bit like concrete"},{"startTime":2243.01,"endTime":2244.42,"body":"and the ability to be dormant"},{"startTime":2244.42,"endTime":2247.18,"body":"and to withstand lots"},{"startTime":2244.42,"endTime":2247.18,"body":"of environmental stress,"},{"startTime":2247.18,"endTime":2250.258,"body":"you could create self-healing concrete"},{"startTime":2250.258,"endTime":2251.091,"body":"and that's exactly what has happened."},{"startTime":2251.091,"endTime":2252.88,"body":"So you can take concrete"},{"startTime":2251.091,"endTime":2252.88,"body":"that looks like this,"},{"startTime":2252.88,"endTime":2254.795,"body":"this is under a microscope,"},{"startTime":2254.795,"endTime":2257.02,"body":"these tiny cracks up here within it."},{"startTime":2257.02,"endTime":2259.63,"body":"But if you have preloaded that concrete"},{"startTime":2259.63,"endTime":2261.67,"body":"with these bacteria that can go dormant"},{"startTime":2261.67,"endTime":2263.59,"body":"inside little capsules,"},{"startTime":2263.59,"endTime":2266.68,"body":"they sit asleep if you like"},{"startTime":2263.59,"endTime":2266.68,"body":"for a long period of time."},{"startTime":2266.68,"endTime":2268.18,"body":"The crack appears,"},{"startTime":2268.18,"endTime":2270.61,"body":"if the building's outside"},{"startTime":2268.18,"endTime":2270.61,"body":"rain will enter that crack"},{"startTime":2270.61,"endTime":2272.3,"body":"and it will get damp,"},{"startTime":2272.3,"endTime":2274.69,"body":"it will dissolve the capsule"},{"startTime":2272.3,"endTime":2274.69,"body":"you've put those bacteria in"},{"startTime":2274.69,"endTime":2277.51,"body":"and they will wake up because"},{"startTime":2274.69,"endTime":2277.51,"body":"now the water is there"},{"startTime":2277.51,"endTime":2279.7,"body":"and they will do what they"},{"startTime":2277.51,"endTime":2279.7,"body":"were expecting to do anyway."},{"startTime":2279.7,"endTime":2281.2,"body":"They will start to multiply."},{"startTime":2281.2,"endTime":2284.02,"body":"They will produce the material"},{"startTime":2281.2,"endTime":2284.02,"body":"they wanted to produce"},{"startTime":2284.02,"endTime":2285.37,"body":"to stick to their surface,"},{"startTime":2285.37,"endTime":2287.44,"body":"I.e this bacterial concrete"},{"startTime":2287.44,"endTime":2290.59,"body":"and they will fill that gap"},{"startTime":2287.44,"endTime":2290.59,"body":"remarkably successfully."},{"startTime":2290.59,"endTime":2294.52,"body":"And so you can build buildings"},{"startTime":2290.59,"endTime":2294.52,"body":"which are primed and ready"},{"startTime":2294.52,"endTime":2296.65,"body":"to heal their own cracks as they appear."},{"startTime":2296.65,"endTime":2299.17,"body":"And in fact, if you zoom right"},{"startTime":2296.65,"endTime":2299.17,"body":"in on these healed cracks,"},{"startTime":2299.17,"endTime":2300.4,"body":"you can just about see here,"},{"startTime":2300.4,"endTime":2302.35,"body":"you can see these tiny little tracks"},{"startTime":2302.35,"endTime":2305.08,"body":"which are actually like the"},{"startTime":2302.35,"endTime":2305.08,"body":"footprints of the bacteria"},{"startTime":2305.08,"endTime":2307.39,"body":"as they've borrowed their"},{"startTime":2305.08,"endTime":2307.39,"body":"way fixing the crack"},{"startTime":2307.39,"endTime":2308.5,"body":"that has appeared in your building."},{"startTime":2308.5,"endTime":2311.14,"body":"And so I think this is a great example"},{"startTime":2311.14,"endTime":2315.04,"body":"of using invisible microbes"},{"startTime":2311.14,"endTime":2315.04,"body":"to help fix human problems."},{"startTime":2315.04,"endTime":2317.563,"body":"I.e weakening of concrete buildings."},{"startTime":2319.18,"endTime":2321.58,"body":"So what else might we be"},{"startTime":2319.18,"endTime":2321.58,"body":"able to do with these things,"},{"startTime":2321.58,"endTime":2323.32,"body":"well, you could imagine really harnessing"},{"startTime":2323.32,"endTime":2326.92,"body":"some of the most spectacular"},{"startTime":2323.32,"endTime":2326.92,"body":"parts of microbial biology"},{"startTime":2326.92,"endTime":2329.62,"body":"for our own benefit, not"},{"startTime":2326.92,"endTime":2329.62,"body":"just for large buildings"},{"startTime":2329.62,"endTime":2331.06,"body":"but for tiny structures too."},{"startTime":2331.06,"endTime":2333.07,"body":"One of the great attractions of microbes"},{"startTime":2333.07,"endTime":2335.92,"body":"is they're invisibly small"},{"startTime":2333.07,"endTime":2335.92,"body":"and yet incredibly accurate."},{"startTime":2335.92,"endTime":2337.93,"body":"So you could build things on a scale"},{"startTime":2337.93,"endTime":2340.519,"body":"that we cannot currently get down to."},{"startTime":2340.519,"endTime":2342.371,"body":"We can't use instrumentation,"},{"startTime":2342.371,"endTime":2344.41,"body":"we can't use lasers to get small enough,"},{"startTime":2344.41,"endTime":2348.34,"body":"but we could potentially use"},{"startTime":2344.41,"endTime":2348.34,"body":"bacteria or fungi to do that."},{"startTime":2348.34,"endTime":2349.57,"body":"This is really in its infancy,"},{"startTime":2349.57,"endTime":2351.91,"body":"but I want to finish just"},{"startTime":2349.57,"endTime":2351.91,"body":"with a couple of examples"},{"startTime":2351.91,"endTime":2353.54,"body":"from a group in Germany actually"},{"startTime":2354.566,"endTime":2355.84,"body":"who are doing exactly this kind of work."},{"startTime":2355.84,"endTime":2357.133,"body":"So here's the first one."},{"startTime":2358.06,"endTime":2361.06,"body":"Many bacteria are what's"},{"startTime":2358.06,"endTime":2361.06,"body":"called phototactic."},{"startTime":2361.06,"endTime":2362.35,"body":"They swim towards light."},{"startTime":2362.35,"endTime":2364.15,"body":"If you are a photosynthetic bacteria,"},{"startTime":2364.15,"endTime":2366.384,"body":"you need to be where the sun shines,"},{"startTime":2366.384,"endTime":2367.54,"body":"otherwise you can't photosynthesize."},{"startTime":2367.54,"endTime":2368.86,"body":"So you are trained if you like,"},{"startTime":2368.86,"endTime":2371.95,"body":"you behave by swimming towards light."},{"startTime":2371.95,"endTime":2374.14,"body":"So what we can do is"},{"startTime":2371.95,"endTime":2374.14,"body":"we can take a bacteria"},{"startTime":2374.14,"endTime":2376.36,"body":"that is producing something we want"},{"startTime":2376.36,"endTime":2378.22,"body":"and is also phototactic,"},{"startTime":2378.22,"endTime":2382.45,"body":"is also responding to light"},{"startTime":2378.22,"endTime":2382.45,"body":"and we can shine a pattern on,"},{"startTime":2382.45,"endTime":2386.23,"body":"so in this case a logo"},{"startTime":2382.45,"endTime":2386.23,"body":"shined in a laser light,"},{"startTime":2386.23,"endTime":2389.98,"body":"you can add your phototactic"},{"startTime":2386.23,"endTime":2389.98,"body":"bacteria and in this case,"},{"startTime":2389.98,"endTime":2392.092,"body":"if you leave bacteria for example,"},{"startTime":2392.092,"endTime":2394.777,"body":"that produce a pigment and you"},{"startTime":2392.092,"endTime":2394.777,"body":"come back a little bit later,"},{"startTime":2394.777,"endTime":2396.34,"body":"what you see is the bacteria"},{"startTime":2394.777,"endTime":2396.34,"body":"have swam to where the light is"},{"startTime":2396.34,"endTime":2397.24,"body":"and they've done their thing"},{"startTime":2397.24,"endTime":2399.25,"body":"and they've produced a"},{"startTime":2397.24,"endTime":2399.25,"body":"very beautiful pattern."},{"startTime":2399.25,"endTime":2401.89,"body":"This is like kind of the photolithography"},{"startTime":2401.89,"endTime":2404.71,"body":"that people use to make"},{"startTime":2401.89,"endTime":2404.71,"body":"beautiful ceramics or something,"},{"startTime":2404.71,"endTime":2407.68,"body":"but made by live organisms"},{"startTime":2404.71,"endTime":2407.68,"body":"rather than by lasers"},{"startTime":2407.68,"endTime":2408.513,"body":"or by etching."