{"version":"1.0.0","segments":[{"startTime":4.71,"endTime":6.6,"body":"- Welcome back, for those"},{"startTime":4.71,"endTime":6.6,"body":"of you who've been before,"},{"startTime":6.6,"endTime":8.79,"body":"welcome for the first"},{"startTime":6.6,"endTime":8.79,"body":"time for those of you"},{"startTime":8.79,"endTime":11.25,"body":"who are coming for the first time."},{"startTime":11.25,"endTime":13.17,"body":"We've talked in previous lectures"},{"startTime":13.17,"endTime":15.3,"body":"about the evolution of microbes,"},{"startTime":15.3,"endTime":16.26,"body":"and in the last lecture,"},{"startTime":16.26,"endTime":18.75,"body":"we talked about how microbes can make"},{"startTime":18.75,"endTime":21.9,"body":"some really impressively large structures."},{"startTime":21.9,"endTime":24.39,"body":"Tonight, what I want to do is,"},{"startTime":21.9,"endTime":24.39,"body":"is go to the other extreme,"},{"startTime":24.39,"endTime":26.88,"body":"and talk about some of the"},{"startTime":24.39,"endTime":26.88,"body":"really small structures"},{"startTime":26.88,"endTime":30.36,"body":"that microbes make and in"},{"startTime":26.88,"endTime":30.36,"body":"particular the single molecules,"},{"startTime":30.36,"endTime":32.58,"body":"the chemicals that they produce."},{"startTime":32.58,"endTime":34.47,"body":"And what I want to try"},{"startTime":32.58,"endTime":34.47,"body":"and convince you of,"},{"startTime":34.47,"endTime":35.58,"body":"in the next few minutes,"},{"startTime":35.58,"endTime":38.52,"body":"is that actually microbes"},{"startTime":35.58,"endTime":38.52,"body":"are better chemists"},{"startTime":38.52,"endTime":42.0,"body":"than anything we have"},{"startTime":38.52,"endTime":42.0,"body":"ever created as humans."},{"startTime":42.0,"endTime":43.62,"body":"Some of those products they make"},{"startTime":43.62,"endTime":46.23,"body":"are remarkably important for us."},{"startTime":46.23,"endTime":49.26,"body":"Some of them are remarkably"},{"startTime":46.23,"endTime":49.26,"body":"disastrous for us"},{"startTime":49.26,"endTime":50.58,"body":"and perhaps in the future,"},{"startTime":50.58,"endTime":52.68,"body":"some of them will be the solution"},{"startTime":52.68,"endTime":55.23,"body":"to some of the biggest"},{"startTime":52.68,"endTime":55.23,"body":"problems that we face today."},{"startTime":56.25,"endTime":57.96,"body":"But I'm going to start this lecture"},{"startTime":57.96,"endTime":59.7,"body":"with a topic that is close to my heart"},{"startTime":59.7,"endTime":63.69,"body":"and I suspect many of your"},{"startTime":59.7,"endTime":63.69,"body":"hearts, which is that of food."},{"startTime":63.69,"endTime":66.09,"body":"Because food at its first essence is,"},{"startTime":66.09,"endTime":67.83,"body":"of course, just chemistry,"},{"startTime":67.83,"endTime":69.9,"body":"some really interesting chemistry."},{"startTime":69.9,"endTime":73.23,"body":"And it's probably no surprise"},{"startTime":69.9,"endTime":73.23,"body":"to all of you listening"},{"startTime":73.23,"endTime":75.81,"body":"that microbes are a really important part"},{"startTime":75.81,"endTime":77.64,"body":"of producing human food."},{"startTime":77.64,"endTime":79.17,"body":"In fact, we consume them every day,"},{"startTime":79.17,"endTime":82.35,"body":"whether we like it or not,"},{"startTime":79.17,"endTime":82.35,"body":"in many of the foods we have,"},{"startTime":82.35,"endTime":85.41,"body":"sometimes that's not so good"},{"startTime":82.35,"endTime":85.41,"body":"when they cause food poisoning."},{"startTime":85.41,"endTime":86.79,"body":"But what I want to talk about today"},{"startTime":86.79,"endTime":89.58,"body":"is how they do some of the"},{"startTime":86.79,"endTime":89.58,"body":"really beneficial chemistry"},{"startTime":89.58,"endTime":92.223,"body":"that is so important for human diets."},{"startTime":93.33,"endTime":94.74,"body":"And at its heart,"},{"startTime":94.74,"endTime":97.44,"body":"food for all organisms"},{"startTime":94.74,"endTime":97.44,"body":"is all about energy."},{"startTime":97.44,"endTime":100.77,"body":"The unifying feature of"},{"startTime":97.44,"endTime":100.77,"body":"anything that is alive"},{"startTime":100.77,"endTime":102.48,"body":"is that it needs energy to survive,"},{"startTime":102.48,"endTime":106.56,"body":"to do the things it needs to"},{"startTime":102.48,"endTime":106.56,"body":"do, to replicate, to move,"},{"startTime":106.56,"endTime":108.39,"body":"to do all the interesting behaviors"},{"startTime":108.39,"endTime":112.53,"body":"that we associate with"},{"startTime":108.39,"endTime":112.53,"body":"microbes and large organisms."},{"startTime":112.53,"endTime":115.02,"body":"And that energy production is central"},{"startTime":115.02,"endTime":117.33,"body":"to the existence of all cells."},{"startTime":117.33,"endTime":120.75,"body":"And so I'm going to start with"},{"startTime":117.33,"endTime":120.75,"body":"a little bit of real chemistry,"},{"startTime":120.75,"endTime":123.93,"body":"some chemical equations,"},{"startTime":120.75,"endTime":123.93,"body":"I hope not too terrifying."},{"startTime":123.93,"endTime":125.64,"body":"For those of you who are not chemists,"},{"startTime":125.64,"endTime":127.56,"body":"I'm hoping you'll still get it,"},{"startTime":127.56,"endTime":128.88,"body":"those of you who are chemists,"},{"startTime":128.88,"endTime":131.64,"body":"I apologize already that this"},{"startTime":128.88,"endTime":131.64,"body":"is very dumbed down chemistry,"},{"startTime":131.64,"endTime":134.013,"body":"but hopefully it will"},{"startTime":131.64,"endTime":134.013,"body":"make sense to everyone."},{"startTime":135.24,"endTime":137.01,"body":"So energy, in all its forms,"},{"startTime":137.01,"endTime":138.75,"body":"comes from the food we consume"},{"startTime":138.75,"endTime":142.11,"body":"and that food can be a"},{"startTime":138.75,"endTime":142.11,"body":"whole variety of things."},{"startTime":142.11,"endTime":143.79,"body":"And for us, it's genuine food,"},{"startTime":143.79,"endTime":146.91,"body":"it's the things we eat,"},{"startTime":143.79,"endTime":146.91,"body":"breakfast, sandwiches, whatever."},{"startTime":146.91,"endTime":149.28,"body":"If you're a plant, it's"},{"startTime":146.91,"endTime":149.28,"body":"ultimately sunlight,"},{"startTime":149.28,"endTime":151.53,"body":"it's photosynthesis that drives energy."},{"startTime":151.53,"endTime":154.35,"body":"If you are one of the"},{"startTime":151.53,"endTime":154.35,"body":"chemolithotrophic microbes"},{"startTime":154.35,"endTime":155.55,"body":"that eats rocks,"},{"startTime":155.55,"endTime":158.37,"body":"it's the chemical substance"},{"startTime":155.55,"endTime":158.37,"body":"in the rock itself"},{"startTime":158.37,"endTime":160.47,"body":"that you are using for your energy."},{"startTime":160.47,"endTime":163.92,"body":"But regardless of the"},{"startTime":160.47,"endTime":163.92,"body":"original source of energy,"},{"startTime":163.92,"endTime":166.77,"body":"what all organisms do is convert it"},{"startTime":166.77,"endTime":169.89,"body":"into something that can"},{"startTime":166.77,"endTime":169.89,"body":"be used in their cells."},{"startTime":169.89,"endTime":171.45,"body":"And quite interestingly,"},{"startTime":171.45,"endTime":173.37,"body":"that something is essentially the same"},{"startTime":173.37,"endTime":176.133,"body":"for pretty much all living organisms."},{"startTime":177.3,"endTime":180.792,"body":"So if you are a human, or"},{"startTime":177.3,"endTime":180.792,"body":"another animal actually,"},{"startTime":180.792,"endTime":182.97,"body":"your food that you take in"},{"startTime":182.97,"endTime":184.71,"body":"is something that has energetic value"},{"startTime":184.71,"endTime":185.76,"body":"that you can break down."},{"startTime":185.76,"endTime":188.82,"body":"And so as my example today,"},{"startTime":185.76,"endTime":188.82,"body":"I'm going to take sugar,"},{"startTime":188.82,"endTime":190.62,"body":"and in fact, I'm being"},{"startTime":188.82,"endTime":190.62,"body":"very economical today,"},{"startTime":190.62,"endTime":192.03,"body":"I have only a single prop,"},{"startTime":192.03,"endTime":193.14,"body":"but I'm going to use it lots of time."},{"startTime":193.14,"endTime":196.413,"body":"So here is my bag of sugar, I'm"},{"startTime":193.14,"endTime":196.413,"body":"going to plop that on there."},{"startTime":198.0,"endTime":202.65,"body":"And sugar or higher energetic"},{"startTime":198.0,"endTime":202.65,"body":"forms, so carbohydrates,"},{"startTime":202.65,"endTime":204.33,"body":"bread, whatever it is,"},{"startTime":204.33,"endTime":207.3,"body":"contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen."},{"startTime":207.3,"endTime":209.16,"body":"And I'm going to do a"},{"startTime":207.3,"endTime":209.16,"body":"little bit of chemistry here"},{"startTime":209.16,"endTime":212.22,"body":"on this hastily assembled whiteboard."},{"startTime":212.22,"endTime":216.66,"body":"So, at it's heart, sugar is"},{"startTime":212.22,"endTime":216.66,"body":"essentially three sorts of atom."},{"startTime":216.66,"endTime":220.593,"body":"It's carbon, it's"},{"startTime":216.66,"endTime":220.593,"body":"hydrogen, and it's oxygen."},{"startTime":222.15,"endTime":223.56,"body":"And I was going to say"},{"startTime":222.15,"endTime":223.56,"body":"you have to remember that,"},{"startTime":223.56,"endTime":224.43,"body":"you don't have to remember it"},{"startTime":224.43,"endTime":225.953,"body":"'cause I've just written it here."},{"startTime":226.804,"endTime":229.023,"body":"And so if you take sugar like this,"},{"startTime":229.023,"endTime":232.35,"body":"this is sucrose, obviously,"},{"startTime":229.023,"endTime":232.35,"body":"that you put in your tea."},{"startTime":232.35,"endTime":233.84,"body":"This is actually what's"},{"startTime":232.35,"endTime":233.84,"body":"called disaccharide,"},{"startTime":233.84,"endTime":236.7,"body":"it has two sugar molecules stuck together."},{"startTime":236.7,"endTime":239.88,"body":"Here for simplicity, I'm"},{"startTime":236.7,"endTime":239.88,"body":"showing only one of those,"},{"startTime":239.88,"endTime":241.89,"body":"and very loosely it's drawn as a hexagon"},{"startTime":241.89,"endTime":244.92,"body":"because a single monosaccharide sugar,"},{"startTime":244.92,"endTime":248.58,"body":"a single sugar unit contains six carbons."},{"startTime":248.58,"endTime":250.74,"body":"Six of those carbon"},{"startTime":248.58,"endTime":250.74,"body":"atoms I mentioned there."},{"startTime":250.74,"endTime":253.68,"body":"So you can imagine your"},{"startTime":250.74,"endTime":253.68,"body":"carbons in the six corners"},{"startTime":253.68,"endTime":256.05,"body":"of this sugar, that's a"},{"startTime":253.68,"endTime":256.05,"body":"gross oversimplification,"},{"startTime":256.05,"endTime":258.42,"body":"but I'm hoping you're"},{"startTime":256.05,"endTime":258.42,"body":"going to go with me on it."},{"startTime":258.42,"endTime":259.77,"body":"So if you're a human,"},{"startTime":259.77,"endTime":263.082,"body":"you consume sugar or some form like it."},{"startTime":263.082,"endTime":266.07,"body":"And then to turn that into useful energy,"},{"startTime":266.07,"endTime":268.98,"body":"you have a critical second"},{"startTime":266.07,"endTime":268.98,"body":"component that we all need,"},{"startTime":268.98,"endTime":270.84,"body":"which is oxygen."},{"startTime":270.84,"endTime":274.35,"body":"And essentially what we're"},{"startTime":270.84,"endTime":274.35,"body":"doing in our cells all the time"},{"startTime":274.35,"endTime":278.25,"body":"is burning the food we eat,"},{"startTime":274.35,"endTime":278.25,"body":"not like you do in a fireplace,"},{"startTime":278.25,"endTime":280.35,"body":"but in a very similar"},{"startTime":278.25,"endTime":280.35,"body":"sort of chemical reaction."},{"startTime":280.35,"endTime":284.25,"body":"You are reacting that"},{"startTime":280.35,"endTime":284.25,"body":"input energy with oxygen"},{"startTime":284.25,"endTime":286.803,"body":"to produce waste products and energy."},{"startTime":287.79,"endTime":289.74,"body":"And the kind of energy you create"},{"startTime":289.74,"endTime":294.12,"body":"or you produce from that"},{"startTime":289.74,"endTime":294.12,"body":"food is a molecule called ATP"},{"startTime":294.12,"endTime":296.28,"body":"or adenosine triphosphate."},{"startTime":296.28,"endTime":298.83,"body":"And the really interesting"},{"startTime":296.28,"endTime":298.83,"body":"thing about this molecule"},{"startTime":298.83,"endTime":300.24,"body":"is this is what is referred to"},{"startTime":300.24,"endTime":303.0,"body":"as the universal energy currency."},{"startTime":303.0,"endTime":304.95,"body":"And you can think about"},{"startTime":303.0,"endTime":304.95,"body":"this in the same way"},{"startTime":304.95,"endTime":306.44,"body":"that you think about finance."},{"startTime":306.44,"endTime":308.62,"body":"So all of us have need of finance,"},{"startTime":308.62,"endTime":311.1,"body":"you might earn a salary,"},{"startTime":308.62,"endTime":311.1,"body":"you might have a pension,"},{"startTime":311.1,"endTime":313.41,"body":"you might have the bank of mum and dad,"},{"startTime":313.41,"endTime":314.88,"body":"you might have a pot of gold coins"},{"startTime":314.88,"endTime":317.82,"body":"that you discovered at the"},{"startTime":314.88,"endTime":317.82,"body":"bottom of your garden. Lucky you."},{"startTime":317.82,"endTime":321.02,"body":"But whatever form you have,"},{"startTime":317.82,"endTime":321.02,"body":"you receive your money in,"},{"startTime":321.02,"endTime":322.65,"body":"it is worthless at that point."},{"startTime":322.65,"endTime":325.8,"body":"It only becomes worth"},{"startTime":322.65,"endTime":325.8,"body":"something when you convert it"},{"startTime":325.8,"endTime":329.73,"body":"to a universal currency that"},{"startTime":325.8,"endTime":329.73,"body":"other people understand."},{"startTime":329.73,"endTime":331.62,"body":"So that might be the pound or the dollar,"},{"startTime":331.62,"endTime":333.54,"body":"it might be coins, whatever it is."},{"startTime":333.54,"endTime":336.45,"body":"It is something that you"},{"startTime":333.54,"endTime":336.45,"body":"can take to a shop or a bank"},{"startTime":336.45,"endTime":338.55,"body":"or wherever and the person receiving it"},{"startTime":338.55,"endTime":340.593,"body":"understands the same value from it."},{"startTime":341.88,"endTime":344.34,"body":"ATP is the cellular equivalent."},{"startTime":344.34,"endTime":346.59,"body":"It doesn't matter whether"},{"startTime":344.34,"endTime":346.59,"body":"you eat beef burgers,"},{"startTime":346.59,"endTime":349.23,"body":"you have photosynthesize,"},{"startTime":346.59,"endTime":349.23,"body":"you break down rocks,"},{"startTime":349.23,"endTime":352.59,"body":"you convert the energy"},{"startTime":349.23,"endTime":352.59,"body":"into this single currency,"},{"startTime":352.59,"endTime":354.3,"body":"and now that currency can be used"},{"startTime":354.3,"endTime":357.72,"body":"by essentially almost any"},{"startTime":354.3,"endTime":357.72,"body":"biological process in any cell."