},{"startTime":2409.66,"endTime":2411.071,"body":"You could imagine a future"},{"startTime":2411.071,"endTime":2412.806,"body":"in which we use these kind of lights"},{"startTime":2412.806,"endTime":2414.82,"body":"to pattern things, perhaps"},{"startTime":2412.806,"endTime":2414.82,"body":"in places we can't reach."},{"startTime":2414.82,"endTime":2417.58,"body":"What about patterning"},{"startTime":2414.82,"endTime":2417.58,"body":"things inside human bodies?"},{"startTime":2417.58,"endTime":2420.46,"body":"If you wanted to fix something"},{"startTime":2417.58,"endTime":2420.46,"body":"that's in a pacemaker"},{"startTime":2420.46,"endTime":2423.4,"body":"or an intravenous line or in"},{"startTime":2420.46,"endTime":2423.4,"body":"someone's hip replacement,"},{"startTime":2423.4,"endTime":2425.83,"body":"perhaps we could shine"},{"startTime":2423.4,"endTime":2425.83,"body":"in fiber optic light"},{"startTime":2425.83,"endTime":2427.72,"body":"and get bacteria to"},{"startTime":2425.83,"endTime":2427.72,"body":"swim to the right place"},{"startTime":2427.72,"endTime":2431.83,"body":"to fix that rusty patch or"},{"startTime":2427.72,"endTime":2431.83,"body":"to remove some kind of debris"},{"startTime":2431.83,"endTime":2433.48,"body":"that wasn't supposed to be there."},{"startTime":2434.62,"endTime":2436.21,"body":"And you can do the same thing in vitro"},{"startTime":2436.21,"endTime":2437.86,"body":"to produce amazing structures"},{"startTime":2437.86,"endTime":2440.23,"body":"that we can't currently engineer."},{"startTime":2440.23,"endTime":2442.24,"body":"So for example, here"},{"startTime":2440.23,"endTime":2442.24,"body":"is a tiny flow device,"},{"startTime":2442.24,"endTime":2445.45,"body":"you can see someone holding"},{"startTime":2442.24,"endTime":2445.45,"body":"it, into this flow device."},{"startTime":2445.45,"endTime":2448.33,"body":"You can put bacteria that"},{"startTime":2445.45,"endTime":2448.33,"body":"respond to the flow current"},{"startTime":2448.33,"endTime":2450.94,"body":"as it goes through and produce"},{"startTime":2448.33,"endTime":2450.94,"body":"something you might want."},{"startTime":2450.94,"endTime":2453.37,"body":"And so we can inoculate"},{"startTime":2450.94,"endTime":2453.37,"body":"this with bacteria,"},{"startTime":2453.37,"endTime":2455.62,"body":"we can flow liquid through it."},{"startTime":2455.62,"endTime":2458.646,"body":"The bacteria will respond to"},{"startTime":2455.62,"endTime":2458.646,"body":"that and produce this matrix,"},{"startTime":2458.646,"endTime":2461.29,"body":"this polysaccharide coating around them."},{"startTime":2461.29,"endTime":2463.677,"body":"And when they finish"},{"startTime":2461.29,"endTime":2463.677,"body":"that you can remove it."},{"startTime":2463.677,"endTime":2465.22,"body":"And what you have is a"},{"startTime":2463.677,"endTime":2465.22,"body":"thing that's a little bit"},{"startTime":2465.22,"endTime":2467.05,"body":"like that coral reef I showed you."},{"startTime":2467.05,"endTime":2469.48,"body":"So it's a structure produced by bacteria"},{"startTime":2469.48,"endTime":2472.21,"body":"in the pattern that they have swung into"},{"startTime":2472.21,"endTime":2473.71,"body":"based on the flow you applied,"},{"startTime":2473.71,"endTime":2476.011,"body":"this is obviously quite a large thing,"},{"startTime":2476.011,"endTime":2477.692,"body":"this is several centimeters long."},{"startTime":2477.692,"endTime":2478.75,"body":"It's something that we could have produced"},{"startTime":2478.75,"endTime":2480.91,"body":"by traditional means anyway,"},{"startTime":2480.91,"endTime":2484.003,"body":"but you could imagine now"},{"startTime":2480.91,"endTime":2484.003,"body":"doing this on a tiny scale."},{"startTime":2484.003,"endTime":2484.836,"body":"What about if you wanted to make"},{"startTime":2484.836,"endTime":2486.73,"body":"really, really tiny pacemakers"},{"startTime":2486.73,"endTime":2489.1,"body":"for newborn babies for example,"},{"startTime":2489.1,"endTime":2492.19,"body":"what about if you wanted"},{"startTime":2489.1,"endTime":2492.19,"body":"to make neural implants"},{"startTime":2492.19,"endTime":2493.72,"body":"in a particular structure?"},{"startTime":2493.72,"endTime":2497.08,"body":"Perhaps you could create a"},{"startTime":2493.72,"endTime":2497.08,"body":"system that enables your bacteria"},{"startTime":2497.08,"endTime":2498.49,"body":"to swim in the right direction,"},{"startTime":2498.49,"endTime":2501.58,"body":"secrete the electrical cables you need"},{"startTime":2501.58,"endTime":2505.15,"body":"to trigger a neural"},{"startTime":2501.58,"endTime":2505.15,"body":"implant entirely naturally"},{"startTime":2505.15,"endTime":2506.74,"body":"through a bacterial process"},{"startTime":2506.74,"endTime":2509.08,"body":"without any need for kind"},{"startTime":2506.74,"endTime":2509.08,"body":"of robotic implementation"},{"startTime":2509.08,"endTime":2509.98,"body":"or something like that."},{"startTime":2509.98,"endTime":2511.57,"body":"All this very future gazing."},{"startTime":2511.57,"endTime":2514.48,"body":"But I think an example of how"},{"startTime":2511.57,"endTime":2514.48,"body":"you might be able to harness"},{"startTime":2514.48,"endTime":2516.91,"body":"microbial creative processes,"},{"startTime":2516.91,"endTime":2520.693,"body":"biotechnology in the literal"},{"startTime":2516.91,"endTime":2520.693,"body":"sense for human benefit."},{"startTime":2521.62,"endTime":2522.453,"body":"I'm going to finish there."},{"startTime":2522.453,"endTime":2523.286,"body":"I hope you enjoyed it."},{"startTime":2523.286,"endTime":2524.383,"body":"Thank you very much."},{"startTime":2525.493,"endTime":2528.743,"body":"(audience applauding)"},{"startTime":2531.888,"endTime":2533.59,"body":"- Thank you so much Professor May"},{"startTime":2533.59,"endTime":2535.27,"body":"for the fascinating lecture."},{"startTime":2535.27,"endTime":2537.13,"body":"We've got a question online"},{"startTime":2537.13,"endTime":2538.51,"body":"and then we're going to go to the room."},{"startTime":2538.51,"endTime":2540.176,"body":"So the question online,"},{"startTime":2540.176,"endTime":2541.87,"body":"I think in part you've"},{"startTime":2540.176,"endTime":2541.87,"body":"already answered this,"},{"startTime":2541.87,"endTime":2543.49,"body":"but what do you think the future holds"},{"startTime":2543.49,"endTime":2546.703,"body":"for microbial mega structures"},{"startTime":2543.49,"endTime":2546.703,"body":"and their applications?"},{"startTime":2547.75,"endTime":2549.4,"body":"Or what's your favorite future?"},{"startTime":2549.4,"endTime":2550.51,"body":"If you have one."},{"startTime":2550.51,"endTime":2553.06,"body":"- My favorite future, I like that."},{"startTime":2553.06,"endTime":2554.41,"body":"So I think there are lots,"},{"startTime":2554.41,"endTime":2556.69,"body":"I mean I think it depends"},{"startTime":2554.41,"endTime":2556.69,"body":"on the scale of future."},{"startTime":2556.69,"endTime":2558.54,"body":"So I think very close I think,"},{"startTime":2558.54,"endTime":2561.67,"body":"is the prospect of doing materials"},{"startTime":2561.67,"endTime":2562.87,"body":"perhaps that we can't currently make."},{"startTime":2562.87,"endTime":2566.77,"body":"So we know that microbes"},{"startTime":2562.87,"endTime":2566.77,"body":"can generate some chemicals"},{"startTime":2566.77,"endTime":2569.02,"body":"that we can't currently synthesize."},{"startTime":2569.02,"endTime":2570.52,"body":"For example, many of our antibiotics"},{"startTime":2570.52,"endTime":2575.2,"body":"are produced by microbes"},{"startTime":2570.52,"endTime":2575.2,"body":"rather than by factories."