},{"startTime":357.72,"endTime":359.223,"body":"So this is really important."},{"startTime":360.75,"endTime":363.33,"body":"That process of breaking"},{"startTime":360.75,"endTime":363.33,"body":"down whatever we've eaten"},{"startTime":363.33,"endTime":365.163,"body":"to ATP generates a waste product,"},{"startTime":365.163,"endTime":366.96,"body":"just like when you burn stuff in a fire,"},{"startTime":366.96,"endTime":368.97,"body":"you generate a waste product in smoke."},{"startTime":368.97,"endTime":370.59,"body":"And the waste product, in this case,"},{"startTime":370.59,"endTime":373.68,"body":"is water and carbon dioxide."},{"startTime":373.68,"endTime":376.29,"body":"And I think you can see here"},{"startTime":373.68,"endTime":376.29,"body":"where the chemistry comes in"},{"startTime":376.29,"endTime":378.93,"body":"because what is the"},{"startTime":376.29,"endTime":378.93,"body":"chemical form for water?"},{"startTime":378.93,"endTime":379.763,"body":"Can I pick on somebody?"},{"startTime":379.763,"endTime":381.24,"body":"You sat at the front,"},{"startTime":379.763,"endTime":381.24,"body":"I'm going to pick on you."},{"startTime":381.24,"endTime":383.433,"body":"Do you know the chemical form for water?"},{"startTime":383.433,"endTime":384.9,"body":"- H2O."},{"startTime":383.433,"endTime":384.9,"body":"- H2O, very good."},{"startTime":384.9,"endTime":387.24,"body":"Okay, so water is H2O."},{"startTime":387.24,"endTime":388.92,"body":"So you can immediately see, I hope,"},{"startTime":388.92,"endTime":392.37,"body":"that your waste products here"},{"startTime":388.92,"endTime":392.37,"body":"contain carbon and oxygen,"},{"startTime":392.37,"endTime":393.75,"body":"so you've got these two here,"},{"startTime":393.75,"endTime":395.91,"body":"and water, which is these two here."},{"startTime":395.91,"endTime":399.873,"body":"So you've used up all of your"},{"startTime":395.91,"endTime":399.873,"body":"input into these things here."},{"startTime":400.86,"endTime":401.94,"body":"The other thing you've done"},{"startTime":401.94,"endTime":404.97,"body":"is you've taken these six carbon molecule"},{"startTime":404.97,"endTime":406.71,"body":"and you've broken it down essentially"},{"startTime":406.71,"endTime":410.37,"body":"into single carbon"},{"startTime":406.71,"endTime":410.37,"body":"molecules, the C of CO2."},{"startTime":410.37,"endTime":412.533,"body":"So you've burnt your sugar into CO2."},{"startTime":413.52,"endTime":415.89,"body":"Right, that's all the"},{"startTime":413.52,"endTime":415.89,"body":"really hard chemistry done,"},{"startTime":415.89,"endTime":418.08,"body":"so you can leave now if"},{"startTime":415.89,"endTime":418.08,"body":"you're a big chemistry nut,"},{"startTime":418.08,"endTime":420.81,"body":"and if you're not, you can"},{"startTime":418.08,"endTime":420.81,"body":"breathe a sigh of relief,"},{"startTime":420.81,"endTime":423.12,"body":"because the reason for"},{"startTime":420.81,"endTime":423.12,"body":"dwelling on this purpose"},{"startTime":423.12,"endTime":426.24,"body":"is that it leads to some"},{"startTime":423.12,"endTime":426.24,"body":"very interesting predictions"},{"startTime":426.24,"endTime":428.52,"body":"when you look at other microbes."},{"startTime":428.52,"endTime":432.66,"body":"Because we and many other"},{"startTime":428.52,"endTime":432.66,"body":"organisms are strict aerobes,"},{"startTime":432.66,"endTime":433.98,"body":"we can only survive,"},{"startTime":433.98,"endTime":436.83,"body":"we can only do this process"},{"startTime":433.98,"endTime":436.83,"body":"in the presence of oxygen."},{"startTime":436.83,"endTime":438.87,"body":"In fact, if I was to deprive oxygen"},{"startTime":438.87,"endTime":440.94,"body":"from all of you in this room now,"},{"startTime":440.94,"endTime":442.92,"body":"the consequences would be quite swift"},{"startTime":442.92,"endTime":444.84,"body":"and pretty irreversible."},{"startTime":444.84,"endTime":446.31,"body":"And we all know what they would be"},{"startTime":446.31,"endTime":447.93,"body":"because we cannot live without oxygen,"},{"startTime":447.93,"endTime":451.14,"body":"and many organisms are"},{"startTime":447.93,"endTime":451.14,"body":"like that, but not all."},{"startTime":451.14,"endTime":452.58,"body":"There are lots of organisms,"},{"startTime":452.58,"endTime":456.0,"body":"particularly some microbes"},{"startTime":452.58,"endTime":456.0,"body":"that don't need oxygen,"},{"startTime":456.0,"endTime":457.86,"body":"at least not all the time."},{"startTime":457.86,"endTime":459.57,"body":"And that raises the interesting question"},{"startTime":459.57,"endTime":461.25,"body":"about what they then do"},{"startTime":461.25,"endTime":465.72,"body":"to convert whatever form of"},{"startTime":461.25,"endTime":465.72,"body":"energy they take in into ATP."},{"startTime":465.72,"endTime":468.93,"body":"So what do you do when you"},{"startTime":465.72,"endTime":468.93,"body":"haven't got oxygen around?"},{"startTime":468.93,"endTime":469.763,"body":"And it turns out,"},{"startTime":469.763,"endTime":471.63,"body":"there's some very interesting"},{"startTime":469.763,"endTime":471.63,"body":"chemistry you can do there,"},{"startTime":471.63,"endTime":474.63,"body":"and it's chemistry that's"},{"startTime":471.63,"endTime":474.63,"body":"really relevant to us."},{"startTime":474.63,"endTime":476.25,"body":"So what you're still aiming to do"},{"startTime":476.25,"endTime":479.73,"body":"is create this universal ATP,"},{"startTime":479.73,"endTime":481.05,"body":"but you haven't got oxygen."},{"startTime":481.05,"endTime":483.21,"body":"Just like when you're"},{"startTime":481.05,"endTime":483.21,"body":"trying to burn a fire"},{"startTime":483.21,"endTime":485.04,"body":"with a relatively limited amount of air,"},{"startTime":485.04,"endTime":487.38,"body":"those of you who have a fire at home,"},{"startTime":487.38,"endTime":489.21,"body":"you know that if you kind"},{"startTime":487.38,"endTime":489.21,"body":"of shut down the air source,"},{"startTime":489.21,"endTime":490.92,"body":"the fire gets dimmer"},{"startTime":489.21,"endTime":490.92,"body":"and dimmer and dimmer."},{"startTime":490.92,"endTime":492.65,"body":"And if you remove all oxygen,"},{"startTime":492.65,"endTime":494.64,"body":"if you put a lid on your candle,"},{"startTime":494.64,"endTime":496.54,"body":"it'll go out 'cause there's no oxygen."},{"startTime":497.46,"endTime":500.76,"body":"In this case, if there's no"},{"startTime":497.46,"endTime":500.76,"body":"oxygen just like that fire"},{"startTime":500.76,"endTime":502.77,"body":"burning in the absence of very much air,"},{"startTime":502.77,"endTime":504.48,"body":"you produce less energy."},{"startTime":504.48,"endTime":506.58,"body":"So you do produce ATP but less."},{"startTime":506.58,"endTime":509.61,"body":"So some microbes in the absence of oxygen"},{"startTime":509.61,"endTime":511.53,"body":"can switch to this pathway."},{"startTime":511.53,"endTime":512.85,"body":"This would not work for humans,"},{"startTime":512.85,"endTime":515.46,"body":"we're too energy dependent"},{"startTime":512.85,"endTime":515.46,"body":"because we need a lot of this."},{"startTime":515.46,"endTime":517.8,"body":"But if you're a microbe,"},{"startTime":515.46,"endTime":517.8,"body":"some sorts of microbe,"},{"startTime":517.8,"endTime":520.257,"body":"you can get away with less ATP."},{"startTime":520.257,"endTime":522.053,"body":"And I can give an example-"},{"startTime":522.053,"endTime":523.02,"body":"- [Audience Member] What"},{"startTime":522.053,"endTime":523.02,"body":"does ATP stand for, please?"},{"startTime":523.02,"endTime":523.986,"body":"- Sorry?"},{"startTime":523.986,"endTime":524.819,"body":"(audience member speaks indistinctly)"},{"startTime":524.819,"endTime":526.65,"body":"- Sorry, adenosine triphosphate."},{"startTime":526.65,"endTime":528.57,"body":"There's no test at the end though."},{"startTime":528.57,"endTime":530.16,"body":"Yes, the question was"},{"startTime":528.57,"endTime":530.16,"body":"what does it stand for?"},{"startTime":530.16,"endTime":532.98,"body":"ATP is adenosine triphosphate,"},{"startTime":532.98,"endTime":533.85,"body":"which I'm not going to draw up"},{"startTime":533.85,"endTime":536.07,"body":"'cause it's a complicated molecule."},{"startTime":536.07,"endTime":539.18,"body":"So this process in humans of"},{"startTime":536.07,"endTime":539.18,"body":"converting energy into ATP"},{"startTime":539.18,"endTime":540.33,"body":"is happening all the time"},{"startTime":540.33,"endTime":541.53,"body":"and it's happening actually at a rate"},{"startTime":541.53,"endTime":543.6,"body":"that is quite extraordinary."},{"startTime":543.6,"endTime":545.13,"body":"So in the time I've been talking,"},{"startTime":545.13,"endTime":546.15,"body":"which is about 10 minutes"},{"startTime":546.15,"endTime":547.8,"body":"according to that clock in the back,"},{"startTime":547.8,"endTime":550.8,"body":"each of you in this room"},{"startTime":547.8,"endTime":550.8,"body":"have probably produced"},{"startTime":550.8,"endTime":554.27,"body":"about half a kilogram of ATP in your body."},{"startTime":554.27,"endTime":557.67,"body":"So it's about half this bag"},{"startTime":554.27,"endTime":557.67,"body":"of sugar I showed earlier,"},{"startTime":557.67,"endTime":559.35,"body":"and you've burnt almost all of that"},{"startTime":559.35,"endTime":560.79,"body":"in other processes straight away."},{"startTime":560.79,"endTime":564.87,"body":"You're permanently creating"},{"startTime":560.79,"endTime":564.87,"body":"ATP and destroying it"},{"startTime":564.87,"endTime":566.85,"body":"to power all the things that you're doing"},{"startTime":566.85,"endTime":568.74,"body":"like hopefully listening to me"},{"startTime":568.74,"endTime":569.88,"body":"or perhaps checking your phones"},{"startTime":569.88,"endTime":571.53,"body":"or whatever else you're doing,"},{"startTime":571.53,"endTime":573.15,"body":"and that process happens all the time."},{"startTime":573.15,"endTime":576.57,"body":"So the average human"},{"startTime":573.15,"endTime":576.57,"body":"being creates and destroys"},{"startTime":576.57,"endTime":579.213,"body":"their own body weight in ATP every day."},{"startTime":580.17,"endTime":583.74,"body":"So we can't survive with a"},{"startTime":580.17,"endTime":583.74,"body":"process that's inefficient"},{"startTime":583.74,"endTime":585.39,"body":"at producing ATP like this one"},{"startTime":585.39,"endTime":586.99,"body":"because we wouldn't make enough."},{"startTime":587.85,"endTime":590.19,"body":"But if you're a microbe and"},{"startTime":587.85,"endTime":590.19,"body":"you have the opportunity,"},{"startTime":590.19,"endTime":593.22,"body":"for example, to grow very"},{"startTime":590.19,"endTime":593.22,"body":"slowly or go dormant,"},{"startTime":593.22,"endTime":595.8,"body":"you can get by using a process like this"},{"startTime":595.8,"endTime":599.76,"body":"that doesn't create as much"},{"startTime":595.8,"endTime":599.76,"body":"ATP, an anaerobic process,"},{"startTime":599.76,"endTime":602.583,"body":"one that occurs in the absence of oxygen."},{"startTime":603.87,"endTime":605.37,"body":"But there's an interesting byproduct here"},{"startTime":605.37,"endTime":607.26,"body":"because I said in the previous slide"},{"startTime":607.26,"endTime":610.26,"body":"that what we do is we break"},{"startTime":607.26,"endTime":610.26,"body":"down all those carbons"},{"startTime":610.26,"endTime":611.52,"body":"in that sugar molecule"},{"startTime":611.52,"endTime":615.123,"body":"essentially to single carbon atoms in CO2."},{"startTime":615.96,"endTime":618.0,"body":"So we're taking six carbons"},{"startTime":615.96,"endTime":618.0,"body":"and we're turning them"},{"startTime":618.0,"endTime":621.123,"body":"into individual carbon dioxide molecules."},{"startTime":622.05,"endTime":624.9,"body":"You can't do that if you"},{"startTime":622.05,"endTime":624.9,"body":"haven't got oxygen to spend"},{"startTime":624.9,"endTime":627.66,"body":"'cause you haven't got"},{"startTime":624.9,"endTime":627.66,"body":"enough oxygen around"},{"startTime":627.66,"endTime":630.51,"body":"to break this down completely into CO2."},{"startTime":630.51,"endTime":631.65,"body":"So you have to produce"},{"startTime":631.65,"endTime":633.583,"body":"some other kind of waste product instead,"},{"startTime":633.583,"endTime":635.25,"body":"a fermentative product,"},{"startTime":635.25,"endTime":638.04,"body":"and this is where it"},{"startTime":635.25,"endTime":638.04,"body":"becomes interesting for us"},{"startTime":638.04,"endTime":641.4,"body":"because many of those microbes"},{"startTime":638.04,"endTime":641.4,"body":"produce fermentation products"},{"startTime":641.4,"endTime":644.43,"body":"that are actually really useful chemicals."},{"startTime":644.43,"endTime":646.74,"body":"Well, useful is perhaps"},{"startTime":644.43,"endTime":646.74,"body":"an interesting question"},{"startTime":646.74,"endTime":648.36,"body":"because one of them, of course,"},{"startTime":648.36,"endTime":650.43,"body":"is that a product that is very close"},{"startTime":650.43,"endTime":654.27,"body":"to our hearts as humans, which"},{"startTime":650.43,"endTime":654.27,"body":"is the product of ethanol."},{"startTime":654.27,"endTime":658.71,"body":"So if you are an organism"},{"startTime":654.27,"endTime":658.71,"body":"like yeast, for example,"},{"startTime":658.71,"endTime":662.85,"body":"you can take your sugar source"},{"startTime":658.71,"endTime":662.85,"body":"in the absence of oxygen,"},{"startTime":662.85,"endTime":664.5,"body":"you can produce ATP,"},{"startTime":664.5,"endTime":668.55,"body":"and you can't fully break down"},{"startTime":664.5,"endTime":668.55,"body":"to individual CO2 molecules."},{"startTime":668.55,"endTime":670.65,"body":"You make a few CO2 molecules,"},{"startTime":670.65,"endTime":671.85,"body":"but you haven't got enough oxygen"},{"startTime":671.85,"endTime":675.03,"body":"to turn all of this into only CO2,"},{"startTime":675.03,"endTime":676.71,"body":"you're left with some carbons."},{"startTime":676.71,"endTime":678.18,"body":"And so you are left with a molecule"},{"startTime":678.18,"endTime":680.7,"body":"that has more carbons in it than CO2,"},{"startTime":680.7,"endTime":681.533,"body":"and in this case,"},{"startTime":681.533,"endTime":684.603,"body":"it's ethanol, alcohol"},{"startTime":681.533,"endTime":684.603,"body":"which has two carbons."