},{"startTime":2575.2,"endTime":2577.361,"body":"So you could imagine for example,"},{"startTime":2577.361,"endTime":2578.59,"body":"harnessing some of the stuff"},{"startTime":2577.361,"endTime":2578.59,"body":"we've been talking about here"},{"startTime":2578.59,"endTime":2579.88,"body":"with that medical ability."},{"startTime":2579.88,"endTime":2583.15,"body":"And what about having a bacteria"},{"startTime":2579.88,"endTime":2583.15,"body":"that was photo responsive"},{"startTime":2583.15,"endTime":2584.74,"body":"and produced an antibiotic?"},{"startTime":2584.74,"endTime":2585.67,"body":"You'd give that to somebody"},{"startTime":2585.67,"endTime":2586.81,"body":"if someone's got a liver infection,"},{"startTime":2586.81,"endTime":2588.24,"body":"you'd give it to someone,"},{"startTime":2588.24,"endTime":2589.073,"body":"you shine the light in their liver,"},{"startTime":2589.073,"endTime":2590.62,"body":"the bacteria accumulating the liver,"},{"startTime":2590.62,"endTime":2593.17,"body":"deliver the antibiotic"},{"startTime":2590.62,"endTime":2593.17,"body":"there, much lower dose,"},{"startTime":2593.17,"endTime":2595.96,"body":"much more responsive and you"},{"startTime":2593.17,"endTime":2595.96,"body":"could come back and do it again"},{"startTime":2595.96,"endTime":2597.1,"body":"if the infection doesn't go,"},{"startTime":2597.1,"endTime":2600.58,"body":"that I think is not very"},{"startTime":2597.1,"endTime":2600.58,"body":"far away really now,"},{"startTime":2600.58,"endTime":2601.72,"body":"much, much further than the future."},{"startTime":2601.72,"endTime":2602.8,"body":"But I think very exciting"},{"startTime":2602.8,"endTime":2605.65,"body":"is the idea that many"},{"startTime":2602.8,"endTime":2605.65,"body":"microbes live in environments"},{"startTime":2605.65,"endTime":2607.699,"body":"that we cannot go to."},{"startTime":2607.699,"endTime":2609.596,"body":"So for example, you have microbes"},{"startTime":2609.596,"endTime":2611.53,"body":"that can endure incredible"},{"startTime":2609.596,"endTime":2611.53,"body":"doses of radiation."},{"startTime":2611.53,"endTime":2612.91,"body":"So you could think about using them"},{"startTime":2612.91,"endTime":2615.442,"body":"to create structures on a"},{"startTime":2612.91,"endTime":2615.442,"body":"moon base or Mars landing"},{"startTime":2615.442,"endTime":2617.434,"body":"or all sorts of things."},{"startTime":2617.434,"endTime":2619.995,"body":"I don't think that's going to"},{"startTime":2617.434,"endTime":2619.995,"body":"happen tomorrow, but you know,"},{"startTime":2619.995,"endTime":2621.144,"body":"and probably not in my lifetime,"},{"startTime":2621.144,"endTime":2622.841,"body":"but I think there's a really"},{"startTime":2621.144,"endTime":2622.841,"body":"exciting prospect there"},{"startTime":2622.841,"endTime":2624.04,"body":"for using microbes"},{"startTime":2624.04,"endTime":2627.042,"body":"where we currently might"},{"startTime":2624.04,"endTime":2627.042,"body":"use a robot for example."},{"startTime":2627.042,"endTime":2628.63,"body":"- [Audience Member 2]"},{"startTime":2627.042,"endTime":2628.63,"body":"I'm just been working"},{"startTime":2628.63,"endTime":2630.07,"body":"with a young researcher"},{"startTime":2630.07,"endTime":2634.467,"body":"and we are looking into"},{"startTime":2630.07,"endTime":2634.467,"body":"disposable replacing plastics"},{"startTime":2634.467,"endTime":2636.88,"body":"with bio something or others"},{"startTime":2636.88,"endTime":2639.34,"body":"and I was interested with your biofilm"},{"startTime":2639.34,"endTime":2642.13,"body":"and wondered if there"},{"startTime":2639.34,"endTime":2642.13,"body":"might be an angle there"},{"startTime":2642.13,"endTime":2646.81,"body":"to connect it as a"},{"startTime":2642.13,"endTime":2646.81,"body":"biodegradable form of plastic."},{"startTime":2646.81,"endTime":2648.28,"body":"- Absolutely, that's a great question"},{"startTime":2648.28,"endTime":2651.13,"body":"and I think the short"},{"startTime":2648.28,"endTime":2651.13,"body":"answer is yes, definitely."},{"startTime":2651.13,"endTime":2653.71,"body":"I mean humans, we are pretty"},{"startTime":2651.13,"endTime":2653.71,"body":"bad at thinking long term."},{"startTime":2653.71,"endTime":2655.509,"body":"We've had all sorts of things"},{"startTime":2655.509,"endTime":2657.145,"body":"that seemed like a really"},{"startTime":2655.509,"endTime":2657.145,"body":"good idea at the time,"},{"startTime":2657.145,"endTime":2658.93,"body":"like asbestos and then much later on"},{"startTime":2658.93,"endTime":2661.06,"body":"you realize that wasn't so clever."},{"startTime":2661.06,"endTime":2662.869,"body":"Whereas stuff that has evolved,"},{"startTime":2662.869,"endTime":2664.99,"body":"we've had literally millions of years"},{"startTime":2664.99,"endTime":2666.46,"body":"to kind of work out how to deal with it."},{"startTime":2666.46,"endTime":2669.13,"body":"And so I think there's a"},{"startTime":2666.46,"endTime":2669.13,"body":"couple of examples there,"},{"startTime":2669.13,"endTime":2670.821,"body":"we can think about Chitin."},{"startTime":2670.821,"endTime":2673.06,"body":"So Chitin is the kind of"},{"startTime":2670.821,"endTime":2673.06,"body":"polymer that produces,"},{"startTime":2673.06,"endTime":2675.73,"body":"the hard bit of trees"},{"startTime":2673.06,"endTime":2675.73,"body":"if you like the wood,"},{"startTime":2675.73,"endTime":2678.16,"body":"currently there is no"},{"startTime":2675.73,"endTime":2678.16,"body":"way to degrade Chitin"},{"startTime":2678.16,"endTime":2679.36,"body":"other than through microbe."},{"startTime":2679.36,"endTime":2682.36,"body":"So microbes, fungi in"},{"startTime":2679.36,"endTime":2682.36,"body":"particular can degrade Chitin,"},{"startTime":2682.36,"endTime":2683.47,"body":"nothing else can."},{"startTime":2683.47,"endTime":2685.99,"body":"So they've figured out"},{"startTime":2683.47,"endTime":2685.99,"body":"a solution to a problem"},{"startTime":2685.99,"endTime":2687.28,"body":"that is millions of years older"},{"startTime":2687.28,"endTime":2688.87,"body":"than the problem we currently have."},{"startTime":2688.87,"endTime":2690.58,"body":"There are groups actively working now"},{"startTime":2690.58,"endTime":2692.71,"body":"to identify, and have had some success"},{"startTime":2692.71,"endTime":2695.35,"body":"in identifying microbes that can digest"},{"startTime":2695.35,"endTime":2698.8,"body":"many of the non-disposable plastics"},{"startTime":2698.8,"endTime":2699.97,"body":"that we currently produce."},{"startTime":2699.97,"endTime":2702.905,"body":"It's pretty small scale"},{"startTime":2699.97,"endTime":2702.905,"body":"but I think ultimately"},{"startTime":2702.905,"endTime":2704.023,"body":"we'll come of that."},{"startTime":2704.023,"endTime":2705.07,"body":"The really exciting prospect is,"},{"startTime":2705.07,"endTime":2706.33,"body":"what about if you can do both,"},{"startTime":2706.33,"endTime":2708.01,"body":"if you can use those microbes"},{"startTime":2708.01,"endTime":2710.23,"body":"to get rid of plastic mountains"},{"startTime":2710.23,"endTime":2712.692,"body":"and turn it into something useful,"},{"startTime":2712.692,"endTime":2714.76,"body":"either monomers that you could"},{"startTime":2712.692,"endTime":2714.76,"body":"make more plastics out of,"},{"startTime":2714.76,"endTime":2716.8,"body":"perhaps fuels, perhaps medicines."},{"startTime":2716.8,"endTime":2718.54,"body":"So I think absolutely is the short answer."},{"startTime":2718.54,"endTime":2720.25,"body":"I think there's a huge option there."},{"startTime":2720.25,"endTime":2721.33,"body":"And the last thing is I think"},{"startTime":2721.33,"endTime":2724.6,"body":"there are also undoubtedly"},{"startTime":2721.33,"endTime":2724.6,"body":"things that microbes make,"},{"startTime":2724.6,"endTime":2726.7,"body":"like many of those"},{"startTime":2724.6,"endTime":2726.7,"body":"polymers in the biofilms"},{"startTime":2726.7,"endTime":2728.962,"body":"that we don't understand the chemistry of,"},{"startTime":2728.962,"endTime":2730.9,"body":"that might be really useful"},{"startTime":2728.962,"endTime":2730.9,"body":"for human applications"},{"startTime":2730.9,"endTime":2733.5,"body":"once we figured out what"},{"startTime":2730.9,"endTime":2733.5,"body":"they are and how they work."},{"startTime":2734.864,"endTime":2737.248,"body":"- [Audience Member 3] I want"},{"startTime":2734.864,"endTime":2737.248,"body":"to ask you a basic question."},{"startTime":2737.248,"endTime":2741.46,"body":"Microbes, are they a form of life"},{"startTime":2741.46,"endTime":2744.913,"body":"or how did they come into existence?"},{"startTime":2746.32,"endTime":2748.66,"body":"- Great, so those are"},{"startTime":2746.32,"endTime":2748.66,"body":"my favorite question."},{"startTime":2748.66,"endTime":2750.85,"body":"So the short answer is almost everything"},{"startTime":2750.85,"endTime":2753.94,"body":"I've talked about tonight"},{"startTime":2750.85,"endTime":2753.94,"body":"definitely is alive"},{"startTime":2753.94,"endTime":2756.16,"body":"and definitely fits all"},{"startTime":2753.94,"endTime":2756.16,"body":"the definitions of life."},{"startTime":2756.16,"endTime":2758.83,"body":"The only place where there"},{"startTime":2756.16,"endTime":2758.83,"body":"is some debate microbially"},{"startTime":2758.83,"endTime":2761.02,"body":"is around viruses."},{"startTime":2761.02,"endTime":2765.13,"body":"So one of my favorite essay"},{"startTime":2761.02,"endTime":2765.13,"body":"questions to set students is,"},{"startTime":2765.13,"endTime":2766.33,"body":"is a virus alive?"},{"startTime":2766.33,"endTime":2768.88,"body":"'Cause a virus cannot live without a host"},{"startTime":2768.88,"endTime":2770.5,"body":"and it's totally dormant."},{"startTime":2770.5,"endTime":2773.86,"body":"Many simple viruses are"},{"startTime":2770.5,"endTime":2773.86,"body":"essentially just a stretch of DNA"},{"startTime":2773.86,"endTime":2775.6,"body":"or RNA."},{"startTime":2775.6,"endTime":2778.21,"body":"So you can have a very"},{"startTime":2775.6,"endTime":2778.21,"body":"good philosophical argument"},{"startTime":2778.21,"endTime":2781.09,"body":"about whether a virus is"},{"startTime":2778.21,"endTime":2781.09,"body":"alive, without a host."},{"startTime":2781.09,"endTime":2783.046,"body":"Does it become alive in a host?"},{"startTime":2783.046,"endTime":2783.879,"body":"What happens then?"},{"startTime":2783.879,"endTime":2785.92,"body":"But certainly bacteria and"},{"startTime":2783.879,"endTime":2785.92,"body":"fungi and all those things"},{"startTime":2785.92,"endTime":2787.603,"body":"reach definition of life,"},{"startTime":2789.07,"endTime":2791.298,"body":"in terms of where they"},{"startTime":2789.07,"endTime":2791.298,"body":"came into existence."},{"startTime":2791.298,"endTime":2792.28,"body":"And we talked to it in the first lecture,"},{"startTime":2792.28,"endTime":2793.45,"body":"which you could find online"},{"startTime":2793.45,"endTime":2795.88,"body":"about the kind of very"},{"startTime":2793.45,"endTime":2795.88,"body":"early origins of life."},{"startTime":2795.88,"endTime":2799.03,"body":"And particularly there it"},{"startTime":2795.88,"endTime":2799.03,"body":"becomes the further back you go,"},{"startTime":2799.03,"endTime":2800.71,"body":"the harder it gets to be sure."},{"startTime":2800.71,"endTime":2803.71,"body":"We know quite a lot I think"},{"startTime":2800.71,"endTime":2803.71,"body":"with real confidence now"},{"startTime":2803.71,"endTime":2805.96,"body":"for example about how you carry it."},{"startTime":2805.96,"endTime":2807.49,"body":"So that's the cells that make ourselves,"},{"startTime":2807.49,"endTime":2811.3,"body":"the cells that make fungi"},{"startTime":2807.49,"endTime":2811.3,"body":"came about, harder to envisage"},{"startTime":2811.3,"endTime":2813.94,"body":"how the very first forms"},{"startTime":2811.3,"endTime":2813.94,"body":"of life came about."},{"startTime":2813.94,"endTime":2817.3,"body":"Lots of speculation about"},{"startTime":2813.94,"endTime":2817.3,"body":"self replicating molecules"},{"startTime":2817.3,"endTime":2821.59,"body":"that became encapsulated in"},{"startTime":2817.3,"endTime":2821.59,"body":"a lipid membrane for example."},{"startTime":2821.59,"endTime":2824.59,"body":"And I think we'll probably"},{"startTime":2821.59,"endTime":2824.59,"body":"never really know the answer"},{"startTime":2824.59,"endTime":2827.41,"body":"because we're talking"},{"startTime":2824.59,"endTime":2827.41,"body":"about 4 billion years ago"},{"startTime":2827.41,"endTime":2829.48,"body":"and those things no longer exist."},{"startTime":2829.48,"endTime":2833.23,"body":"But I think in terms"},{"startTime":2829.48,"endTime":2833.23,"body":"of the higher microbes,"},{"startTime":2833.23,"endTime":2837.43,"body":"there is now quite a"},{"startTime":2833.23,"endTime":2837.43,"body":"well-documented set of steps"},{"startTime":2837.43,"endTime":2840.1,"body":"which went from very"},{"startTime":2837.43,"endTime":2840.1,"body":"simple forms of microbes"},{"startTime":2840.1,"endTime":2841.72,"body":"to some of the more elaborate microbes"},{"startTime":2841.72,"endTime":2844.468,"body":"like the mycorrhiza that"},{"startTime":2841.72,"endTime":2844.468,"body":"I talked about earlier."},{"startTime":2844.468,"endTime":2847.84,"body":"- [Audience Member 4] Do they"},{"startTime":2844.468,"endTime":2847.84,"body":"exist in the moon or Neptune?"},{"startTime":2847.84,"endTime":2848.673,"body":"- Oh did you say, so yeah,"},{"startTime":2848.673,"endTime":2850.406,"body":"if you didn't catch the question."},{"startTime":2850.406,"endTime":2851.609,"body":"So do they exist in the moon?"},{"startTime":2851.609,"endTime":2852.52,"body":"And actually isn't that"},{"startTime":2851.609,"endTime":2852.52,"body":"a billion dollar question"},{"startTime":2852.52,"endTime":2853.93,"body":"or a multi-billion dollar question?"},{"startTime":2853.93,"endTime":2855.13,"body":"If you look at the cost,"},{"startTime":2855.13,"endTime":2856.45,"body":"I think that's really exciting."},{"startTime":2856.45,"endTime":2858.67,"body":"I mean so far I think it is very clear"},{"startTime":2858.67,"endTime":2861.43,"body":"there is no good evidence for any life"},{"startTime":2861.43,"endTime":2865.45,"body":"on any other celestial"},{"startTime":2861.43,"endTime":2865.45,"body":"body other than earth."},{"startTime":2865.45,"endTime":2867.22,"body":"People might be aware"},{"startTime":2865.45,"endTime":2867.22,"body":"they have over the years"},{"startTime":2867.22,"endTime":2870.795,"body":"been speculation about is"},{"startTime":2867.22,"endTime":2870.795,"body":"a kind of a micro fossil"},{"startTime":2870.795,"endTime":2873.25,"body":"from Mars rocks for example,"},{"startTime":2873.25,"endTime":2875.41,"body":"that might possibly be bacterial,"},{"startTime":2875.41,"endTime":2877.78,"body":"but very far from kind of solid evidence."},{"startTime":2877.78,"endTime":2880.09,"body":"But as you will probably"},{"startTime":2877.78,"endTime":2880.09,"body":"know, many of the missions,"},{"startTime":2880.09,"endTime":2881.89,"body":"both the moon and particularly to Mars,"},{"startTime":2881.89,"endTime":2884.47,"body":"are deliberately targeted to work out"},{"startTime":2884.47,"endTime":2887.05,"body":"whether there is any previous evidence"},{"startTime":2887.05,"endTime":2888.73,"body":"of life on those planets."