},{"startTime":686.251,"endTime":690.24,"body":"That fermentation process"},{"startTime":686.251,"endTime":690.24,"body":"helps your yeast grow"},{"startTime":690.24,"endTime":692.76,"body":"in the absence of oxygen"},{"startTime":690.24,"endTime":692.76,"body":"but is very useful for us"},{"startTime":692.76,"endTime":695.46,"body":"particularly in the"},{"startTime":692.76,"endTime":695.46,"body":"production of those foods"},{"startTime":695.46,"endTime":696.81,"body":"that I mentioned early on,"},{"startTime":696.81,"endTime":699.45,"body":"because this guy, this is"},{"startTime":696.81,"endTime":699.45,"body":"saccharomyces cerevisiae,"},{"startTime":699.45,"endTime":701.34,"body":"the brewer's or baking yeast,"},{"startTime":701.34,"endTime":704.67,"body":"is really good at doing"},{"startTime":701.34,"endTime":704.67,"body":"this fermentation process."},{"startTime":704.67,"endTime":707.67,"body":"It grows very happily in"},{"startTime":704.67,"endTime":707.67,"body":"the presence of oxygen,"},{"startTime":707.67,"endTime":710.76,"body":"but if you withdraw"},{"startTime":707.67,"endTime":710.76,"body":"oxygen it can still grow"},{"startTime":710.76,"endTime":713.19,"body":"and it produces this fermentation product"},{"startTime":713.19,"endTime":714.72,"body":"of ethanol and CO2."},{"startTime":714.72,"endTime":716.67,"body":"And both of those products actually"},{"startTime":716.67,"endTime":719.22,"body":"have turned out to be"},{"startTime":716.67,"endTime":719.22,"body":"really useful for humans"},{"startTime":719.22,"endTime":720.27,"body":"because, for example,"},{"startTime":720.27,"endTime":723.45,"body":"if you put this organism with"},{"startTime":720.27,"endTime":723.45,"body":"things like hops and grains"},{"startTime":723.45,"endTime":724.283,"body":"and so on and so forth,"},{"startTime":724.283,"endTime":726.93,"body":"you can make it ferment"},{"startTime":724.283,"endTime":726.93,"body":"them into beer or wine"},{"startTime":726.93,"endTime":728.04,"body":"or whatever else."},{"startTime":728.04,"endTime":729.72,"body":"The alcohol enters the drink,"},{"startTime":729.72,"endTime":731.34,"body":"which is of course part of the point,"},{"startTime":731.34,"endTime":734.19,"body":"and the CO2 bubbles through"},{"startTime":731.34,"endTime":734.19,"body":"it to give it the froth,"},{"startTime":734.19,"endTime":735.573,"body":"which many of us enjoy."},{"startTime":736.62,"endTime":738.99,"body":"If you put it with other grains"},{"startTime":736.62,"endTime":738.99,"body":"and in a drier environment,"},{"startTime":738.99,"endTime":740.76,"body":"it will start to grow fermentatively,"},{"startTime":740.76,"endTime":742.98,"body":"it produces ethanol and CO2."},{"startTime":742.98,"endTime":746.07,"body":"The CO2 bubbles up in"},{"startTime":742.98,"endTime":746.07,"body":"your dough to level it,"},{"startTime":746.07,"endTime":747.36,"body":"to make it light,"},{"startTime":747.36,"endTime":748.95,"body":"and then, of course, you"},{"startTime":747.36,"endTime":748.95,"body":"put your dough in the oven,"},{"startTime":748.95,"endTime":750.15,"body":"you burn off the alcohol,"},{"startTime":750.15,"endTime":753.12,"body":"which is why we don't get all"},{"startTime":750.15,"endTime":753.12,"body":"drunk when we have a sandwich."},{"startTime":753.12,"endTime":754.8,"body":"But nonetheless, the product,"},{"startTime":754.8,"endTime":758.31,"body":"this light fluffy bread is"},{"startTime":754.8,"endTime":758.31,"body":"produced by fermentation."},{"startTime":758.31,"endTime":761.73,"body":"So this process done by a"},{"startTime":758.31,"endTime":761.73,"body":"fungus is critically important"},{"startTime":761.73,"endTime":763.323,"body":"for much of the food industry."},{"startTime":765.03,"endTime":767.82,"body":"Not all organisms that can grow in oxygen,"},{"startTime":767.82,"endTime":769.53,"body":"they produce ethanol as they're byproduct,"},{"startTime":769.53,"endTime":771.6,"body":"there are other interesting byproducts."},{"startTime":771.6,"endTime":773.853,"body":"And this organism here,"},{"startTime":771.6,"endTime":773.853,"body":"this is lactobacillus,"},{"startTime":773.853,"endTime":777.48,"body":"it's a bacterium, can"},{"startTime":773.853,"endTime":777.48,"body":"also do fermentation."},{"startTime":777.48,"endTime":779.97,"body":"Just like saccharomyces,"},{"startTime":777.48,"endTime":779.97,"body":"the fungus I mentioned,"},{"startTime":779.97,"endTime":780.87,"body":"it doesn't have to,"},{"startTime":780.87,"endTime":784.05,"body":"it can grow in the presence"},{"startTime":780.87,"endTime":784.05,"body":"of oxygen, no problem."},{"startTime":784.05,"endTime":786.81,"body":"But if you withdraw oxygen,"},{"startTime":784.05,"endTime":786.81,"body":"it continues to grow,"},{"startTime":786.81,"endTime":789.18,"body":"again, once again harnessing sugar,"},{"startTime":789.18,"endTime":792.42,"body":"producing less ATP than it"},{"startTime":789.18,"endTime":792.42,"body":"did when oxygen was around,"},{"startTime":792.42,"endTime":793.92,"body":"but still a reasonable amount."},{"startTime":795.09,"endTime":796.53,"body":"But it's left with a waste product."},{"startTime":796.53,"endTime":798.81,"body":"It's waste product is not ethanol"},{"startTime":798.81,"endTime":800.58,"body":"but this molecule, lactic acid."},{"startTime":800.58,"endTime":802.5,"body":"And you see, again, what's happened here"},{"startTime":802.5,"endTime":805.92,"body":"is the original six carbons"},{"startTime":802.5,"endTime":805.92,"body":"have been broken down partly"},{"startTime":805.92,"endTime":806.88,"body":"but not completely,"},{"startTime":806.88,"endTime":810.51,"body":"there are still three"},{"startTime":806.88,"endTime":810.51,"body":"left in this molecule here"},{"startTime":810.51,"endTime":812.67,"body":"because it hasn't been"},{"startTime":810.51,"endTime":812.67,"body":"able to fully burn it"},{"startTime":812.67,"endTime":815.07,"body":"'cause there's not enough oxygen around."},{"startTime":815.07,"endTime":817.32,"body":"But that waste product from lactobacillus"},{"startTime":817.32,"endTime":818.477,"body":"is terrifically useful for us"},{"startTime":818.477,"endTime":822.45,"body":"'cause this production of"},{"startTime":818.477,"endTime":822.45,"body":"lactic acid is what sours milk"},{"startTime":822.45,"endTime":824.55,"body":"and turns milk into many of the products"},{"startTime":824.55,"endTime":826.2,"body":"that many of us enjoy."},{"startTime":826.2,"endTime":827.4,"body":"Yogurt, for example,"},{"startTime":827.4,"endTime":829.86,"body":"some of the bacterially fermented cheeses,"},{"startTime":829.86,"endTime":831.9,"body":"caffe and other drinks like that."},{"startTime":831.9,"endTime":833.31,"body":"This is a very important process"},{"startTime":833.31,"endTime":836.13,"body":"and probably one that was"},{"startTime":833.31,"endTime":836.13,"body":"discovered actually very early"},{"startTime":836.13,"endTime":840.0,"body":"during the kind of first"},{"startTime":836.13,"endTime":840.0,"body":"agricultural revolution of humanity"},{"startTime":840.0,"endTime":841.293,"body":"thousands of years ago."},{"startTime":842.7,"endTime":844.86,"body":"So in these processes what"},{"startTime":842.7,"endTime":844.86,"body":"we are doing as humans"},{"startTime":844.86,"endTime":847.95,"body":"is harnessing some very"},{"startTime":844.86,"endTime":847.95,"body":"fundamental energy chemistry"},{"startTime":847.95,"endTime":850.503,"body":"of microbes for our own benefit."},{"startTime":851.55,"endTime":853.8,"body":"But I think, if it stops here,"},{"startTime":853.8,"endTime":856.26,"body":"this might be a pretty unexciting story"},{"startTime":856.26,"endTime":858.45,"body":"and probably a very unexciting lecture."},{"startTime":858.45,"endTime":860.55,"body":"But I think there's a lot"},{"startTime":858.45,"endTime":860.55,"body":"more interesting chemistry"},{"startTime":860.55,"endTime":862.2,"body":"to explore with microbes"},{"startTime":862.2,"endTime":864.33,"body":"and I want to take you"},{"startTime":862.2,"endTime":864.33,"body":"through some of that"},{"startTime":864.33,"endTime":865.93,"body":"in the next part of the lecture."},{"startTime":866.91,"endTime":870.09,"body":"And actually some of the"},{"startTime":866.91,"endTime":870.09,"body":"most interesting chemistry"},{"startTime":870.09,"endTime":873.84,"body":"for microbes comes not from"},{"startTime":870.09,"endTime":873.84,"body":"their interactions with us"},{"startTime":873.84,"endTime":876.99,"body":"but from their interactions"},{"startTime":873.84,"endTime":876.99,"body":"with other microbes."},{"startTime":876.99,"endTime":879.12,"body":"And that's because I"},{"startTime":876.99,"endTime":879.12,"body":"think like typical humans,"},{"startTime":879.12,"endTime":881.25,"body":"we have a very human-centric"},{"startTime":879.12,"endTime":881.25,"body":"view of the world."},{"startTime":881.25,"endTime":882.84,"body":"We tend to think of"},{"startTime":881.25,"endTime":882.84,"body":"the world as, you know,"},{"startTime":882.84,"endTime":885.48,"body":"largely human with some"},{"startTime":882.84,"endTime":885.48,"body":"other annoying creatures"},{"startTime":885.48,"endTime":887.7,"body":"scattered through. But"},{"startTime":885.48,"endTime":887.7,"body":"that's not what it's like."},{"startTime":887.7,"endTime":891.45,"body":"In reality, this is a"},{"startTime":887.7,"endTime":891.45,"body":"completely microbial world"},{"startTime":891.45,"endTime":894.66,"body":"which is occasionally contaminated"},{"startTime":891.45,"endTime":894.66,"body":"with big stuff like us."},{"startTime":894.66,"endTime":897.3,"body":"But the vast majority of"},{"startTime":894.66,"endTime":897.3,"body":"organisms in this world"},{"startTime":897.3,"endTime":900.15,"body":"are microbes, and in many cases,"},{"startTime":900.15,"endTime":904.05,"body":"they are living cheek by"},{"startTime":900.15,"endTime":904.05,"body":"jaw incredibly densely"},{"startTime":904.05,"endTime":906.42,"body":"in habitats which just"},{"startTime":904.05,"endTime":906.42,"body":"promote competition."},{"startTime":906.42,"endTime":908.13,"body":"And one of those you can see very easily,"},{"startTime":908.13,"endTime":910.2,"body":"you can stroll out into"},{"startTime":908.13,"endTime":910.2,"body":"your garden or park,"},{"startTime":910.2,"endTime":913.41,"body":"you can dig up a handful of"},{"startTime":910.2,"endTime":913.41,"body":"soil and you'll be witness"},{"startTime":913.41,"endTime":916.71,"body":"to one of the most incredibly"},{"startTime":913.41,"endTime":916.71,"body":"densely populated areas"},{"startTime":916.71,"endTime":918.27,"body":"on the planet."},{"startTime":918.27,"endTime":920.34,"body":"The average gram of soil,"},{"startTime":920.34,"endTime":921.93,"body":"depending on whether it's wet or dry"},{"startTime":921.93,"endTime":923.64,"body":"or has a lot of nutrition or not,"},{"startTime":923.64,"endTime":928.26,"body":"has between about a million"},{"startTime":923.64,"endTime":928.26,"body":"and a billion bacteria."},{"startTime":928.26,"endTime":931.95,"body":"It has about a million to"},{"startTime":928.26,"endTime":931.95,"body":"a billion fungal cells,"},{"startTime":931.95,"endTime":936.21,"body":"and it has probably 10 times"},{"startTime":931.95,"endTime":936.21,"body":"that number of viral particles."},{"startTime":936.21,"endTime":938.88,"body":"So when you hold that"},{"startTime":936.21,"endTime":938.88,"body":"gram of soil in your hand"},{"startTime":938.88,"endTime":939.84,"body":"and just for, you know,"},{"startTime":939.84,"endTime":942.18,"body":"for estimate a teaspoon"},{"startTime":939.84,"endTime":942.18,"body":"is about five grams."},{"startTime":942.18,"endTime":945.09,"body":"So we're talking about a"},{"startTime":942.18,"endTime":945.09,"body":"fifth of a teaspoon of soil"},{"startTime":945.09,"endTime":947.73,"body":"has within it a number of microbes"},{"startTime":947.73,"endTime":950.73,"body":"that is somewhere between the"},{"startTime":947.73,"endTime":950.73,"body":"human population of London"},{"startTime":950.73,"endTime":953.19,"body":"and the human population of the world."},{"startTime":953.19,"endTime":957.12,"body":"All living in that one gram"},{"startTime":953.19,"endTime":957.12,"body":"of soil very intensely,"},{"startTime":957.12,"endTime":959.58,"body":"often competing for the"},{"startTime":957.12,"endTime":959.58,"body":"same kind of nutrients."},{"startTime":959.58,"endTime":961.38,"body":"And so what we all know"},{"startTime":961.38,"endTime":963.51,"body":"is that when you have a crowded habitat,"},{"startTime":963.51,"endTime":965.7,"body":"organisms tend to compete"},{"startTime":963.51,"endTime":965.7,"body":"and sometimes they do so"},{"startTime":965.7,"endTime":967.47,"body":"in a really quite unpleasant ways."},{"startTime":967.47,"endTime":970.74,"body":"And so many of these microbes"},{"startTime":967.47,"endTime":970.74,"body":"have evolved mechanisms"},{"startTime":970.74,"endTime":974.13,"body":"to fight off their"},{"startTime":970.74,"endTime":974.13,"body":"competitors within the soil"},{"startTime":974.13,"endTime":976.65,"body":"through chemical warfare essentially."},{"startTime":976.65,"endTime":978.4,"body":"And that process has turned out"},{"startTime":978.4,"endTime":981.54,"body":"to be incredibly important for humanity."},{"startTime":981.54,"endTime":983.55,"body":"So you can see the process"},{"startTime":981.54,"endTime":983.55,"body":"here in this video."},{"startTime":983.55,"endTime":987.093,"body":"So this is one sort of"},{"startTime":983.55,"endTime":987.093,"body":"bacteria, this is bacillus,"},{"startTime":988.2,"endTime":990.843,"body":"commonly found sort of"},{"startTime":988.2,"endTime":990.843,"body":"bacteria also in soil."},{"startTime":991.68,"endTime":994.41,"body":"Over here in this one,"},{"startTime":991.68,"endTime":994.41,"body":"this is streptomyces,"},{"startTime":994.41,"endTime":996.09,"body":"these are a group of bacteria,"},{"startTime":996.09,"endTime":999.51,"body":"large group of bacteria found"},{"startTime":996.09,"endTime":999.51,"body":"in soils and other habitats"},{"startTime":999.51,"endTime":1002.27,"body":"that are particularly good"},{"startTime":999.51,"endTime":1002.27,"body":"at this chemical warfare,"},{"startTime":1002.27,"endTime":1004.13,"body":"and I'll talk more about that in a second."},{"startTime":1004.13,"endTime":1006.05,"body":"But this group is kind"},{"startTime":1004.13,"endTime":1006.05,"body":"of the record breaker"},{"startTime":1006.05,"endTime":1009.56,"body":"in terms of really, really"},{"startTime":1006.05,"endTime":1009.56,"body":"fancy microbial chemistry."},{"startTime":1009.56,"endTime":1012.56,"body":"And what you will see here"},{"startTime":1009.56,"endTime":1012.56,"body":"is that as these two bacteria"},{"startTime":1012.56,"endTime":1014.18,"body":"start to get close to each other,"},{"startTime":1014.18,"endTime":1019.13,"body":"this guy starts to provoke"},{"startTime":1014.18,"endTime":1019.13,"body":"or invoke its armory"},{"startTime":1019.13,"endTime":1020.33,"body":"and attack this guy over here,"},{"startTime":1020.33,"endTime":1021.8,"body":"and you will see slowly but surely"},{"startTime":1021.8,"endTime":1024.35,"body":"it starts to kill the"},{"startTime":1021.8,"endTime":1024.35,"body":"bacillus on this side"},{"startTime":1024.35,"endTime":1027.62,"body":"because it is releasing"},{"startTime":1024.35,"endTime":1027.62,"body":"essentially chemical weapons"},{"startTime":1027.62,"endTime":1030.14,"body":"directed against other bacteria"},{"startTime":1030.14,"endTime":1033.443,"body":"in order to secure its"},{"startTime":1030.14,"endTime":1033.443,"body":"position in the environment."},{"startTime":1034.64,"endTime":1036.83,"body":"This becomes interesting"},{"startTime":1034.64,"endTime":1036.83,"body":"because, of course,"},{"startTime":1036.83,"endTime":1040.04,"body":"chemicals that kill bacteria"},{"startTime":1036.83,"endTime":1040.04,"body":"or indeed other microbes"},{"startTime":1040.04,"endTime":1041.51,"body":"are pretty important for humans"},{"startTime":1041.51,"endTime":1044.51,"body":"'cause quite often we want to"},{"startTime":1041.51,"endTime":1044.51,"body":"kill bacteria in your kitchen,"},{"startTime":1044.51,"endTime":1045.5,"body":"in your liver,"},{"startTime":1045.5,"endTime":1048.56,"body":"wherever they might happen to"},{"startTime":1045.5,"endTime":1048.56,"body":"be where you don't want them."},{"startTime":1048.56,"endTime":1051.74,"body":"These chemicals are often what are either"},{"startTime":1051.74,"endTime":1056.3,"body":"in themselves antibiotics or"},{"startTime":1051.74,"endTime":1056.3,"body":"can be turned into antibiotics."},{"startTime":1056.3,"endTime":1059.03,"body":"And these, of course, were at the heart"},{"startTime":1059.03,"endTime":1060.68,"body":"of the early discovery of antibiotics."},{"startTime":1060.68,"endTime":1062.93,"body":"I'm sure you'll know,"},{"startTime":1060.68,"endTime":1062.93,"body":"this is Alexander Fleming,"},{"startTime":1062.93,"endTime":1065.66,"body":"discoverer of penicillin, and"},{"startTime":1062.93,"endTime":1065.66,"body":"this is not his photograph,"},{"startTime":1065.66,"endTime":1067.73,"body":"but a photograph of penicillium,"},{"startTime":1067.73,"endTime":1069.74,"body":"the fungus that he discovered"},{"startTime":1069.74,"endTime":1072.89,"body":"contaminating one of his bacterial plates."},{"startTime":1072.89,"endTime":1075.17,"body":"And he made the very astute observation"},{"startTime":1075.17,"endTime":1077.96,"body":"that where the fungus"},{"startTime":1075.17,"endTime":1077.96,"body":"grew, the bacteria did not,"},{"startTime":1077.96,"endTime":1080.0,"body":"and therefore surmised correctly"},{"startTime":1080.0,"endTime":1081.95,"body":"that the fungus was releasing"},{"startTime":1080.0,"endTime":1081.95,"body":"some kind of chemical"},{"startTime":1081.95,"endTime":1085.85,"body":"that killed bacteria that what"},{"startTime":1081.95,"endTime":1085.85,"body":"now know to be penicillin."},{"startTime":1085.85,"endTime":1089.033,"body":"A very early discovery of"},{"startTime":1085.85,"endTime":1089.033,"body":"this kind of chemical warfare."},{"startTime":1090.5,"endTime":1092.42,"body":"So in the ensuing almost 100 years"},{"startTime":1092.42,"endTime":1093.59,"body":"since Fleming's discovery,"},{"startTime":1093.59,"endTime":1096.62,"body":"we have gone out and we"},{"startTime":1093.59,"endTime":1096.62,"body":"have looked in environments,"},{"startTime":1096.62,"endTime":1098.99,"body":"not just soils, marine environments,"},{"startTime":1098.99,"endTime":1100.64,"body":"all sorts of interesting places,"},{"startTime":1100.64,"endTime":1103.43,"body":"for other microbes that kill microbes"},{"startTime":1103.43,"endTime":1105.62,"body":"in the hope of discovering chemicals"},{"startTime":1105.62,"endTime":1106.97,"body":"that we can turn into antibiotics,"},{"startTime":1106.97,"endTime":1108.47,"body":"and it has been very successful."},{"startTime":1108.47,"endTime":1111.86,"body":"People often talk about"},{"startTime":1108.47,"endTime":1111.86,"body":"this crisis in antibiotics"},{"startTime":1111.86,"endTime":1113.06,"body":"and it's undoubtedly true"},{"startTime":1113.06,"endTime":1115.64,"body":"that we are short of"},{"startTime":1113.06,"endTime":1115.64,"body":"antibiotics at the moment."},{"startTime":1115.64,"endTime":1118.34,"body":"But I think it's also worth"},{"startTime":1115.64,"endTime":1118.34,"body":"stepping back and thinking,"},{"startTime":1118.34,"endTime":1119.57,"body":"in less than a hundred years,"},{"startTime":1119.57,"endTime":1122.09,"body":"how many of these compounds"},{"startTime":1119.57,"endTime":1122.09,"body":"we have discovered"},{"startTime":1122.09,"endTime":1125.03,"body":"and how many millions"},{"startTime":1122.09,"endTime":1125.03,"body":"of lives have been saved"},{"startTime":1125.03,"endTime":1125.863,"body":"through the discovery"},{"startTime":1125.863,"endTime":1129.113,"body":"of these kind of chemical"},{"startTime":1125.863,"endTime":1129.113,"body":"warfare components."},{"startTime":1130.4,"endTime":1131.99,"body":"The point I want to make"},{"startTime":1130.4,"endTime":1131.99,"body":"here in this lecture though"},{"startTime":1131.99,"endTime":1134.24,"body":"is that the chemistry of"},{"startTime":1131.99,"endTime":1134.24,"body":"these is often overlooked,"},{"startTime":1134.24,"endTime":1135.89,"body":"but it's absolutely astounding,"},{"startTime":1135.89,"endTime":1138.02,"body":"and let me give you two examples."},{"startTime":1138.02,"endTime":1140.33,"body":"So here's one that I suspect"},{"startTime":1138.02,"endTime":1140.33,"body":"many of you in this room"},{"startTime":1140.33,"endTime":1142.25,"body":"and listening online will have used,"},{"startTime":1142.25,"endTime":1144.1,"body":"this is chloramphenicol."},{"startTime":1144.1,"endTime":1146.39,"body":"So it's an antibiotic that"},{"startTime":1144.1,"endTime":1146.39,"body":"you are often prescribed,"},{"startTime":1146.39,"endTime":1148.61,"body":"for example, for eye infections you get,"},{"startTime":1148.61,"endTime":1152.36,"body":"as eyedrop or for superficial"},{"startTime":1148.61,"endTime":1152.36,"body":"infections, you drop it on,"},{"startTime":1152.36,"endTime":1155.933,"body":"and it's very effective against"},{"startTime":1152.36,"endTime":1155.933,"body":"many bacterial infections."},{"startTime":1156.77,"endTime":1158.81,"body":"This is a relatively"},{"startTime":1156.77,"endTime":1158.81,"body":"simple bit of chemistry."},{"startTime":1158.81,"endTime":1160.85,"body":"So again, using the same"},{"startTime":1158.81,"endTime":1160.85,"body":"diagrams we had earlier,"},{"startTime":1160.85,"endTime":1163.25,"body":"there's some carbons in here,"},{"startTime":1160.85,"endTime":1163.25,"body":"nice little carbon ring,"},{"startTime":1163.25,"endTime":1164.78,"body":"but a nitrogen, some chlorines."},{"startTime":1164.78,"endTime":1167.54,"body":"Not hugely complicated, although"},{"startTime":1164.78,"endTime":1167.54,"body":"I mean I think, you know,"},{"startTime":1167.54,"endTime":1168.95,"body":"you can underestimate this."},{"startTime":1168.95,"endTime":1170.93,"body":"If you were a kind of final"},{"startTime":1168.95,"endTime":1170.93,"body":"year chemistry student,"},{"startTime":1170.93,"endTime":1172.34,"body":"you popped into the lab one weekend"},{"startTime":1172.34,"endTime":1174.11,"body":"and told your supervisor"},{"startTime":1172.34,"endTime":1174.11,"body":"on Monday morning,"},{"startTime":1174.11,"endTime":1175.22,"body":"you'd knocked up chloramphenicol,"},{"startTime":1175.22,"endTime":1177.37,"body":"I think they'd be pretty"},{"startTime":1175.22,"endTime":1177.37,"body":"impressed actually"},{"startTime":1178.55,"endTime":1180.47,"body":"because this is not trivial chemistry,"},{"startTime":1180.47,"endTime":1182.27,"body":"but nonetheless a relatively simple"},{"startTime":1182.27,"endTime":1184.433,"body":"but very effective antibiotic molecule."},{"startTime":1185.54,"endTime":1187.64,"body":"But now compare it to"},{"startTime":1185.54,"endTime":1187.64,"body":"some other antibiotics"},{"startTime":1187.64,"endTime":1190.07,"body":"and in particular one called daptomycin,"},{"startTime":1190.07,"endTime":1192.86,"body":"which is used these days"},{"startTime":1190.07,"endTime":1192.86,"body":"for systemic infections,"},{"startTime":1192.86,"endTime":1196.22,"body":"say for serious"},{"startTime":1192.86,"endTime":1196.22,"body":"life-threatening infections."},{"startTime":1196.22,"endTime":1197.78,"body":"Daptomycin is one of those antibiotics"},{"startTime":1197.78,"endTime":1199.43,"body":"produced by the streptomyces,"},{"startTime":1199.43,"endTime":1200.66,"body":"that group I just showed you"},{"startTime":1200.66,"endTime":1202.673,"body":"who were killing the other bacillus."},{"startTime":1203.6,"endTime":1205.22,"body":"And streptomyces produces daptomycin."},{"startTime":1205.22,"endTime":1206.84,"body":"And when you look at daptomycin,"},{"startTime":1206.84,"endTime":1208.49,"body":"I think you can breathe a sigh of relief"},{"startTime":1208.49,"endTime":1210.59,"body":"at not having to do this"},{"startTime":1208.49,"endTime":1210.59,"body":"chemistry artificially"},{"startTime":1210.59,"endTime":1212.9,"body":"because this is what"},{"startTime":1210.59,"endTime":1212.9,"body":"daptomycin looks like."},{"startTime":1212.9,"endTime":1215.84,"body":"It is an enormously elaborate molecule,"},{"startTime":1215.84,"endTime":1218.78,"body":"lots of cyclic structures"},{"startTime":1215.84,"endTime":1218.78,"body":"and ring structures"},{"startTime":1218.78,"endTime":1221.36,"body":"and interesting bond dimensions in there."},{"startTime":1221.36,"endTime":1225.08,"body":"A really, really hugely"},{"startTime":1221.36,"endTime":1225.08,"body":"complicated piece of chemistry"},{"startTime":1225.08,"endTime":1227.9,"body":"that's done by a single"},{"startTime":1225.08,"endTime":1227.9,"body":"celled organism in the soil."},{"startTime":1227.9,"endTime":1229.077,"body":"And in fact, if anyone was thinking,"},{"startTime":1229.077,"endTime":1230.99,"body":"\"Oh, this is actually"},{"startTime":1229.077,"endTime":1230.99,"body":"not that complicated,\""},{"startTime":1230.99,"endTime":1234.2,"body":"the artificial synthesis"},{"startTime":1230.99,"endTime":1234.2,"body":"of daptomycin is possible,"},{"startTime":1234.2,"endTime":1236.39,"body":"and I'll give you a quick"},{"startTime":1234.2,"endTime":1236.39,"body":"summary on the next two slides"},{"startTime":1236.39,"endTime":1237.223,"body":"about how you do it."},{"startTime":1237.223,"endTime":1239.0,"body":"So you start here with"},{"startTime":1237.223,"endTime":1239.0,"body":"a bit of an extension"},{"startTime":1239.0,"endTime":1241.34,"body":"of the various peptide"},{"startTime":1239.0,"endTime":1241.34,"body":"length, you recirculize them,"},{"startTime":1241.34,"endTime":1243.95,"body":"here you cross branch them,"},{"startTime":1241.34,"endTime":1243.95,"body":"you extend, nevermind,"},{"startTime":1243.95,"endTime":1245.18,"body":"and there's a whole second page this."},{"startTime":1245.18,"endTime":1249.407,"body":"There is a lot of chemistry"},{"startTime":1245.18,"endTime":1249.407,"body":"involved in producing daptomycin"},{"startTime":1249.407,"endTime":1252.649,"body":"and this would require"},{"startTime":1249.407,"endTime":1252.649,"body":"large teams of chemists,"},{"startTime":1252.649,"endTime":1255.83,"body":"large industrial fabrication"},{"startTime":1252.649,"endTime":1255.83,"body":"facilities to do it."},{"startTime":1255.83,"endTime":1258.14,"body":"And yet a single celled"},{"startTime":1255.83,"endTime":1258.14,"body":"organism growing in the soil"},{"startTime":1258.14,"endTime":1260.81,"body":"does it all the time"},{"startTime":1258.14,"endTime":1260.81,"body":"without thinking about it."},{"startTime":1260.81,"endTime":1262.34,"body":"So I think this is a great example"},{"startTime":1262.34,"endTime":1265.61,"body":"of how microbial chemistry"},{"startTime":1262.34,"endTime":1265.61,"body":"is incredibly powerful,"},{"startTime":1265.61,"endTime":1269.18,"body":"really quite elaborate and"},{"startTime":1265.61,"endTime":1269.18,"body":"actually massively beneficial"},{"startTime":1269.18,"endTime":1271.733,"body":"if we can harness it for our own good."},{"startTime":1276.44,"endTime":1278.51,"body":"So that's a positive story."},{"startTime":1278.51,"endTime":1279.53,"body":"But I wouldn't like you to go away"},{"startTime":1279.53,"endTime":1281.3,"body":"thinking that all microbial chemistry"},{"startTime":1281.3,"endTime":1282.133,"body":"is marvelous for humans"},{"startTime":1282.133,"endTime":1286.4,"body":"'cause, of course, quite a lot"},{"startTime":1282.133,"endTime":1286.4,"body":"of it is not so beneficial."},{"startTime":1286.4,"endTime":1287.72,"body":"And in particular,"},{"startTime":1287.72,"endTime":1291.41,"body":"sometimes microbes direct"},{"startTime":1287.72,"endTime":1291.41,"body":"their efforts at competition,"},{"startTime":1291.41,"endTime":1294.65,"body":"not at other microbes but at ourselves."},{"startTime":1294.65,"endTime":1297.29,"body":"And I think, you know, one"},{"startTime":1294.65,"endTime":1297.29,"body":"of the key examples of that"},{"startTime":1297.29,"endTime":1300.02,"body":"is in the production of toxins."},{"startTime":1300.02,"endTime":1302.87,"body":"Lots of microbes produce toxins."},{"startTime":1302.87,"endTime":1304.13,"body":"I think it's really important,"},{"startTime":1304.13,"endTime":1305.33,"body":"before talking more about these,"},{"startTime":1305.33,"endTime":1306.95,"body":"to realize that they're not doing this"},{"startTime":1306.95,"endTime":1308.75,"body":"just to be deliberately antagonistic."},{"startTime":1308.75,"endTime":1311.24,"body":"I don't think there are"},{"startTime":1308.75,"endTime":1311.24,"body":"bacteria out there that think,"},{"startTime":1311.24,"endTime":1314.0,"body":"you know, my aim in life"},{"startTime":1311.24,"endTime":1314.0,"body":"is to eradicate humanity."},{"startTime":1314.0,"endTime":1317.0,"body":"They're doing this for one of two reasons."},{"startTime":1317.0,"endTime":1317.833,"body":"Either they're doing it"},{"startTime":1317.833,"endTime":1320.42,"body":"because the molecule they're producing"},{"startTime":1320.42,"endTime":1322.73,"body":"is directed at something"},{"startTime":1320.42,"endTime":1322.73,"body":"else, for example,"},{"startTime":1322.73,"endTime":1325.37,"body":"a soil predator that"},{"startTime":1322.73,"endTime":1325.37,"body":"they're trying to kill"},{"startTime":1325.37,"endTime":1327.95,"body":"and it just happens to work on humans,"},{"startTime":1327.95,"endTime":1331.7,"body":"or they're doing it because"},{"startTime":1327.95,"endTime":1331.7,"body":"its symptoms in humans"},{"startTime":1331.7,"endTime":1332.533,"body":"are beneficial."},{"startTime":1332.533,"endTime":1333.89,"body":"And you can think about that, for example,"},{"startTime":1333.89,"endTime":1336.74,"body":"if you are an intestinal pathogen"},{"startTime":1336.74,"endTime":1338.24,"body":"that is transmitted through"},{"startTime":1338.24,"endTime":1340.76,"body":"what we usually call the"},{"startTime":1338.24,"endTime":1340.76,"body":"oral fecal root very nicely."