},{"startTime":2888.73,"endTime":2891.49,"body":"There is I think, no really good reason"},{"startTime":2891.49,"endTime":2892.69,"body":"why this shouldn't be."},{"startTime":2892.69,"endTime":2894.43,"body":"And my personal feeling is"},{"startTime":2892.69,"endTime":2894.43,"body":"if you look hard enough,"},{"startTime":2894.43,"endTime":2896.306,"body":"far enough, you'll eventually find it."},{"startTime":2896.306,"endTime":2898.0,"body":"I guess the question is,"},{"startTime":2898.0,"endTime":2900.07,"body":"is there going to be"},{"startTime":2898.0,"endTime":2900.07,"body":"evidence of life on Mars"},{"startTime":2900.07,"endTime":2903.067,"body":"which happens to be the"},{"startTime":2900.07,"endTime":2903.067,"body":"closest planet to this one?"},{"startTime":2903.067,"endTime":2904.78,"body":"That will be quite good luck,"},{"startTime":2904.78,"endTime":2907.09,"body":"but who knows and maybe in my lifetime"},{"startTime":2907.09,"endTime":2909.4,"body":"we'll be back here to celebrate it."},{"startTime":2909.4,"endTime":2910.93,"body":"- I've got one question from online,"},{"startTime":2910.93,"endTime":2913.24,"body":"which I'm going to just"},{"startTime":2910.93,"endTime":2913.24,"body":"disperse if that's alright"},{"startTime":2913.24,"endTime":2915.55,"body":"and then come back to the gentlemen."},{"startTime":2915.55,"endTime":2916.75,"body":"So it says here,"},{"startTime":2916.75,"endTime":2919.54,"body":"what are your thoughts on using microbes"},{"startTime":2919.54,"endTime":2922.51,"body":"as an alternative to"},{"startTime":2919.54,"endTime":2922.51,"body":"current carbon capture"},{"startTime":2922.51,"endTime":2924.043,"body":"and storage methods?"},{"startTime":2925.234,"endTime":2927.13,"body":"- So as an alternative,"},{"startTime":2927.13,"endTime":2930.25,"body":"I think as well as rather than alternative"},{"startTime":2930.25,"endTime":2932.86,"body":"is what I'd say, I mean I"},{"startTime":2930.25,"endTime":2932.86,"body":"think it's incredibly clear"},{"startTime":2932.86,"endTime":2934.15,"body":"that we need to do everything."},{"startTime":2934.15,"endTime":2937.24,"body":"So we need absolutely need"},{"startTime":2934.15,"endTime":2937.24,"body":"to reduce carbon emission"},{"startTime":2937.24,"endTime":2938.77,"body":"across the world very fast,"},{"startTime":2938.77,"endTime":2940.6,"body":"faster than we even think right now."},{"startTime":2940.6,"endTime":2942.85,"body":"But we also need to sequester carbon"},{"startTime":2942.85,"endTime":2944.44,"body":"and it's clear that as you all have heard"},{"startTime":2944.44,"endTime":2946.39,"body":"from other Gresham lecturers,"},{"startTime":2946.39,"endTime":2947.98,"body":"whatever we do in terms of stopping it,"},{"startTime":2947.98,"endTime":2949.63,"body":"we still need to mitigate"},{"startTime":2949.63,"endTime":2952.573,"body":"the carbon that's already been released,"},{"startTime":2953.5,"endTime":2955.915,"body":"technology can get some of the way there."},{"startTime":2955.915,"endTime":2958.51,"body":"So capture of carbon and"},{"startTime":2955.915,"endTime":2958.51,"body":"deep burial for example."},{"startTime":2958.51,"endTime":2961.0,"body":"But I think ecosystem change"},{"startTime":2961.0,"endTime":2963.432,"body":"in principle is a really good opportunity."},{"startTime":2963.432,"endTime":2965.012,"body":"There are two parts that I think,"},{"startTime":2965.012,"endTime":2966.376,"body":"so the first is absolutely,"},{"startTime":2966.376,"endTime":2968.11,"body":"it's really critical that we preserve"},{"startTime":2968.11,"endTime":2969.966,"body":"a lot of the biodiversity"},{"startTime":2968.11,"endTime":2969.966,"body":"that's doing that now,"},{"startTime":2969.966,"endTime":2970.799,"body":"like the peat bogs."},{"startTime":2970.799,"endTime":2972.16,"body":"But there's a bigger"},{"startTime":2972.16,"endTime":2974.484,"body":"and slightly more controversial question"},{"startTime":2974.484,"endTime":2976.047,"body":"about whether you'd actively intervene"},{"startTime":2976.047,"endTime":2977.658,"body":"and the place that's been most touted"},{"startTime":2977.658,"endTime":2980.68,"body":"is in oceans where many"},{"startTime":2977.658,"endTime":2980.68,"body":"oceans are nutrient limited,"},{"startTime":2980.68,"endTime":2982.27,"body":"iron limited in particular."},{"startTime":2982.27,"endTime":2985.003,"body":"And the idea is that you"},{"startTime":2982.27,"endTime":2985.003,"body":"might be able to add iron,"},{"startTime":2985.003,"endTime":2987.37,"body":"sprinkle iron, you'd get"},{"startTime":2985.003,"endTime":2987.37,"body":"one of those algae blooms"},{"startTime":2987.37,"endTime":2988.203,"body":"that I talks about."},{"startTime":2988.203,"endTime":2990.18,"body":"It would sequester a"},{"startTime":2988.203,"endTime":2990.18,"body":"huge amount of carbon,"},{"startTime":2991.018,"endTime":2992.701,"body":"sink to the bottom of the sea."},{"startTime":2992.701,"endTime":2993.534,"body":"And well, our problem solved"},{"startTime":2994.54,"endTime":2996.22,"body":"and I think there's very"},{"startTime":2994.54,"endTime":2996.22,"body":"good scientific reasons,"},{"startTime":2996.22,"endTime":2998.62,"body":"I think that's quite"},{"startTime":2996.22,"endTime":2998.62,"body":"exciting, quite powerful,"},{"startTime":2998.62,"endTime":3001.62,"body":"also quite scary, that kind of"},{"startTime":2998.62,"endTime":3001.62,"body":"large scale ecosystem change."},{"startTime":3001.62,"endTime":3003.45,"body":"I think human history is full of us"},{"startTime":3003.45,"endTime":3005.687,"body":"having a really good idea"},{"startTime":3003.45,"endTime":3005.687,"body":"about ecosystem change,"},{"startTime":3005.687,"endTime":3008.55,"body":"like letting rabbits out in Australia,"},{"startTime":3008.55,"endTime":3010.95,"body":"which didn't work quite"},{"startTime":3008.55,"endTime":3010.95,"body":"the way we intended."},{"startTime":3010.95,"endTime":3012.57,"body":"So I think I'd be quite cautious"},{"startTime":3012.57,"endTime":3013.83,"body":"about seeing something on that scale."},{"startTime":3013.83,"endTime":3015.27,"body":"But this is a global disaster"},{"startTime":3015.27,"endTime":3016.17,"body":"and we've got to do something about it."},{"startTime":3016.17,"endTime":3017.933,"body":"So big ideas are important."},{"startTime":3017.933,"endTime":3018.93,"body":"- [Audience Member 5] You mentioned"},{"startTime":3018.93,"endTime":3022.65,"body":"how specifically targeted"},{"startTime":3018.93,"endTime":3022.65,"body":"that you could use microbes,"},{"startTime":3022.65,"endTime":3026.22,"body":"particularly in medicine"},{"startTime":3022.65,"endTime":3026.22,"body":"given that gene editing"},{"startTime":3026.22,"endTime":3029.82,"body":"is still frowned upon,"},{"startTime":3026.22,"endTime":3029.82,"body":"particularly by the EU,"},{"startTime":3029.82,"endTime":3031.68,"body":"even with the introduction of CRISPR."},{"startTime":3031.68,"endTime":3033.15,"body":"Do you think that's going to be"},{"startTime":3033.15,"endTime":3035.64,"body":"something that we could use"},{"startTime":3033.15,"endTime":3035.64,"body":"microbes for in the future"},{"startTime":3035.64,"endTime":3038.07,"body":"to be more targeted and specific?"},{"startTime":3038.07,"endTime":3040.41,"body":"- Oh, there's a whole bundle"},{"startTime":3038.07,"endTime":3040.41,"body":"of fun controversial questions"},{"startTime":3040.41,"endTime":3041.76,"body":"in that one, aren't there?"},{"startTime":3041.76,"endTime":3043.83,"body":"Okay, so in terms, so let's say,"},{"startTime":3043.83,"endTime":3045.09,"body":"so in terms of genome editing,"},{"startTime":3045.09,"endTime":3048.03,"body":"which is a type of genetic"},{"startTime":3045.09,"endTime":3048.03,"body":"modification obviously,"},{"startTime":3048.03,"endTime":3051.33,"body":"at the moment that is"},{"startTime":3048.03,"endTime":3051.33,"body":"quite tightly regulators,"},{"startTime":3051.33,"endTime":3052.723,"body":"you're quite right,"},{"startTime":3052.723,"endTime":3053.556,"body":"particularly if it's going to be released"},{"startTime":3053.556,"endTime":3054.389,"body":"into the environment,"},{"startTime":3054.389,"endTime":3055.979,"body":"that doesn't mean it doesn't get released"},{"startTime":3055.979,"endTime":3057.105,"body":"into the environment."},{"startTime":3057.105,"endTime":3058.71,"body":"You can do that and people"},{"startTime":3057.105,"endTime":3058.71,"body":"might be familiar with,"},{"startTime":3058.71,"endTime":3060.96,"body":"for example, trials at the moment of,"},{"startTime":3060.96,"endTime":3064.65,"body":"genetic modified mosquitoes"},{"startTime":3060.96,"endTime":3064.65,"body":"as a malaria intervention."},{"startTime":3064.65,"endTime":3067.74,"body":"I think there is huge"},{"startTime":3064.65,"endTime":3067.74,"body":"potential there to do things."},{"startTime":3067.74,"endTime":3069.42,"body":"And one of the most exciting areas"},{"startTime":3069.42,"endTime":3073.14,"body":"actually would be something"},{"startTime":3069.42,"endTime":3073.14,"body":"like a live GM vaccine."},{"startTime":3073.14,"endTime":3075.78,"body":"So you could imagine"},{"startTime":3073.14,"endTime":3075.78,"body":"a hypothetical example"},{"startTime":3075.78,"endTime":3078.454,"body":"where you genetically modify bacteria"},{"startTime":3078.454,"endTime":3081.24,"body":"to express a whole bunch of antigens."},{"startTime":3081.24,"endTime":3085.416,"body":"I know flu antigen and Covid"},{"startTime":3081.24,"endTime":3085.416,"body":"19 and a bunch of things"},{"startTime":3085.416,"endTime":3087.96,"body":"and you deliver this safe bacteria,"},{"startTime":3087.96,"endTime":3089.73,"body":"it primes your immune system,"},{"startTime":3089.73,"endTime":3093.18,"body":"you gain immunity to six"},{"startTime":3089.73,"endTime":3093.18,"body":"different diseases at once."},{"startTime":3093.18,"endTime":3094.53,"body":"And the real attraction here,"},{"startTime":3094.53,"endTime":3096.96,"body":"you could perhaps design"},{"startTime":3094.53,"endTime":3096.96,"body":"that bacteria to spread."},{"startTime":3096.96,"endTime":3098.4,"body":"So maybe I don't need to inoculate"},{"startTime":3098.4,"endTime":3100.14,"body":"every single person in this room."},{"startTime":3100.14,"endTime":3101.46,"body":"I could give one of the,"},{"startTime":3101.46,"endTime":3104.16,"body":"it spreads like a normal"},{"startTime":3101.46,"endTime":3104.16,"body":"bacterial infection,"},{"startTime":3104.16,"endTime":3106.5,"body":"but a harmless one that"},{"startTime":3104.16,"endTime":3106.5,"body":"is inoculating people."},{"startTime":3106.5,"endTime":3108.72,"body":"Now you could imagine a great model there,"},{"startTime":3108.72,"endTime":3110.758,"body":"where we suddenly inoculate"},{"startTime":3110.758,"endTime":3112.41,"body":"the whole global population of humans"},{"startTime":3112.41,"endTime":3115.86,"body":"by a naturally spreading natural vaccine."},{"startTime":3115.86,"endTime":3118.32,"body":"But there's a whole bunch"},{"startTime":3115.86,"endTime":3118.32,"body":"of quite scary stuff there."},{"startTime":3118.32,"endTime":3121.11,"body":"You'd want to be so unbelievably"},{"startTime":3118.32,"endTime":3121.11,"body":"sure about the safety."},{"startTime":3121.11,"endTime":3123.269,"body":"There's a whole ethical question there."},{"startTime":3123.269,"endTime":3125.13,"body":"What about if you don't"},{"startTime":3123.269,"endTime":3125.13,"body":"want to have that vaccine"},{"startTime":3125.13,"endTime":3127.98,"body":"but the thing spreads anyway"},{"startTime":3125.13,"endTime":3127.98,"body":"and you can't avoid it?"},{"startTime":3127.98,"endTime":3130.53,"body":"What about if there's a"},{"startTime":3127.98,"endTime":3130.53,"body":"mutation in that bacteria"},{"startTime":3130.53,"endTime":3132.48,"body":"and now it's not a vaccine anymore."},{"startTime":3132.48,"endTime":3134.46,"body":"All sorts of challenges there."},{"startTime":3134.46,"endTime":3136.56,"body":"So I think like many"},{"startTime":3134.46,"endTime":3136.56,"body":"of these technologies,"},{"startTime":3136.56,"endTime":3138.78,"body":"lots and lots of opportunity, but caution,"},{"startTime":3138.78,"endTime":3141.45,"body":"really important understanding"},{"startTime":3138.78,"endTime":3141.45,"body":"what you do with it"},{"startTime":3141.45,"endTime":3143.94,"body":"and particularly really thinking"},{"startTime":3141.45,"endTime":3143.94,"body":"about that cost benefit."},{"startTime":3143.94,"endTime":3146.64,"body":"I mean I think in the"},{"startTime":3143.94,"endTime":3146.64,"body":"face of a, for example,"},{"startTime":3146.64,"endTime":3148.68,"body":"imagine a scenario with a new pandemic,"},{"startTime":3148.68,"endTime":3151.11,"body":"which we really could not"},{"startTime":3148.68,"endTime":3151.11,"body":"control by any other means."},{"startTime":3151.11,"endTime":3152.94,"body":"Your decision on what risks you would take"},{"startTime":3152.94,"endTime":3154.08,"body":"with that kind of approach"},{"startTime":3154.08,"endTime":3156.66,"body":"are very different than the"},{"startTime":3154.08,"endTime":3156.66,"body":"decisions we might take today"},{"startTime":3156.66,"endTime":3159.09,"body":"on a reasonable November evening"},{"startTime":3159.09,"endTime":3160.26,"body":"when naturally there's no pandemic"},{"startTime":3160.26,"endTime":3161.66,"body":"hopefully around the corner."},{"startTime":3162.66,"endTime":3164.25,"body":"- I've got a question here from online."},{"startTime":3164.25,"endTime":3166.56,"body":"Is it possible that the microbes be used"},{"startTime":3166.56,"endTime":3170.319,"body":"to build bone, skin or dental tissue?"},{"startTime":3170.319,"endTime":3171.51,"body":"- Yes, absolutely."},{"startTime":3171.51,"endTime":3173.13,"body":"I think is the straightforward answer."},{"startTime":3173.13,"endTime":3175.11,"body":"So in terms of,"},{"startTime":3175.11,"endTime":3177.72,"body":"I mean the structure of"},{"startTime":3175.11,"endTime":3177.72,"body":"bone in particular actually"},{"startTime":3177.72,"endTime":3179.91,"body":"is, I'm going to offend"},{"startTime":3177.72,"endTime":3179.91,"body":"a whole bunch of people"},{"startTime":3179.91,"endTime":3181.311,"body":"who work on bones."},{"startTime":3181.311,"endTime":3182.55,"body":"It's not that complicated."},{"startTime":3182.55,"endTime":3184.26,"body":"So I think it would be very reasonable"},{"startTime":3184.26,"endTime":3186.36,"body":"to think of a microbial concoction,"},{"startTime":3186.36,"endTime":3189.51,"body":"perhaps two or three species"},{"startTime":3186.36,"endTime":3189.51,"body":"that together produce bone"},{"startTime":3189.51,"endTime":3191.75,"body":"and one of the interesting things there"},{"startTime":3191.75,"endTime":3192.63,"body":"is you could perhaps produce bone"},{"startTime":3192.63,"endTime":3195.165,"body":"in shapes that we don't currently have."},{"startTime":3195.165,"endTime":3197.31,"body":"So maybe you could, generate"},{"startTime":3195.165,"endTime":3197.31,"body":"a sort of bone replacement"},{"startTime":3197.31,"endTime":3199.41,"body":"that was good for prosthesis."},{"startTime":3199.41,"endTime":3201.023,"body":"So that's absolutely possible."},{"startTime":3201.023,"endTime":3203.01,"body":"I think more complex tissues"},{"startTime":3201.023,"endTime":3203.01,"body":"could be quite tricky."