},{"startTime":1340.76,"endTime":1341.78,"body":"In other words, you know,"},{"startTime":1341.78,"endTime":1343.128,"body":"people not washing their hands well"},{"startTime":1343.128,"endTime":1344.54,"body":"after they go to the toilet."},{"startTime":1344.54,"endTime":1347.36,"body":"If you're that kind of bacterial pathogen,"},{"startTime":1347.36,"endTime":1349.46,"body":"it's in your interest to get people to go"},{"startTime":1349.46,"endTime":1350.96,"body":"to the toilet an awful lot."},{"startTime":1350.96,"endTime":1353.93,"body":"So it's not a surprise"},{"startTime":1350.96,"endTime":1353.93,"body":"that intestinal bacteria"},{"startTime":1353.93,"endTime":1357.26,"body":"often create diarrhea"},{"startTime":1353.93,"endTime":1357.26,"body":"and they sometimes do so"},{"startTime":1357.26,"endTime":1358.52,"body":"by the production of toxins."},{"startTime":1358.52,"endTime":1360.92,"body":"But they're not doing it just"},{"startTime":1358.52,"endTime":1360.92,"body":"to make your life miserable,"},{"startTime":1360.92,"endTime":1362.99,"body":"they're doing it because"},{"startTime":1360.92,"endTime":1362.99,"body":"it aids their spread"},{"startTime":1362.99,"endTime":1363.823,"body":"and their persistence."},{"startTime":1363.823,"endTime":1365.9,"body":"So, you know, the next time"},{"startTime":1363.823,"endTime":1365.9,"body":"you're stuck on the toilet"},{"startTime":1365.9,"endTime":1367.97,"body":"thinking, \"Gosh, I wish I"},{"startTime":1365.9,"endTime":1367.97,"body":"hadn't eaten that yesterday,\""},{"startTime":1367.97,"endTime":1369.92,"body":"have a little bit of sympathy"},{"startTime":1367.97,"endTime":1369.92,"body":"for the poor bacteria,"},{"startTime":1369.92,"endTime":1372.12,"body":"it's trying to spread"},{"startTime":1369.92,"endTime":1372.12,"body":"itself as you do that."},{"startTime":1373.58,"endTime":1377.63,"body":"So these toxins that are"},{"startTime":1373.58,"endTime":1377.63,"body":"produced by all sorts of microbes"},{"startTime":1377.63,"endTime":1379.1,"body":"are also in their own right"},{"startTime":1379.1,"endTime":1382.733,"body":"some really interesting examples"},{"startTime":1379.1,"endTime":1382.733,"body":"of fascinating chemistry."},{"startTime":1384.11,"endTime":1388.76,"body":"And I'm going to start with"},{"startTime":1384.11,"endTime":1388.76,"body":"perhaps the most infamous,"},{"startTime":1388.76,"endTime":1390.2,"body":"the infamous toxins out there."},{"startTime":1390.2,"endTime":1393.35,"body":"So this organism is clostridium botulinum,"},{"startTime":1393.35,"endTime":1395.66,"body":"it's a bacteria growing here on a plate."},{"startTime":1395.66,"endTime":1398.06,"body":"And unlike many of the other organisms"},{"startTime":1398.06,"endTime":1399.8,"body":"we've talked about before,"},{"startTime":1399.8,"endTime":1402.41,"body":"this organism is an obligate anaerobic."},{"startTime":1402.41,"endTime":1404.873,"body":"It cannot grow in the presence of oxygen."},{"startTime":1406.01,"endTime":1407.48,"body":"So most of us don't encounter this,"},{"startTime":1407.48,"endTime":1409.73,"body":"it's out in the environment all the time,"},{"startTime":1409.73,"endTime":1411.26,"body":"but we don't really encounter it"},{"startTime":1411.26,"endTime":1413.36,"body":"because we are obligate aerobes,"},{"startTime":1413.36,"endTime":1415.91,"body":"we don't go to places"},{"startTime":1413.36,"endTime":1415.91,"body":"where there's no oxygen."},{"startTime":1415.91,"endTime":1417.71,"body":"And therefore, when we're encountering it,"},{"startTime":1417.71,"endTime":1420.29,"body":"for example in the soil, it's dormant,"},{"startTime":1420.29,"endTime":1423.17,"body":"it looks like this and it"},{"startTime":1420.29,"endTime":1423.17,"body":"produces these little spores"},{"startTime":1423.17,"endTime":1425.66,"body":"that you can see here,"},{"startTime":1423.17,"endTime":1425.66,"body":"that are not not growing,"},{"startTime":1425.66,"endTime":1427.49,"body":"they're not dead, but they're like seeds,"},{"startTime":1427.49,"endTime":1428.99,"body":"they're immobile in the soil,"},{"startTime":1428.99,"endTime":1431.14,"body":"and they're not harmful"},{"startTime":1428.99,"endTime":1431.14,"body":"in their own right."},{"startTime":1432.23,"endTime":1434.87,"body":"And in that state there's no"},{"startTime":1432.23,"endTime":1434.87,"body":"problem with this bacteria."},{"startTime":1434.87,"endTime":1437.0,"body":"However, humans are very smart"},{"startTime":1437.0,"endTime":1438.993,"body":"and we have invented lots"},{"startTime":1437.0,"endTime":1438.993,"body":"of interesting processes."},{"startTime":1438.993,"endTime":1441.023,"body":"And one of the great"},{"startTime":1438.993,"endTime":1441.023,"body":"discoveries of, I guess,"},{"startTime":1441.023,"endTime":1445.82,"body":"100, 150 years ago was"},{"startTime":1441.023,"endTime":1445.82,"body":"preservation of food."},{"startTime":1445.82,"endTime":1449.9,"body":"And what we realized is that"},{"startTime":1445.82,"endTime":1449.9,"body":"if you deprive food of oxygen,"},{"startTime":1449.9,"endTime":1452.66,"body":"it often lasts longer"},{"startTime":1449.9,"endTime":1452.66,"body":"because many of the microbes"},{"startTime":1452.66,"endTime":1455.33,"body":"that spoil food, that rot"},{"startTime":1452.66,"endTime":1455.33,"body":"your apples, or whatever else,"},{"startTime":1455.33,"endTime":1456.92,"body":"require oxygen."},{"startTime":1456.92,"endTime":1458.99,"body":"So many people came up"},{"startTime":1456.92,"endTime":1458.99,"body":"with this clever idea"},{"startTime":1458.99,"endTime":1460.25,"body":"that if you could keep your food"},{"startTime":1460.25,"endTime":1463.13,"body":"in a way that there's no oxygen"},{"startTime":1460.25,"endTime":1463.13,"body":"there, it will last longer."},{"startTime":1463.13,"endTime":1465.11,"body":"For example, if you put it into jars"},{"startTime":1465.11,"endTime":1466.82,"body":"or you put it into cans,"},{"startTime":1466.82,"endTime":1469.34,"body":"like this lady in the 1920s is doing here,"},{"startTime":1469.34,"endTime":1470.9,"body":"that's a very good way of preserving food."},{"startTime":1470.9,"endTime":1471.733,"body":"And they're right,"},{"startTime":1471.733,"endTime":1473.72,"body":"it's a really good way of preserving food."},{"startTime":1473.72,"endTime":1476.84,"body":"Unfortunately, if you have not taken steps"},{"startTime":1476.84,"endTime":1480.65,"body":"to remove this widespread"},{"startTime":1476.84,"endTime":1480.65,"body":"bacteria from those conditions,"},{"startTime":1480.65,"endTime":1483.32,"body":"however, now you've presented clostridium"},{"startTime":1483.32,"endTime":1484.577,"body":"with the perfect conditions to grow in"},{"startTime":1484.577,"endTime":1487.58,"body":"and it will happily do"},{"startTime":1484.577,"endTime":1487.58,"body":"that inside your tin."},{"startTime":1487.58,"endTime":1489.74,"body":"And those of you who are"},{"startTime":1487.58,"endTime":1489.74,"body":"perhaps old enough to remember"},{"startTime":1489.74,"endTime":1492.17,"body":"when we didn't have such"},{"startTime":1489.74,"endTime":1492.17,"body":"stringent controls on things"},{"startTime":1492.17,"endTime":1495.08,"body":"might remember being warned,"},{"startTime":1492.17,"endTime":1495.08,"body":"never eat a tin that's bulging,"},{"startTime":1495.08,"endTime":1496.34,"body":"that's still very good advice by the way."},{"startTime":1496.34,"endTime":1499.73,"body":"If you get a can that is"},{"startTime":1496.34,"endTime":1499.73,"body":"bulging, just don't go there,"},{"startTime":1499.73,"endTime":1501.56,"body":"because one of the reasons it's bulging"},{"startTime":1501.56,"endTime":1504.83,"body":"might be because this bacteria"},{"startTime":1501.56,"endTime":1504.83,"body":"that doesn't like oxygen"},{"startTime":1504.83,"endTime":1506.993,"body":"is growing inside that tin."},{"startTime":1508.31,"endTime":1510.17,"body":"When that bacteria grows,"},{"startTime":1510.17,"endTime":1513.41,"body":"it produces a range of seven toxins"},{"startTime":1513.41,"endTime":1516.17,"body":"that together are called botulinum toxins."},{"startTime":1516.17,"endTime":1517.584,"body":"Each of them are very, very elegant,"},{"startTime":1517.584,"endTime":1520.55,"body":"and this is a beautiful"},{"startTime":1517.584,"endTime":1520.55,"body":"example of one of them."},{"startTime":1520.55,"endTime":1522.86,"body":"This is a protein-based toxin"},{"startTime":1520.55,"endTime":1522.86,"body":"and what you're seeing here"},{"startTime":1522.86,"endTime":1525.29,"body":"is a kind of skeletal"},{"startTime":1522.86,"endTime":1525.29,"body":"diagram of the protein."},{"startTime":1525.29,"endTime":1526.46,"body":"The structure doesn't matter"},{"startTime":1526.46,"endTime":1528.98,"body":"other than I think it"},{"startTime":1526.46,"endTime":1528.98,"body":"looks quite beautiful."},{"startTime":1528.98,"endTime":1530.72,"body":"And this is the most potent toxin,"},{"startTime":1530.72,"endTime":1533.18,"body":"still the most potent"},{"startTime":1530.72,"endTime":1533.18,"body":"toxin that we know of."},{"startTime":1533.18,"endTime":1537.8,"body":"So botulinum toxins A and B"},{"startTime":1533.18,"endTime":1537.8,"body":"are the primary ones in humans,"},{"startTime":1537.8,"endTime":1541.37,"body":"and those toxins are so"},{"startTime":1537.8,"endTime":1541.37,"body":"astronomically toxic,"},{"startTime":1541.37,"endTime":1542.72,"body":"it's quite amazing."},{"startTime":1542.72,"endTime":1544.88,"body":"So in fact the toxicity of these,"},{"startTime":1544.88,"endTime":1547.94,"body":"the lethal dose is about two nanograms"},{"startTime":1547.94,"endTime":1549.92,"body":"per kilogram of body weight."},{"startTime":1549.92,"endTime":1552.51,"body":"So that's two billionths of a gram"},{"startTime":1553.4,"endTime":1554.78,"body":"per kilogram of your body weight."},{"startTime":1554.78,"endTime":1555.98,"body":"So if you are like me,"},{"startTime":1555.98,"endTime":1558.65,"body":"and you know just about the"},{"startTime":1555.98,"endTime":1558.65,"body":"right side of a hundred kilos,"},{"startTime":1558.65,"endTime":1559.82,"body":"that's a really small amount."},{"startTime":1559.82,"endTime":1562.43,"body":"In fact, I shall use my same"},{"startTime":1559.82,"endTime":1562.43,"body":"prop to demonstrate how small."},{"startTime":1562.43,"endTime":1565.01,"body":"So if I dip my finger in"},{"startTime":1562.43,"endTime":1565.01,"body":"here and get, I don't know,"},{"startTime":1565.01,"endTime":1567.68,"body":"like three sugar crystals on here,"},{"startTime":1567.68,"endTime":1569.69,"body":"if this was botulinum toxin,"},{"startTime":1569.69,"endTime":1570.89,"body":"this would be more than enough"},{"startTime":1570.89,"endTime":1573.08,"body":"to kill all of us in the room."},{"startTime":1573.08,"endTime":1575.17,"body":"And in fact this bag of sugar here,"},{"startTime":1575.17,"endTime":1579.14,"body":"if this was not sugar but a one"},{"startTime":1575.17,"endTime":1579.14,"body":"kilo bag of botulinum toxin,"},{"startTime":1579.14,"endTime":1581.63,"body":"I would have in my hand"},{"startTime":1579.14,"endTime":1581.63,"body":"more than enough poison"},{"startTime":1581.63,"endTime":1584.303,"body":"to eradicate humanity worldwide easily."},{"startTime":1585.56,"endTime":1588.29,"body":"This is an incredibly potent toxin,"},{"startTime":1588.29,"endTime":1589.97,"body":"one of the most dangerous"},{"startTime":1588.29,"endTime":1589.97,"body":"toxins we know of,"},{"startTime":1589.97,"endTime":1593.66,"body":"and yet it still has"},{"startTime":1589.97,"endTime":1593.66,"body":"some beneficial purpose"},{"startTime":1593.66,"endTime":1595.28,"body":"'cause it is this toxin,"},{"startTime":1595.28,"endTime":1597.05,"body":"that if you are worried"},{"startTime":1595.28,"endTime":1597.05,"body":"about your wrinkles,"},{"startTime":1597.05,"endTime":1600.98,"body":"you can get injected in very,"},{"startTime":1597.05,"endTime":1600.98,"body":"very low dose into your face"},{"startTime":1600.98,"endTime":1604.013,"body":"to improve or reduce your wrinkles."},{"startTime":1604.99,"endTime":1608.24,"body":"And the reason for that is this"},{"startTime":1604.99,"endTime":1608.24,"body":"is a very potent neurotoxin."},{"startTime":1608.24,"endTime":1611.0,"body":"The way it works is you have, obviously,"},{"startTime":1611.0,"endTime":1613.43,"body":"in your body a nervous"},{"startTime":1611.0,"endTime":1613.43,"body":"system composed of nerves."},{"startTime":1613.43,"endTime":1616.4,"body":"And if you imagine a nerve"},{"startTime":1613.43,"endTime":1616.4,"body":"as being long and stringy,"},{"startTime":1616.4,"endTime":1617.93,"body":"those of you who might"},{"startTime":1616.4,"endTime":1617.93,"body":"remember this from school,"},{"startTime":1617.93,"endTime":1619.88,"body":"you know your typical"},{"startTime":1617.93,"endTime":1619.88,"body":"nerve has a long axon"},{"startTime":1619.88,"endTime":1621.77,"body":"and these kind of finger-like dendrites."},{"startTime":1621.77,"endTime":1623.33,"body":"And if you imagine, for example,"},{"startTime":1623.33,"endTime":1626.0,"body":"the nerves that go down my leg,"},{"startTime":1626.0,"endTime":1627.56,"body":"they're end to end like this."},{"startTime":1627.56,"endTime":1630.83,"body":"So my brain sends a"},{"startTime":1627.56,"endTime":1630.83,"body":"command to my leg to move"},{"startTime":1630.83,"endTime":1633.86,"body":"and what happens is the"},{"startTime":1630.83,"endTime":1633.86,"body":"nerve sends an impulse down,"},{"startTime":1633.86,"endTime":1636.35,"body":"when it reaches the end of one nerve cell,"},{"startTime":1636.35,"endTime":1638.15,"body":"it releases a neurotransmitter"},{"startTime":1638.15,"endTime":1641.24,"body":"that crosses to the start"},{"startTime":1638.15,"endTime":1641.24,"body":"of the next nerve cell"},{"startTime":1641.24,"endTime":1644.45,"body":"and continues that signal"},{"startTime":1641.24,"endTime":1644.45,"body":"down and so on and so forth."},{"startTime":1644.45,"endTime":1646.76,"body":"So for my brain to tell my foot to move,"},{"startTime":1646.76,"endTime":1649.46,"body":"there's a whole series of"},{"startTime":1646.76,"endTime":1649.46,"body":"these end-to-end communications"},{"startTime":1649.46,"endTime":1650.293,"body":"that happen."},{"startTime":1651.17,"endTime":1652.91,"body":"To cross that junction,"},{"startTime":1652.91,"endTime":1654.71,"body":"they release what's"},{"startTime":1652.91,"endTime":1654.71,"body":"called a neurotransmitter."},{"startTime":1654.71,"endTime":1656.66,"body":"So a molecule is released from this nerve,"},{"startTime":1656.66,"endTime":1659.03,"body":"it crosses the gap and"},{"startTime":1656.66,"endTime":1659.03,"body":"tells the next nerve,"},{"startTime":1659.03,"endTime":1660.38,"body":"time to move the signal on."