},{"startTime":3203.01,"endTime":3204.42,"body":"I mean, certainly when you"},{"startTime":3203.01,"endTime":3204.42,"body":"start to think about things"},{"startTime":3204.42,"endTime":3207.84,"body":"like muscle tissue or cartilage,"},{"startTime":3204.42,"endTime":3207.84,"body":"that's more challenging,"},{"startTime":3207.84,"endTime":3209.52,"body":"but not totally undoable."},{"startTime":3209.52,"endTime":3212.75,"body":"So yeah, that's a long way of saying yes."},{"startTime":3212.75,"endTime":3214.2,"body":"- And another one here."},{"startTime":3214.2,"endTime":3217.86,"body":"Does using microbes to repair"},{"startTime":3214.2,"endTime":3217.86,"body":"micro cracks in buildings"},{"startTime":3217.86,"endTime":3220.56,"body":"or to form small structures"},{"startTime":3217.86,"endTime":3220.56,"body":"have any negative"},{"startTime":3220.56,"endTime":3222.48,"body":"or adverse consequences?"},{"startTime":3222.48,"endTime":3224.07,"body":"- Another good question."},{"startTime":3224.07,"endTime":3226.05,"body":"Not as far as we know at the moment."},{"startTime":3226.05,"endTime":3227.7,"body":"I mean, I guess self-healing concrete"},{"startTime":3227.7,"endTime":3229.755,"body":"is a relatively new invention,"},{"startTime":3229.755,"endTime":3232.38,"body":"so, but there's, at least at face value,"},{"startTime":3232.38,"endTime":3234.33,"body":"it's hard to imagine a way"},{"startTime":3234.33,"endTime":3235.29,"body":"in which that would be any worse"},{"startTime":3235.29,"endTime":3237.06,"body":"than what we currently do to fix concrete."},{"startTime":3237.06,"endTime":3239.55,"body":"So, but it's an important question"},{"startTime":3239.55,"endTime":3241.297,"body":"for any kind of microbial technology is,"},{"startTime":3241.297,"endTime":3243.69,"body":"to think laterally,"},{"startTime":3241.297,"endTime":3243.69,"body":"what else might this do?"},{"startTime":3243.69,"endTime":3244.71,"body":"And is it all good?"},{"startTime":3244.71,"endTime":3247.26,"body":"- [Audience Member 6] Is"},{"startTime":3244.71,"endTime":3247.26,"body":"there like any pungent smells"},{"startTime":3247.26,"endTime":3248.82,"body":"associated with it?"},{"startTime":3248.82,"endTime":3250.86,"body":"- Are there any pungent"},{"startTime":3248.82,"endTime":3250.86,"body":"smells associated with it,"},{"startTime":3250.86,"endTime":3253.02,"body":"well, as a card carrying microbiologist,"},{"startTime":3253.02,"endTime":3254.94,"body":"I would say there are"},{"startTime":3253.02,"endTime":3254.94,"body":"loads of lovely smells"},{"startTime":3254.94,"endTime":3256.47,"body":"associated microbes."},{"startTime":3256.47,"endTime":3258.18,"body":"My family might have a different view"},{"startTime":3258.18,"endTime":3259.83,"body":"on whether they're lovely or not."},{"startTime":3259.83,"endTime":3263.04,"body":"So, yeah, so some microbes"},{"startTime":3259.83,"endTime":3263.04,"body":"produce no smell at all."},{"startTime":3263.04,"endTime":3264.69,"body":"Some produce spectacular ones."},{"startTime":3264.69,"endTime":3267.764,"body":"Anyone who's baked bread at"},{"startTime":3264.69,"endTime":3267.764,"body":"home or done their own beer,"},{"startTime":3267.764,"endTime":3269.566,"body":"especially if you brewed your own beer"},{"startTime":3269.566,"endTime":3271.56,"body":"and it's gone wrong, then"},{"startTime":3269.566,"endTime":3271.56,"body":"there's a really pungent smell."},{"startTime":3271.56,"endTime":3273.39,"body":"As far as I know, self-healing concrete"},{"startTime":3273.39,"endTime":3275.76,"body":"doesn't produce a particular smell,"},{"startTime":3275.76,"endTime":3277.29,"body":"but yes, I know actually even in the,"},{"startTime":3277.29,"endTime":3280.11,"body":"so if you think about the best example,"},{"startTime":3280.11,"endTime":3282.51,"body":"perhaps if you walk"},{"startTime":3280.11,"endTime":3282.51,"body":"outside after it's rained,"},{"startTime":3282.51,"endTime":3283.71,"body":"it's been dry for a while, it's rain,"},{"startTime":3283.71,"endTime":3284.82,"body":"you have that kind of really night, well,"},{"startTime":3284.82,"endTime":3287.482,"body":"I think it's quite a nice"},{"startTime":3284.82,"endTime":3287.482,"body":"smell that sort of soily smell"},{"startTime":3287.482,"endTime":3291.12,"body":"that molecule that's dry"},{"startTime":3287.482,"endTime":3291.12,"body":"net is called geosmin"},{"startTime":3291.12,"endTime":3293.16,"body":"and that is produced by microbes"},{"startTime":3293.16,"endTime":3295.41,"body":"in response to the rain"},{"startTime":3293.16,"endTime":3295.41,"body":"after a dry period."},{"startTime":3295.41,"endTime":3297.482,"body":"And so that is a very good example"},{"startTime":3297.482,"endTime":3299.04,"body":"of a microbial pungent smell"},{"startTime":3299.04,"endTime":3302.22,"body":"that's signaling actually"},{"startTime":3299.04,"endTime":3302.22,"body":"underground kind of construction"},{"startTime":3302.22,"endTime":3303.697,"body":"that's happening, even"},{"startTime":3302.22,"endTime":3303.697,"body":"though you're unaware of it."},{"startTime":3303.697,"endTime":3306.081,"body":"- [Audience Member 7] So what can you say"},{"startTime":3306.081,"endTime":3308.52,"body":"about the future of food"},{"startTime":3306.081,"endTime":3308.52,"body":"production that uses microbes?"},{"startTime":3308.52,"endTime":3311.103,"body":"- So this is a subject close to my heart,"},{"startTime":3312.78,"endTime":3315.338,"body":"and I could say I could go"},{"startTime":3312.78,"endTime":3315.338,"body":"on for about three hours."},{"startTime":3315.338,"endTime":3316.552,"body":"So I promise I will keep it to 20 seconds."},{"startTime":3316.552,"endTime":3320.13,"body":"So microbes have a huge"},{"startTime":3316.552,"endTime":3320.13,"body":"role in food production."},{"startTime":3320.13,"endTime":3323.1,"body":"Traditionally brewing, bread making, vara."},{"startTime":3323.1,"endTime":3325.32,"body":"More recently, many of us"},{"startTime":3323.1,"endTime":3325.32,"body":"will have eaten products"},{"startTime":3325.32,"endTime":3326.55,"body":"like corn, for example,"},{"startTime":3326.55,"endTime":3330.87,"body":"which is a microbial product,"},{"startTime":3326.55,"endTime":3330.87,"body":"essentially, going forwards."},{"startTime":3330.87,"endTime":3332.43,"body":"So things are enzymes."},{"startTime":3332.43,"endTime":3334.47,"body":"Many of the enzymes that"},{"startTime":3332.43,"endTime":3334.47,"body":"we use in food production,"},{"startTime":3334.47,"endTime":3336.06,"body":"if you've had cheese,"},{"startTime":3336.06,"endTime":3338.34,"body":"most cheese these days"},{"startTime":3336.06,"endTime":3338.34,"body":"is produced with enzymes"},{"startTime":3338.34,"endTime":3340.498,"body":"that are microbial in"},{"startTime":3338.34,"endTime":3340.498,"body":"origin, going forwards."},{"startTime":3340.498,"endTime":3342.6,"body":"Lots and lots of potential."},{"startTime":3342.6,"endTime":3344.76,"body":"I think you could imagine"},{"startTime":3342.6,"endTime":3344.76,"body":"all sorts of exciting things."},{"startTime":3344.76,"endTime":3347.76,"body":"And one of the areas that's"},{"startTime":3344.76,"endTime":3347.76,"body":"really very active at the moment"},{"startTime":3347.76,"endTime":3349.44,"body":"is meat alternatives,"},{"startTime":3349.44,"endTime":3352.392,"body":"where people are looking to"},{"startTime":3349.44,"endTime":3352.392,"body":"create things that look, taste,"},{"startTime":3352.392,"endTime":3356.31,"body":"feel like meat, but don't"},{"startTime":3352.392,"endTime":3356.31,"body":"involve a cow or sheep."},{"startTime":3356.31,"endTime":3359.32,"body":"Some of those are very"},{"startTime":3356.31,"endTime":3359.32,"body":"dependent on microbial products,"},{"startTime":3359.32,"endTime":3361.53,"body":"either to produce the protein"},{"startTime":3361.53,"endTime":3364.803,"body":"or to modify it in a way that"},{"startTime":3361.53,"endTime":3364.803,"body":"makes it feel more like meat."