},{"startTime":1661.306,"endTime":1664.84,"body":"What this toxin does is"},{"startTime":1661.306,"endTime":1664.84,"body":"it prevents the release"},{"startTime":1664.84,"endTime":1666.29,"body":"of that neurotransmitter."},{"startTime":1666.29,"endTime":1669.47,"body":"So although my brain tells"},{"startTime":1666.29,"endTime":1669.47,"body":"my leg it's time to move now,"},{"startTime":1669.47,"endTime":1670.7,"body":"the nerve takes the signal down"},{"startTime":1670.7,"endTime":1673.55,"body":"but it cannot release that"},{"startTime":1670.7,"endTime":1673.55,"body":"signal to the next nerve"},{"startTime":1673.55,"endTime":1676.22,"body":"and you end up with what's"},{"startTime":1673.55,"endTime":1676.22,"body":"called flacid paralysis."},{"startTime":1676.22,"endTime":1677.48,"body":"In other words, you're totally paralyzed"},{"startTime":1677.48,"endTime":1678.313,"body":"and that's why you die"},{"startTime":1678.313,"endTime":1679.79,"body":"because all the nerves in your body"},{"startTime":1679.79,"endTime":1681.203,"body":"fail to communicate this."},{"startTime":1682.13,"endTime":1684.02,"body":"But used very, very accurately"},{"startTime":1684.02,"endTime":1686.27,"body":"under careful medical"},{"startTime":1684.02,"endTime":1686.27,"body":"guidance in a very low dose,"},{"startTime":1686.27,"endTime":1688.19,"body":"what you can do is use the same trick"},{"startTime":1688.19,"endTime":1691.31,"body":"to paralyze individual"},{"startTime":1688.19,"endTime":1691.31,"body":"nerves in your face."},{"startTime":1691.31,"endTime":1693.41,"body":"And for those of you who are"},{"startTime":1691.31,"endTime":1693.41,"body":"like me reaching a certain age"},{"startTime":1693.41,"endTime":1694.287,"body":"where you look in the mirror and think,"},{"startTime":1694.287,"endTime":1696.35,"body":"\"Gosh, there's more texture in that face"},{"startTime":1696.35,"endTime":1697.91,"body":"than there used to be,\""},{"startTime":1697.91,"endTime":1699.897,"body":"that texture is because I've"},{"startTime":1697.91,"endTime":1699.897,"body":"got muscles that are kind of,"},{"startTime":1699.897,"endTime":1702.17,"body":"you know, I like to think"},{"startTime":1699.897,"endTime":1702.17,"body":"they're smiling all the time,"},{"startTime":1702.17,"endTime":1704.0,"body":"but there are lots of"},{"startTime":1702.17,"endTime":1704.0,"body":"muscles clenching in my face"},{"startTime":1704.0,"endTime":1705.77,"body":"all the time creating those wrinkles."},{"startTime":1705.77,"endTime":1709.1,"body":"If you paralyze them, your"},{"startTime":1705.77,"endTime":1709.1,"body":"skin drops out smoothly,"},{"startTime":1709.1,"endTime":1710.57,"body":"and you look years younger allegedly,"},{"startTime":1710.57,"endTime":1712.67,"body":"I haven't tried it, and"},{"startTime":1710.57,"endTime":1712.67,"body":"it works very effectively."},{"startTime":1712.67,"endTime":1715.25,"body":"Of course, if you overdose,"},{"startTime":1712.67,"endTime":1715.25,"body":"that's pretty disastrous."},{"startTime":1715.25,"endTime":1717.68,"body":"But if you use very, very cautiously,"},{"startTime":1717.68,"endTime":1720.02,"body":"even a really potent toxin like this"},{"startTime":1720.02,"endTime":1721.463,"body":"can have strong benefits."},{"startTime":1723.62,"endTime":1725.69,"body":"It's by far and away not"},{"startTime":1723.62,"endTime":1725.69,"body":"the only microbial toxin."},{"startTime":1725.69,"endTime":1728.51,"body":"There are lots and lots of"},{"startTime":1725.69,"endTime":1728.51,"body":"really interesting toxins"},{"startTime":1728.51,"endTime":1730.58,"body":"produced by all sorts of microbes."},{"startTime":1730.58,"endTime":1733.43,"body":"So this obviously is the"},{"startTime":1730.58,"endTime":1733.43,"body":"fruiting body of a microbe,"},{"startTime":1733.43,"endTime":1735.38,"body":"this is the death cap mushroom."},{"startTime":1735.38,"endTime":1737.06,"body":"But, as you know already,"},{"startTime":1737.06,"endTime":1738.38,"body":"all mushrooms and toes stools"},{"startTime":1738.38,"endTime":1741.71,"body":"have these microscopic underground"},{"startTime":1738.38,"endTime":1741.71,"body":"mycelia that are growing,"},{"startTime":1741.71,"endTime":1743.54,"body":"whereas actually the bulk of the organism,"},{"startTime":1743.54,"endTime":1746.12,"body":"this is just the fruit"},{"startTime":1743.54,"endTime":1746.12,"body":"that comes at the top."},{"startTime":1746.12,"endTime":1748.46,"body":"The death cap mushroom is"},{"startTime":1746.12,"endTime":1748.46,"body":"one of the leading causes"},{"startTime":1748.46,"endTime":1751.07,"body":"of poisoning by mushrooms"},{"startTime":1748.46,"endTime":1751.07,"body":"'cause it looks superficially"},{"startTime":1751.07,"endTime":1753.53,"body":"like many of the mushrooms that we eat."},{"startTime":1753.53,"endTime":1755.9,"body":"But inside this fruiting body"},{"startTime":1755.9,"endTime":1759.56,"body":"is produced a rather elegant"},{"startTime":1755.9,"endTime":1759.56,"body":"chemical here, alpha amanitin."},{"startTime":1759.56,"endTime":1762.65,"body":"Again, you see this really"},{"startTime":1759.56,"endTime":1762.65,"body":"quite elaborate chemistry here"},{"startTime":1762.65,"endTime":1764.84,"body":"and this is an extremely potent toxin."},{"startTime":1764.84,"endTime":1768.35,"body":"This particular one works by"},{"startTime":1764.84,"endTime":1768.35,"body":"blocking a very early step"},{"startTime":1768.35,"endTime":1769.79,"body":"when you want to produce proteins."},{"startTime":1769.79,"endTime":1772.94,"body":"So when you want to, for"},{"startTime":1769.79,"endTime":1772.94,"body":"example, express from your DNA"},{"startTime":1772.94,"endTime":1774.71,"body":"a protein that you're going"},{"startTime":1772.94,"endTime":1774.71,"body":"to need for something,"},{"startTime":1774.71,"endTime":1778.01,"body":"cell division for example,"},{"startTime":1774.71,"endTime":1778.01,"body":"this toxin blocks that process."},{"startTime":1778.01,"endTime":1781.01,"body":"And so it is very lethal because"},{"startTime":1778.01,"endTime":1781.01,"body":"you essentially shut down"},{"startTime":1781.01,"endTime":1784.103,"body":"your cellular protein production"},{"startTime":1781.01,"endTime":1784.103,"body":"machinery very early on."},{"startTime":1786.26,"endTime":1787.52,"body":"Much less elegant to look at,"},{"startTime":1787.52,"endTime":1789.59,"body":"but actually even more"},{"startTime":1787.52,"endTime":1789.59,"body":"insidious, this little chap here,"},{"startTime":1789.59,"endTime":1793.37,"body":"the black dots, this is"},{"startTime":1789.59,"endTime":1793.37,"body":"ergot claviceps purpurea,"},{"startTime":1793.37,"endTime":1796.85,"body":"this is also a fungus, not quite"},{"startTime":1793.37,"endTime":1796.85,"body":"as spectacular as this one,"},{"startTime":1796.85,"endTime":1799.34,"body":"that grows on some grain crops."},{"startTime":1799.34,"endTime":1804.02,"body":"And this has been historically"},{"startTime":1799.34,"endTime":1804.02,"body":"a big cause of food problems"},{"startTime":1804.02,"endTime":1807.32,"body":"for humanity because this"},{"startTime":1804.02,"endTime":1807.32,"body":"fungus produces a toxin"},{"startTime":1807.32,"endTime":1810.5,"body":"called ergotamine, which looks like this."},{"startTime":1810.5,"endTime":1812.15,"body":"And this is a toxin that, again,"},{"startTime":1812.15,"endTime":1813.71,"body":"is affecting your nervous system."},{"startTime":1813.71,"endTime":1817.37,"body":"It causes severe paralysis"},{"startTime":1813.71,"endTime":1817.37,"body":"of the nervous system"},{"startTime":1817.37,"endTime":1820.55,"body":"and it leads to what used to"},{"startTime":1817.37,"endTime":1820.55,"body":"be thought of as a disease"},{"startTime":1820.55,"endTime":1822.8,"body":"that was called St."},{"startTime":1820.55,"endTime":1822.8,"body":"Anthony's fire actually,"},{"startTime":1822.8,"endTime":1824.81,"body":"because one of the very"},{"startTime":1822.8,"endTime":1824.81,"body":"unpleasant symptoms"},{"startTime":1824.81,"endTime":1828.86,"body":"of a ergotamine poisoning is"},{"startTime":1824.81,"endTime":1828.86,"body":"a appalling burning sensation"},{"startTime":1828.86,"endTime":1830.51,"body":"all over your body as your nerves"},{"startTime":1830.51,"endTime":1831.83,"body":"essentially go into overdrive"},{"startTime":1831.83,"endTime":1834.23,"body":"and tell you that very"},{"startTime":1831.83,"endTime":1834.23,"body":"bad things are happening."},{"startTime":1835.16,"endTime":1837.23,"body":"Both of these toxins, highly specific,"},{"startTime":1837.23,"endTime":1840.14,"body":"really very detailed molecularly"},{"startTime":1840.14,"endTime":1842.843,"body":"and a really smart bit of"},{"startTime":1840.14,"endTime":1842.843,"body":"chemistry done by a microbe."},{"startTime":1845.33,"endTime":1848.27,"body":"These toxins are relatively blunt tools"},{"startTime":1848.27,"endTime":1851.12,"body":"in the sense that if you give"},{"startTime":1848.27,"endTime":1851.12,"body":"someone a botulinum toxin,"},{"startTime":1851.12,"endTime":1852.74,"body":"you know, there's a one way to get"},{"startTime":1852.74,"endTime":1854.27,"body":"and it's not going to get better."},{"startTime":1854.27,"endTime":1855.59,"body":"But one of the really interesting things"},{"startTime":1855.59,"endTime":1858.5,"body":"about some microbe your"},{"startTime":1855.59,"endTime":1858.5,"body":"toxins is their precision"},{"startTime":1858.5,"endTime":1859.7,"body":"or their combination."},{"startTime":1859.7,"endTime":1862.55,"body":"Not all toxins are always"},{"startTime":1859.7,"endTime":1862.55,"body":"toxic, for example."},{"startTime":1862.55,"endTime":1865.151,"body":"And this is one of my favorite examples,"},{"startTime":1865.151,"endTime":1866.75,"body":"it's recently changed its name,"},{"startTime":1866.75,"endTime":1870.29,"body":"this is coprinopsis atramentaria, I think,"},{"startTime":1870.29,"endTime":1872.147,"body":"which is an ink cap fungus,"},{"startTime":1872.147,"endTime":1873.74,"body":"and you can see why it's called ink cap"},{"startTime":1873.74,"endTime":1876.863,"body":"'cause it has this kind"},{"startTime":1873.74,"endTime":1876.863,"body":"of black sticky surface."},{"startTime":1878.18,"endTime":1881.54,"body":"This guy produces another"},{"startTime":1878.18,"endTime":1881.54,"body":"toxin, coprine, up here,"},{"startTime":1881.54,"endTime":1883.7,"body":"a fairly simple molecule actually,"},{"startTime":1883.7,"endTime":1885.71,"body":"and on its own, this is not toxic at all."},{"startTime":1885.71,"endTime":1887.9,"body":"You can go out and eat these,"},{"startTime":1885.71,"endTime":1887.9,"body":"I wouldn't recommend it,"},{"startTime":1887.9,"endTime":1890.81,"body":"but you can, and you'll be perfectly safe."},{"startTime":1890.81,"endTime":1894.26,"body":"Unless you choose to"},{"startTime":1890.81,"endTime":1894.26,"body":"eat these in conjunction"},{"startTime":1894.26,"endTime":1896.51,"body":"with an nice glass of wine or a beer"},{"startTime":1896.51,"endTime":1899.0,"body":"because this is a very neat chemical."},{"startTime":1899.0,"endTime":1900.98,"body":"It is not in itself toxic,"},{"startTime":1900.98,"endTime":1904.31,"body":"but it is a very potent blocker inhibitor"},{"startTime":1904.31,"endTime":1906.89,"body":"of acetaldehyde dehydrogenase,"},{"startTime":1906.89,"endTime":1908.75,"body":"which is the enzyme that you need"},{"startTime":1908.75,"endTime":1911.3,"body":"to detoxify the poisonous products"},{"startTime":1911.3,"endTime":1913.91,"body":"that are created by ethanol in your body."},{"startTime":1913.91,"endTime":1915.95,"body":"So if you drink on its own, you're fine."},{"startTime":1915.95,"endTime":1917.12,"body":"If you eat this on its own, you're fine."},{"startTime":1917.12,"endTime":1918.53,"body":"If you put the two together,"},{"startTime":1918.53,"endTime":1921.56,"body":"this molecule stops you"},{"startTime":1918.53,"endTime":1921.56,"body":"being able to detoxify this"},{"startTime":1921.56,"endTime":1923.93,"body":"and what was previously"},{"startTime":1921.56,"endTime":1923.93,"body":"a harmless pint of beer"},{"startTime":1923.93,"endTime":1926.813,"body":"is now potentially a"},{"startTime":1923.93,"endTime":1926.813,"body":"lethal source of poison."},{"startTime":1928.7,"endTime":1931.28,"body":"That combinatorial chemistry, if you like,"},{"startTime":1931.28,"endTime":1933.53,"body":"that use of a toxin with some other thing"},{"startTime":1933.53,"endTime":1936.32,"body":"is kind of a common theme in microbiology."},{"startTime":1936.32,"endTime":1939.53,"body":"And I think one of the"},{"startTime":1936.32,"endTime":1939.53,"body":"neatest examples of that"},{"startTime":1939.53,"endTime":1941.75,"body":"comes from a bacteria"},{"startTime":1941.75,"endTime":1946.1,"body":"and this bacteria is the green thing here."},{"startTime":1946.1,"endTime":1950.21,"body":"So this has a beautiful name"},{"startTime":1946.1,"endTime":1950.21,"body":"vibrio parahaemolyticus,"},{"startTime":1950.21,"endTime":1952.64,"body":"and it is this little green"},{"startTime":1950.21,"endTime":1952.64,"body":"chap that is responsible,"},{"startTime":1952.64,"endTime":1955.94,"body":"if anyone has suffered this,"},{"startTime":1952.64,"endTime":1955.94,"body":"for acute shellfish poisoning."},{"startTime":1955.94,"endTime":1958.297,"body":"So this is the thing that often"},{"startTime":1955.94,"endTime":1958.297,"body":"people have had, you know,"},{"startTime":1958.297,"endTime":1962.45,"body":"prawns or oysters or something,"},{"startTime":1958.297,"endTime":1962.45,"body":"and within a few hours,"},{"startTime":1962.45,"endTime":1964.31,"body":"you know that something was not right."},{"startTime":1964.31,"endTime":1966.32,"body":"You have serious, serious diarrhea"},{"startTime":1966.32,"endTime":1968.24,"body":"and you are in a bit of a miserable way."},{"startTime":1968.24,"endTime":1970.34,"body":"And that is often because this organism,"},{"startTime":1970.34,"endTime":1972.41,"body":"which lives in marine environments,"},{"startTime":1972.41,"endTime":1974.873,"body":"has set up home instead in your intestine."},{"startTime":1976.19,"endTime":1978.71,"body":"And what vibrio parahaemolyticus does"},{"startTime":1978.71,"endTime":1980.72,"body":"is it sticks to your intestinal cells,"},{"startTime":1980.72,"endTime":1983.72,"body":"so here are intestinal cells in red."},{"startTime":1983.72,"endTime":1987.5,"body":"It sticks to them and then"},{"startTime":1983.72,"endTime":1987.5,"body":"it injects into your cells"},{"startTime":1987.5,"endTime":1990.68,"body":"a series of proteins that it needs"},{"startTime":1990.68,"endTime":1992.99,"body":"to do what it needs to do to replicate."},{"startTime":1992.99,"endTime":1996.74,"body":"But unfortunately, which then"},{"startTime":1992.99,"endTime":1996.74,"body":"leads to quite a lot of damage"},{"startTime":1996.74,"endTime":1998.18,"body":"and death of your intestinal cells,"},{"startTime":1998.18,"endTime":1999.35,"body":"which is why you get this, you know,"},{"startTime":1999.35,"endTime":2001.84,"body":"horrendous diarrhea as"},{"startTime":1999.35,"endTime":2001.84,"body":"your intestinal layer"},{"startTime":2001.84,"endTime":2003.373,"body":"is stripped off essentially."},{"startTime":2004.96,"endTime":2008.29,"body":"To do that, like any kind of good doctor,"},{"startTime":2008.29,"endTime":2010.96,"body":"vibrio needs a syringe"},{"startTime":2008.29,"endTime":2010.96,"body":"to inject things with"},{"startTime":2010.96,"endTime":2013.87,"body":"and it creates a syringe, which"},{"startTime":2010.96,"endTime":2013.87,"body":"you can just about see here."},{"startTime":2013.87,"endTime":2017.47,"body":"This is an electron microscope"},{"startTime":2013.87,"endTime":2017.47,"body":"image of the syringes,"},{"startTime":2017.47,"endTime":2019.84,"body":"they're called type"},{"startTime":2017.47,"endTime":2019.84,"body":"three secretion system."},{"startTime":2019.84,"endTime":2021.55,"body":"And it looks a little bit like a syringe,"},{"startTime":2021.55,"endTime":2023.77,"body":"I think, you can agree, it"},{"startTime":2021.55,"endTime":2023.77,"body":"looks like the kind of thing,"},{"startTime":2023.77,"endTime":2026.89,"body":"a needle that you might want"},{"startTime":2023.77,"endTime":2026.89,"body":"to inject something with."},{"startTime":2026.89,"endTime":2030.58,"body":"These are very complicated"},{"startTime":2026.89,"endTime":2030.58,"body":"molecular machines"},{"startTime":2030.58,"endTime":2033.1,"body":"that assemble on the surfaces of bacteria"},{"startTime":2033.1,"endTime":2035.71,"body":"and then inject proteins into human cells."},{"startTime":2035.71,"endTime":2038.08,"body":"A really neat piece of biology,"},{"startTime":2038.08,"endTime":2041.14,"body":"but actually a really expensive"},{"startTime":2038.08,"endTime":2041.14,"body":"piece of biology to create,"},{"startTime":2041.14,"endTime":2042.04,"body":"if you are a bacteria."},{"startTime":2042.04,"endTime":2045.1,"body":"It takes a lot of energy"},{"startTime":2042.04,"endTime":2045.1,"body":"and a lot of production"},{"startTime":2045.1,"endTime":2047.17,"body":"to make one of these things."},{"startTime":2047.17,"endTime":2049.21,"body":"So you don't actually want"},{"startTime":2047.17,"endTime":2049.21,"body":"to do that all the time."},{"startTime":2049.21,"endTime":2053.241,"body":"If you are sat in your prawn"},{"startTime":2049.21,"endTime":2053.241,"body":"out in the North Atlantic"},{"startTime":2053.241,"endTime":2055.24,"body":"and you don't need to do this at all,"},{"startTime":2055.24,"endTime":2058.6,"body":"you don't want to be wasting"},{"startTime":2055.24,"endTime":2058.6,"body":"energy producing a needle"},{"startTime":2058.6,"endTime":2059.8,"body":"you're never going to need."},{"startTime":2061.224,"endTime":2063.73,"body":"And so to avoid that waste,"},{"startTime":2061.224,"endTime":2063.73,"body":"what vibrio has done,"},{"startTime":2063.73,"endTime":2066.67,"body":"has combined this very"},{"startTime":2063.73,"endTime":2066.67,"body":"elaborate toxin system"},{"startTime":2066.67,"endTime":2068.35,"body":"with a really neat trigger."},{"startTime":2068.35,"endTime":2071.89,"body":"And the trigger is a molecule"},{"startTime":2068.35,"endTime":2071.89,"body":"here, another protein, VNTR,"},{"startTime":2071.89,"endTime":2075.07,"body":"which sits on the surface of the bacteria"},{"startTime":2075.07,"endTime":2078.25,"body":"and it's a sensor and it's"},{"startTime":2075.07,"endTime":2078.25,"body":"looking for something."},{"startTime":2078.25,"endTime":2081.37,"body":"And what it's looking for is"},{"startTime":2078.25,"endTime":2081.37,"body":"a tiny little green molecule"},{"startTime":2081.37,"endTime":2082.63,"body":"that you see here."},{"startTime":2082.63,"endTime":2085.69,"body":"This is a bile salt, a human bile salt."},{"startTime":2085.69,"endTime":2088.612,"body":"And these are the things that"},{"startTime":2085.69,"endTime":2088.612,"body":"you produce in your intestine"},{"startTime":2088.612,"endTime":2092.141,"body":"to help with digestion essentially."},{"startTime":2092.141,"endTime":2094.201,"body":"Those of you who like William Shakespeare"},{"startTime":2094.201,"endTime":2096.76,"body":"will remember all these crates about bile"},{"startTime":2096.76,"endTime":2098.98,"body":"as in the kind of the"},{"startTime":2096.76,"endTime":2098.98,"body":"black nasty noxious stuff"},{"startTime":2098.98,"endTime":2100.6,"body":"in your intestine."},{"startTime":2100.6,"endTime":2102.73,"body":"But bile salts are a really important part"},{"startTime":2102.73,"endTime":2105.133,"body":"of helping us to digest our food."},{"startTime":2106.03,"endTime":2108.94,"body":"What vibrio has done here is it's realized"},{"startTime":2108.94,"endTime":2112.0,"body":"that bile salts are not"},{"startTime":2108.94,"endTime":2112.0,"body":"present out in the environment,"},{"startTime":2112.0,"endTime":2114.07,"body":"they are present in intestines."},{"startTime":2114.07,"endTime":2116.65,"body":"So if you wait until you see a bile salt,"},{"startTime":2116.65,"endTime":2118.48,"body":"then you know you're in the right place"},{"startTime":2118.48,"endTime":2120.64,"body":"to produce this really expensive machine"},{"startTime":2120.64,"endTime":2122.23,"body":"and generate all those toxins."},{"startTime":2122.23,"endTime":2124.0,"body":"So it doesn't do any of this"},{"startTime":2124.0,"endTime":2126.593,"body":"until it senses a bile"},{"startTime":2124.0,"endTime":2126.593,"body":"salt in the first place."},{"startTime":2126.593,"endTime":2128.683,"body":"A very neat bit of trickery."},{"startTime":2129.79,"endTime":2132.97,"body":"And this I think is also kind"},{"startTime":2129.79,"endTime":2132.97,"body":"of an interesting opportunity"},{"startTime":2132.97,"endTime":2134.29,"body":"for us medically"},{"startTime":2134.29,"endTime":2135.94,"body":"because essentially what we're saying"},{"startTime":2135.94,"endTime":2138.58,"body":"is that until it senses a bile salt,"},{"startTime":2138.58,"endTime":2141.7,"body":"this bacteria is harmless,"},{"startTime":2138.58,"endTime":2141.7,"body":"it's not producing a toxin."},{"startTime":2141.7,"endTime":2142.96,"body":"So if we could, for example,"},{"startTime":2142.96,"endTime":2145.96,"body":"develop a way to trick"},{"startTime":2142.96,"endTime":2145.96,"body":"it into not realizing"},{"startTime":2145.96,"endTime":2147.64,"body":"that it's in the human intestine,"},{"startTime":2147.64,"endTime":2150.34,"body":"you might be able to eat"},{"startTime":2147.64,"endTime":2150.34,"body":"even contaminated shellfish"},{"startTime":2150.34,"endTime":2152.77,"body":"without any problem at all"},{"startTime":2150.34,"endTime":2152.77,"body":"because they go straight through"},{"startTime":2152.77,"endTime":2154.84,"body":"without producing the"},{"startTime":2152.77,"endTime":2154.84,"body":"toxin in the first place."},{"startTime":2154.84,"endTime":2156.13,"body":"I think that's a long way off,"},{"startTime":2156.13,"endTime":2157.24,"body":"but an interesting example"},{"startTime":2157.24,"endTime":2158.8,"body":"of how learning a bit of chemistry"},{"startTime":2158.8,"endTime":2161.35,"body":"might help us deal with"},{"startTime":2158.8,"endTime":2161.35,"body":"kind of real world problem."},{"startTime":2166.57,"endTime":2167.77,"body":"So we've talked a bit about toxins,"},{"startTime":2167.77,"endTime":2169.81,"body":"we've talked about some of"},{"startTime":2167.77,"endTime":2169.81,"body":"the beneficial molecules,"},{"startTime":2169.81,"endTime":2172.03,"body":"like antibiotics that microbes produce."},{"startTime":2172.03,"endTime":2173.59,"body":"For the last few minutes what I want to do"},{"startTime":2173.59,"endTime":2176.56,"body":"is turn our attention"},{"startTime":2173.59,"endTime":2176.56,"body":"to some of the things"},{"startTime":2176.56,"endTime":2177.46,"body":"that they can create,"},{"startTime":2177.46,"endTime":2179.68,"body":"some of the materials they can create"},{"startTime":2179.68,"endTime":2181.36,"body":"and some of the potential, I think,"},{"startTime":2181.36,"endTime":2185.293,"body":"which is huge for future"},{"startTime":2181.36,"endTime":2185.293,"body":"chemistry using microbes."},{"startTime":2186.31,"endTime":2188.32,"body":"And the reason for this"},{"startTime":2186.31,"endTime":2188.32,"body":"is because microbes,"},{"startTime":2188.32,"endTime":2190.39,"body":"we are only just scratching the surface"},{"startTime":2190.39,"endTime":2191.71,"body":"of the kind of chemistries"},{"startTime":2190.39,"endTime":2191.71,"body":"that are out there."},{"startTime":2191.71,"endTime":2193.18,"body":"I mentioned before that, you know,"},{"startTime":2193.18,"endTime":2194.65,"body":"the whole field of antibiotics"},{"startTime":2194.65,"endTime":2196.48,"body":"is only about a hundred years old."},{"startTime":2196.48,"endTime":2199.09,"body":"In that time we have"},{"startTime":2196.48,"endTime":2199.09,"body":"discovered tens of molecules,"},{"startTime":2199.09,"endTime":2203.62,"body":"saved millions of lives just"},{"startTime":2199.09,"endTime":2203.62,"body":"by essentially looking in soil."},{"startTime":2203.62,"endTime":2206.14,"body":"Today we have all these"},{"startTime":2203.62,"endTime":2206.14,"body":"amazing techniques."},{"startTime":2206.14,"endTime":2208.96,"body":"We have mass genomics,"},{"startTime":2206.14,"endTime":2208.96,"body":"you can take sea water,"},{"startTime":2208.96,"endTime":2210.91,"body":"you can sequence all the DNA in sea water"},{"startTime":2210.91,"endTime":2212.17,"body":"and work out what's there."},{"startTime":2212.17,"endTime":2213.64,"body":"We can take human intestines,"},{"startTime":2213.64,"endTime":2216.25,"body":"and we can look at the kind"},{"startTime":2213.64,"endTime":2216.25,"body":"of feces you have in there"},{"startTime":2216.25,"endTime":2219.04,"body":"and realize that there"},{"startTime":2216.25,"endTime":2219.04,"body":"are literally hundreds"},{"startTime":2219.04,"endTime":2221.32,"body":"and hundreds of species"},{"startTime":2219.04,"endTime":2221.32,"body":"living in human intestines"},{"startTime":2221.32,"endTime":2224.5,"body":"that we have never previously identified."},{"startTime":2224.5,"endTime":2226.21,"body":"So I think it's reasonable to assume"},{"startTime":2226.21,"endTime":2228.16,"body":"that if there are hundreds, thousands,"},{"startTime":2228.16,"endTime":2230.98,"body":"probably tens of thousands"},{"startTime":2228.16,"endTime":2230.98,"body":"of undiscovered species,"},{"startTime":2230.98,"endTime":2233.11,"body":"there are also hundreds, thousands,"},{"startTime":2233.11,"endTime":2235.84,"body":"tens of thousands of undiscovered"},{"startTime":2233.11,"endTime":2235.84,"body":"chemistries out there,"},{"startTime":2235.84,"endTime":2239.05,"body":"some of which might be useful to humanity."},{"startTime":2239.05,"endTime":2240.97,"body":"And I've got some"},{"startTime":2239.05,"endTime":2240.97,"body":"confidence in saying that"},{"startTime":2240.97,"endTime":2243.49,"body":"because we know it's starting to be true."},{"startTime":2243.49,"endTime":2244.63,"body":"So for example,"},{"startTime":2244.63,"endTime":2248.32,"body":"a few years ago people discovered"},{"startTime":2244.63,"endTime":2248.32,"body":"some microbial chemistry"},{"startTime":2248.32,"endTime":2252.04,"body":"that has the potential to solve"},{"startTime":2248.32,"endTime":2252.04,"body":"one of the largest problems"},{"startTime":2252.04,"endTime":2255.13,"body":"of our time that of plastic waste."},{"startTime":2255.13,"endTime":2256.33,"body":"So this is a typical image"},{"startTime":2256.33,"endTime":2258.34,"body":"that I'm sure all of you"},{"startTime":2256.33,"endTime":2258.34,"body":"are now familiar with,"},{"startTime":2258.34,"endTime":2260.62,"body":"of, you know, the mass of plastics,"},{"startTime":2260.62,"endTime":2262.69,"body":"both macro plastics like these"},{"startTime":2262.69,"endTime":2266.41,"body":"and micro-plastics the ones"},{"startTime":2262.69,"endTime":2266.41,"body":"you can't see in seawater,"},{"startTime":2266.41,"endTime":2269.23,"body":"in soils, in pristine environments."},{"startTime":2269.23,"endTime":2272.23,"body":"And that is because"},{"startTime":2269.23,"endTime":2272.23,"body":"plastics, by and large,"},{"startTime":2272.23,"endTime":2274.0,"body":"are not biodegradable,"},{"startTime":2274.0,"endTime":2276.493,"body":"and in particular a"},{"startTime":2274.0,"endTime":2276.493,"body":"big problem one is PET,"},{"startTime":2278.32,"endTime":2279.82,"body":"polyethylene terephthalate,"},{"startTime":2279.82,"endTime":2281.77,"body":"which is the plastic that is used"},{"startTime":2281.77,"endTime":2285.46,"body":"to make disposable water bottles"},{"startTime":2281.77,"endTime":2285.46,"body":"and those kind of things."},{"startTime":2285.46,"endTime":2287.5,"body":"It's a really, really useful material"},{"startTime":2287.5,"endTime":2289.6,"body":"but unfortunately doesn't break down"},{"startTime":2289.6,"endTime":2294.04,"body":"and floats and accumulates"},{"startTime":2289.6,"endTime":2294.04,"body":"in biodiverse systems."},{"startTime":2294.04,"endTime":2296.86,"body":"So what we need is a"},{"startTime":2294.04,"endTime":2296.86,"body":"way to get rid of this."},{"startTime":2296.86,"endTime":2300.7,"body":"And it turns out that some bugs"},{"startTime":2296.86,"endTime":2300.7,"body":"have already realized this."},{"startTime":2300.7,"endTime":2302.17,"body":"So this is ideonella,"},{"startTime":2302.17,"endTime":2305.41,"body":"this is a bacteria discovered"},{"startTime":2302.17,"endTime":2305.41,"body":"just a few years ago actually,"},{"startTime":2305.41,"endTime":2307.78,"body":"which thus far is one of"},{"startTime":2305.41,"endTime":2307.78,"body":"the very few organisms"},{"startTime":2307.78,"endTime":2309.79,"body":"that seems to have the capacity"},{"startTime":2309.79,"endTime":2313.09,"body":"to break down these kind of plastics."},{"startTime":2313.09,"endTime":2315.25,"body":"The moment it is very slow, it does do it,"},{"startTime":2315.25,"endTime":2316.083,"body":"which is great,"},{"startTime":2316.083,"endTime":2317.89,"body":"but nowhere near it the"},{"startTime":2316.083,"endTime":2317.89,"body":"rate that you might need"},{"startTime":2317.89,"endTime":2320.44,"body":"to deal with the world's plastic mountain."},{"startTime":2320.44,"endTime":2322.15,"body":"But actually just in the last few years"},{"startTime":2322.15,"endTime":2324.82,"body":"people have looked at"},{"startTime":2322.15,"endTime":2324.82,"body":"ways to grow this organism"},{"startTime":2324.82,"endTime":2326.53,"body":"differently for example."},{"startTime":2326.53,"endTime":2327.64,"body":"And in doing so,"},{"startTime":2327.64,"endTime":2329.68,"body":"they have discovered ways"},{"startTime":2327.64,"endTime":2329.68,"body":"that you can accelerate"},{"startTime":2329.68,"endTime":2331.87,"body":"it's breakdown of plastic many times."