},{"startTime":3364.803,"endTime":3365.91,"body":"So I think, yes,"},{"startTime":3365.91,"endTime":3367.83,"body":"the short answer is a huge future I think"},{"startTime":3367.83,"endTime":3369.48,"body":"for microbial food production."},{"startTime":3369.48,"endTime":3371.55,"body":"There is always this"},{"startTime":3369.48,"endTime":3371.55,"body":"barrier of the yuck factor."},{"startTime":3371.55,"endTime":3374.1,"body":"If someone says, \"Hey,"},{"startTime":3371.55,"endTime":3374.1,"body":"here's your bacterial steak.\""},{"startTime":3374.1,"endTime":3375.21,"body":"It's not quite the same"},{"startTime":3375.21,"endTime":3377.76,"body":"as the kind of eight"},{"startTime":3375.21,"endTime":3377.76,"body":"ounce fill steak option."},{"startTime":3377.76,"endTime":3380.57,"body":"But we've seen historically"},{"startTime":3377.76,"endTime":3380.57,"body":"people overcome that."},{"startTime":3380.57,"endTime":3383.73,"body":"I, well remember my grandfather"},{"startTime":3383.73,"endTime":3385.89,"body":"being deeply skeptical about pasta"},{"startTime":3385.89,"endTime":3389.1,"body":"'cause it was this weird food"},{"startTime":3385.89,"endTime":3389.1,"body":"that was kind of stringy."},{"startTime":3389.1,"endTime":3391.38,"body":"Not many people are worried"},{"startTime":3389.1,"endTime":3391.38,"body":"about pasta anymore."},{"startTime":3391.38,"endTime":3393.9,"body":"So I suspect, my"},{"startTime":3391.38,"endTime":3393.9,"body":"children, my grandchildren"},{"startTime":3393.9,"endTime":3396.51,"body":"probably won't bat island"},{"startTime":3393.9,"endTime":3396.51,"body":"about bacterial steak."},{"startTime":3396.51,"endTime":3397.911,"body":"But who knows."},{"startTime":3397.911,"endTime":3400.486,"body":"- [Audience Member 8]"},{"startTime":3397.911,"endTime":3400.486,"body":"What kind of microbes"},{"startTime":3400.486,"endTime":3401.55,"body":"or microbial mega structures"},{"startTime":3401.55,"endTime":3403.65,"body":"can you find in more extreme environments"},{"startTime":3403.65,"endTime":3405.78,"body":"like hydrothermal vents?"},{"startTime":3405.78,"endTime":3406.65,"body":"- Great question."},{"startTime":3406.65,"endTime":3408.6,"body":"So if you didn't catch that,"},{"startTime":3406.65,"endTime":3408.6,"body":"what kind of structures,"},{"startTime":3408.6,"endTime":3410.04,"body":"what kind of micro structures do you find"},{"startTime":3410.04,"endTime":3412.89,"body":"in extreme environments"},{"startTime":3410.04,"endTime":3412.89,"body":"like hydrothermal vents?"},{"startTime":3412.89,"endTime":3414.33,"body":"Lots is the short answer."},{"startTime":3414.33,"endTime":3416.31,"body":"So hydrothermal vents"},{"startTime":3414.33,"endTime":3416.31,"body":"that people don't know"},{"startTime":3416.31,"endTime":3418.41,"body":"is typically deep under sea"},{"startTime":3418.41,"endTime":3420.6,"body":"where the temperature's extremely high,"},{"startTime":3420.6,"endTime":3422.551,"body":"where lavas but bubbling up,"},{"startTime":3422.551,"endTime":3424.77,"body":"almost uninhabitable to most organisms"},{"startTime":3424.77,"endTime":3426.21,"body":"except lots of microbes"},{"startTime":3426.21,"endTime":3428.34,"body":"that apparently can live"},{"startTime":3426.21,"endTime":3428.34,"body":"at these huge pressures"},{"startTime":3428.34,"endTime":3430.98,"body":"at huge temperatures, often"},{"startTime":3428.34,"endTime":3430.98,"body":"various acidic environments"},{"startTime":3430.98,"endTime":3432.42,"body":"and often create structures,"},{"startTime":3432.42,"endTime":3435.24,"body":"a little bit like those kind"},{"startTime":3432.42,"endTime":3435.24,"body":"of coral reefs that I show you."},{"startTime":3435.24,"endTime":3436.073,"body":"So we know they can produce"},{"startTime":3436.073,"endTime":3438.15,"body":"these hard calcium"},{"startTime":3436.073,"endTime":3438.15,"body":"carbonate type structures"},{"startTime":3438.15,"endTime":3439.89,"body":"in those environments."},{"startTime":3439.89,"endTime":3442.59,"body":"Deep rock, so deep miles"},{"startTime":3439.89,"endTime":3442.59,"body":"underground, actually,"},{"startTime":3442.59,"endTime":3443.85,"body":"you could find living microbes"},{"startTime":3443.85,"endTime":3446.76,"body":"inside kind of granite structures,"},{"startTime":3446.76,"endTime":3448.8,"body":"apparently engineering things"},{"startTime":3448.8,"endTime":3451.29,"body":"in a way that's like the"},{"startTime":3448.8,"endTime":3451.29,"body":"self-healing concrete."},{"startTime":3451.29,"endTime":3452.91,"body":"But these depths and pressures"},{"startTime":3452.91,"endTime":3455.19,"body":"that are sort of unimaginable to us."},{"startTime":3455.19,"endTime":3456.45,"body":"So they are clearly capable"},{"startTime":3456.45,"endTime":3458.91,"body":"of really impressive"},{"startTime":3456.45,"endTime":3458.91,"body":"construction chemistry"},{"startTime":3458.91,"endTime":3461.04,"body":"in environments that we"},{"startTime":3458.91,"endTime":3461.04,"body":"can't even send robots"},{"startTime":3461.04,"endTime":3461.89,"body":"to at the moment."},{"startTime":3462.777,"endTime":3463.95,"body":"And so that, I think going"},{"startTime":3462.777,"endTime":3463.95,"body":"back to the original question"},{"startTime":3463.95,"endTime":3465.6,"body":"is a really exciting opportunity."},{"startTime":3465.6,"endTime":3468.66,"body":"Can we harness that sort"},{"startTime":3465.6,"endTime":3468.66,"body":"of construction ability"},{"startTime":3468.66,"endTime":3470.078,"body":"to build things in places"},{"startTime":3470.078,"endTime":3472.466,"body":"that we can't currently build things in,"},{"startTime":3472.466,"endTime":3475.817,"body":"like on perhaps on other planets"},{"startTime":3472.466,"endTime":3475.817,"body":"or the bottom of the ocean?"},{"startTime":3475.817,"endTime":3477.15,"body":"It's a really exciting area,"},{"startTime":3477.15,"endTime":3479.4,"body":"but very, very understudied at the moment."},{"startTime":3479.4,"endTime":3480.233,"body":"For obvious reasons,"},{"startTime":3480.233,"endTime":3482.78,"body":"not many people want to go"},{"startTime":3480.233,"endTime":3482.78,"body":"to the hydrothermal vent."},{"startTime":3483.63,"endTime":3484.77,"body":"- Thank you so much,"},{"startTime":3484.77,"endTime":3487.23,"body":"professor May for such"},{"startTime":3484.77,"endTime":3487.23,"body":"a fascinating lecture."},{"startTime":3487.23,"endTime":3489.06,"body":"And thank you to all our online audience"},{"startTime":3489.06,"endTime":3491.16,"body":"as well as the audience"},{"startTime":3489.06,"endTime":3491.16,"body":"in the room tonight."},{"startTime":3491.16,"endTime":3493.35,"body":"His next lecture, which you mustn't miss,"},{"startTime":3493.35,"endTime":3496.92,"body":"is going to be on microbial"},{"startTime":3493.35,"endTime":3496.92,"body":"Master chemists in January,"},{"speaker":"Wednesday, 11th of January at 6","startTime":3496.92,"endTime":3499.68,"body":"00 PM"},{"speaker":"Wednesday, 11th of January at 6","startTime":3499.68,"endTime":3501.78,"body":"and I believe that's going to be here,"},{"speaker":"Wednesday, 11th of January at 6","startTime":3501.78,"endTime":3504.6,"body":"but you can find out if"},{"speaker":"Wednesday, 11th of January at 6","startTime":3501.78,"endTime":3504.6,"body":"you've gone to our website."},{"speaker":"Wednesday, 11th of January at 6","startTime":3504.6,"endTime":3505.89,"body":"Thanks so much for coming."},{"speaker":"Wednesday, 11th of January at 6","startTime":3505.89,"endTime":3507.191,"body":"- Thanks very much."},{"speaker":"Wednesday, 11th of January at 6","startTime":3507.191,"endTime":3509.181,"body":"(audience applauding)"}]}