},{"startTime":2331.87,"endTime":2334.09,"body":"And so I think it's reasonable to assume"},{"startTime":2334.09,"endTime":2335.65,"body":"that within perhaps a"},{"startTime":2334.09,"endTime":2335.65,"body":"few years from there,"},{"startTime":2335.65,"endTime":2339.43,"body":"we might have a decent"},{"startTime":2335.65,"endTime":2339.43,"body":"microbiological solution"},{"startTime":2339.43,"endTime":2341.11,"body":"to this plastic mountain."},{"startTime":2341.11,"endTime":2341.943,"body":"I mean, I should point out,"},{"startTime":2341.943,"endTime":2344.14,"body":"this is not an excuse to"},{"startTime":2341.943,"endTime":2344.14,"body":"throw your bottles away"},{"startTime":2344.14,"endTime":2346.75,"body":"because clearly there is still"},{"startTime":2344.14,"endTime":2346.75,"body":"an issue of how you get this"},{"startTime":2346.75,"endTime":2349.06,"body":"to where you need it"},{"startTime":2346.75,"endTime":2349.06,"body":"to deal with a plastic."},{"startTime":2349.06,"endTime":2352.33,"body":"But nonetheless, an opportunity"},{"startTime":2349.06,"endTime":2352.33,"body":"here provided by a microbe"},{"startTime":2352.33,"endTime":2353.77,"body":"rather than human chemist"},{"startTime":2353.77,"endTime":2356.983,"body":"for dealing with one of"},{"startTime":2353.77,"endTime":2356.983,"body":"humanity's big pollution problems."},{"startTime":2358.81,"endTime":2360.88,"body":"This is potentially even"},{"startTime":2358.81,"endTime":2360.88,"body":"bigger pollution problem,"},{"startTime":2360.88,"endTime":2362.35,"body":"radioactive waste."},{"startTime":2362.35,"endTime":2364.18,"body":"When it's like this and neatly stored"},{"startTime":2364.18,"endTime":2366.64,"body":"and carefully archived, it's"},{"startTime":2364.18,"endTime":2366.64,"body":"not so much of a problem."},{"startTime":2366.64,"endTime":2367.473,"body":"But as we all know,"},{"startTime":2367.473,"endTime":2370.36,"body":"when it leaks it's potentially"},{"startTime":2367.473,"endTime":2370.36,"body":"a massive disaster."},{"startTime":2370.36,"endTime":2373.0,"body":"And particularly when it's"},{"startTime":2370.36,"endTime":2373.0,"body":"dissolved in water courses"},{"startTime":2373.0,"endTime":2375.73,"body":"and can spread even low level radiation"},{"startTime":2375.73,"endTime":2377.383,"body":"can be very, very harmful."},{"startTime":2378.617,"endTime":2381.7,"body":"And yet just a few years"},{"startTime":2378.617,"endTime":2381.7,"body":"ago people discovered this"},{"startTime":2381.7,"endTime":2384.49,"body":"rather than any organism,"},{"startTime":2381.7,"endTime":2384.49,"body":"this is geobacter."},{"startTime":2384.49,"endTime":2387.01,"body":"And geobacter really likes"},{"startTime":2387.01,"endTime":2388.72,"body":"all sorts of interesting heavy metals"},{"startTime":2388.72,"endTime":2391.183,"body":"including uranium, for example."},{"startTime":2392.046,"endTime":2393.46,"body":"And what people discovered"},{"startTime":2393.46,"endTime":2395.89,"body":"was that if you put geobacter in soils"},{"startTime":2395.89,"endTime":2397.63,"body":"where there is some uranium,"},{"startTime":2397.63,"endTime":2400.21,"body":"it will use some of the"},{"startTime":2397.63,"endTime":2400.21,"body":"energy from that uranium"},{"startTime":2400.21,"endTime":2402.457,"body":"and turn it into a uranium salt."},{"startTime":2402.457,"endTime":2404.86,"body":"And in doing so it precipitates it,"},{"startTime":2404.86,"endTime":2407.92,"body":"makes it insoluble and it"},{"startTime":2404.86,"endTime":2407.92,"body":"drops out of the water course."},{"startTime":2407.92,"endTime":2411.67,"body":"So you could add geobacter to"},{"startTime":2407.92,"endTime":2411.67,"body":"a contaminated area of soil,"},{"startTime":2411.67,"endTime":2413.53,"body":"it wouldn't get rid of"},{"startTime":2411.67,"endTime":2413.53,"body":"your uranium problem"},{"startTime":2413.53,"endTime":2417.58,"body":"but it would stop it spreading"},{"startTime":2413.53,"endTime":2417.58,"body":"and moving beyond that area."},{"startTime":2417.58,"endTime":2419.08,"body":"That was already quite a neat trick,"},{"startTime":2419.08,"endTime":2421.75,"body":"but what has materialized in recent years"},{"startTime":2421.75,"endTime":2423.94,"body":"is something even more exciting I think."},{"startTime":2423.94,"endTime":2425.35,"body":"So you can see in this image"},{"startTime":2425.35,"endTime":2428.8,"body":"that geobacter produces"},{"startTime":2425.35,"endTime":2428.8,"body":"these long fibers here."},{"startTime":2428.8,"endTime":2430.72,"body":"It is those fibers that it uses"},{"startTime":2430.72,"endTime":2434.473,"body":"to capture metals in soils"},{"startTime":2430.72,"endTime":2434.473,"body":"or in water like uranium."},{"startTime":2435.46,"endTime":2436.323,"body":"It does that for its own purpose,"},{"startTime":2436.323,"endTime":2438.4,"body":"its own energy gathering purpose."},{"startTime":2438.4,"endTime":2439.87,"body":"But as it does that,"},{"startTime":2439.87,"endTime":2443.08,"body":"this fiber becomes"},{"startTime":2439.87,"endTime":2443.08,"body":"electrically conductive."},{"startTime":2443.08,"endTime":2444.37,"body":"It's like a little copper wire"},{"startTime":2444.37,"endTime":2446.44,"body":"or in this case a uranium wire,"},{"startTime":2446.44,"endTime":2449.05,"body":"and it can do that for"},{"startTime":2446.44,"endTime":2449.05,"body":"lots of different metals."},{"startTime":2449.05,"endTime":2449.883,"body":"And in fact,"},{"startTime":2449.883,"endTime":2453.7,"body":"it can turn itself into a"},{"startTime":2449.883,"endTime":2453.7,"body":"little tiny electrical circuit."},{"startTime":2453.7,"endTime":2456.07,"body":"And this is something that"},{"startTime":2453.7,"endTime":2456.07,"body":"people are very excited by"},{"startTime":2456.07,"endTime":2458.71,"body":"because the scale here is absolutely tiny."},{"startTime":2458.71,"endTime":2461.89,"body":"This thing is producing"},{"startTime":2458.71,"endTime":2461.89,"body":"electrical circuits"},{"startTime":2461.89,"endTime":2463.45,"body":"at the kind of scale we need"},{"startTime":2463.45,"endTime":2466.6,"body":"for things like transistor"},{"startTime":2463.45,"endTime":2466.6,"body":"circuits for cell phones,"},{"startTime":2466.6,"endTime":2468.58,"body":"for computers, for satellites."},{"startTime":2468.58,"endTime":2470.14,"body":"And so maybe there's an opportunity"},{"startTime":2470.14,"endTime":2473.86,"body":"that we could harness"},{"startTime":2470.14,"endTime":2473.86,"body":"geobacter to create electronics"},{"startTime":2473.86,"endTime":2475.81,"body":"at a scale that we can't currently do"},{"startTime":2475.81,"endTime":2477.583,"body":"using manmade techniques."},{"startTime":2480.49,"endTime":2482.95,"body":"That process of, if you like,"},{"startTime":2482.95,"endTime":2485.02,"body":"electronic manipulation is interface"},{"startTime":2485.02,"endTime":2487.03,"body":"between biology and technology"},{"startTime":2487.03,"endTime":2489.04,"body":"is an area that's really, really exploding"},{"startTime":2489.04,"endTime":2489.91,"body":"and very exciting."},{"startTime":2489.91,"endTime":2491.68,"body":"I want to share another example,"},{"startTime":2491.68,"endTime":2492.88,"body":"actually a very recent example,"},{"startTime":2492.88,"endTime":2495.88,"body":"of something that is similar in that vein."},{"startTime":2495.88,"endTime":2498.4,"body":"So I suspect many of you"},{"startTime":2495.88,"endTime":2498.4,"body":"will have heard of Graphene."},{"startTime":2498.4,"endTime":2500.44,"body":"Graphene is this wonder material"},{"startTime":2500.44,"endTime":2502.54,"body":"that won the Nobel Prize some years ago."},{"startTime":2502.54,"endTime":2504.82,"body":"And essentially one of the"},{"startTime":2502.54,"endTime":2504.82,"body":"cutest things about this"},{"startTime":2504.82,"endTime":2507.4,"body":"as people might know is that"},{"startTime":2504.82,"endTime":2507.4,"body":"it was originally discovered"},{"startTime":2507.4,"endTime":2509.65,"body":"through a kind of very sort"},{"startTime":2507.4,"endTime":2509.65,"body":"of lab-based experiment"},{"startTime":2509.65,"endTime":2511.75,"body":"using cello tape and pencils"},{"startTime":2511.75,"endTime":2516.55,"body":"because graphene is essentially"},{"startTime":2511.75,"endTime":2516.55,"body":"single layers of graphite,"},{"startTime":2516.55,"endTime":2518.233,"body":"the thing that is in pencil lead."},{"startTime":2519.19,"endTime":2520.39,"body":"It's not quite that simple though"},{"startTime":2520.39,"endTime":2523.78,"body":"because graphene layers typically oxidize,"},{"startTime":2523.78,"endTime":2525.037,"body":"have a lot of oxygen"},{"startTime":2523.78,"endTime":2525.037,"body":"groups on the outside,"},{"startTime":2525.037,"endTime":2526.84,"body":"and that means they're not very good"},{"startTime":2526.84,"endTime":2529.36,"body":"at doing all the electronic"},{"startTime":2526.84,"endTime":2529.36,"body":"things you want them to do."},{"startTime":2529.36,"endTime":2531.97,"body":"So to make graphene usable by humans,"},{"startTime":2531.97,"endTime":2533.86,"body":"what we do is we take graphene oxide"},{"startTime":2533.86,"endTime":2535.12,"body":"and we have to reduce it,"},{"startTime":2535.12,"endTime":2537.22,"body":"we have to get rid of those oxygen groups."},{"startTime":2538.09,"endTime":2538.99,"body":"At the moment,"},{"startTime":2538.99,"endTime":2541.51,"body":"we do that using a lot of"},{"startTime":2538.99,"endTime":2541.51,"body":"really noxious chemicals,"},{"startTime":2541.51,"endTime":2544.27,"body":"you have to treat this"},{"startTime":2541.51,"endTime":2544.27,"body":"thing in quite toxic,"},{"startTime":2544.27,"endTime":2547.3,"body":"quite unpleasant conditions to"},{"startTime":2544.27,"endTime":2547.3,"body":"remove some of these oxygens"},{"startTime":2547.3,"endTime":2549.673,"body":"and turn it into this usable form."},{"startTime":2551.02,"endTime":2552.88,"body":"It works but it's not great."},{"startTime":2552.88,"endTime":2555.76,"body":"Turns out though, as with"},{"startTime":2552.88,"endTime":2555.76,"body":"many examples tonight,"},{"startTime":2555.76,"endTime":2558.55,"body":"that bacteria got there an"},{"startTime":2555.76,"endTime":2558.55,"body":"awfully long time before we did."},{"startTime":2558.55,"endTime":2561.07,"body":"This little bacteria here is shewanella."},{"startTime":2561.07,"endTime":2562.72,"body":"It's a marine bacteria,"},{"startTime":2562.72,"endTime":2565.87,"body":"and it turns out that it's"},{"startTime":2562.72,"endTime":2565.87,"body":"able to do this reaction"},{"startTime":2565.87,"endTime":2569.08,"body":"without any need for any"},{"startTime":2565.87,"endTime":2569.08,"body":"noxious chemicals at all."},{"startTime":2569.08,"endTime":2570.91,"body":"And in fact you can see"},{"startTime":2569.08,"endTime":2570.91,"body":"this very nice graphic"},{"startTime":2570.91,"endTime":2573.7,"body":"from Anne Meyer, who"},{"startTime":2570.91,"endTime":2573.7,"body":"did some of this work,"},{"startTime":2573.7,"endTime":2576.04,"body":"where essentially you"},{"startTime":2573.7,"endTime":2576.04,"body":"can mix your bacteria"},{"startTime":2576.04,"endTime":2577.99,"body":"with your graphene oxide,"},{"startTime":2577.99,"endTime":2579.91,"body":"it will do all the heavy chemistry for you"},{"startTime":2579.91,"endTime":2583.24,"body":"and turn out the other"},{"startTime":2579.91,"endTime":2583.24,"body":"end a very nice graphene,"},{"startTime":2583.24,"endTime":2585.04,"body":"a reduced form of graphene"},{"startTime":2585.04,"endTime":2586.6,"body":"that you can use in your electronics."},{"startTime":2586.6,"endTime":2587.62,"body":"And you can see in fact here,"},{"startTime":2587.62,"endTime":2589.81,"body":"so this is the graphene"},{"startTime":2587.62,"endTime":2589.81,"body":"oxide that you can't use,"},{"startTime":2589.81,"endTime":2591.07,"body":"you need to turn it from this orange color"},{"startTime":2591.07,"endTime":2592.21,"body":"to this black color."},{"startTime":2592.21,"endTime":2594.43,"body":"And you can see that if"},{"startTime":2592.21,"endTime":2594.43,"body":"you do it either chemically"},{"startTime":2594.43,"endTime":2596.68,"body":"or microbially, there's"},{"startTime":2594.43,"endTime":2596.68,"body":"actually no difference."},{"startTime":2596.68,"endTime":2598.63,"body":"And so here is a process"},{"startTime":2596.68,"endTime":2598.63,"body":"where we can create"},{"startTime":2598.63,"endTime":2601.03,"body":"a very useful man-made material"},{"startTime":2601.03,"endTime":2604.06,"body":"without using these"},{"startTime":2601.03,"endTime":2604.06,"body":"environmentally damaging chemicals,"},{"startTime":2604.06,"endTime":2606.013,"body":"all by virtue of a bacterium."},{"startTime":2607.99,"endTime":2610.99,"body":"So my final example before I"},{"startTime":2607.99,"endTime":2610.99,"body":"close though is the potential,"},{"startTime":2610.99,"endTime":2612.09,"body":"I think the potential here."},{"startTime":2612.09,"endTime":2614.32,"body":"So far everything I've talked about are,"},{"startTime":2614.32,"endTime":2616.03,"body":"if you like, natural processes,"},{"startTime":2616.03,"endTime":2618.22,"body":"these are things that bacteria and a fungi"},{"startTime":2618.22,"endTime":2621.25,"body":"have evolved in order to be able"},{"startTime":2621.25,"endTime":2623.2,"body":"to deal with problems they have"},{"startTime":2623.2,"endTime":2624.79,"body":"that might also be useful to us."},{"startTime":2624.79,"endTime":2626.94,"body":"For example, the"},{"startTime":2624.79,"endTime":2626.94,"body":"production of antibiotics."},{"startTime":2627.85,"endTime":2629.32,"body":"But what about when you combine"},{"startTime":2629.32,"endTime":2631.51,"body":"the kind of natural"},{"startTime":2629.32,"endTime":2631.51,"body":"diversity of microbiology"},{"startTime":2631.51,"endTime":2633.46,"body":"with some of the kind of"},{"startTime":2631.51,"endTime":2633.46,"body":"human potential we have"},{"startTime":2633.46,"endTime":2636.52,"body":"and in particular the potential"},{"startTime":2633.46,"endTime":2636.52,"body":"for genetic engineering."},{"startTime":2636.52,"endTime":2638.23,"body":"And one of the things"},{"startTime":2636.52,"endTime":2638.23,"body":"that a lot of bacteria"},{"startTime":2638.23,"endTime":2641.86,"body":"are very good at is accepting"},{"startTime":2638.23,"endTime":2641.86,"body":"genes from other organisms"},{"startTime":2641.86,"endTime":2643.27,"body":"and doing stuff with them."},{"startTime":2643.27,"endTime":2645.16,"body":"They have done this for"},{"startTime":2643.27,"endTime":2645.16,"body":"millions of years actually."},{"startTime":2645.16,"endTime":2647.17,"body":"There's nothing new about"},{"startTime":2645.16,"endTime":2647.17,"body":"genetic engineering,"},{"startTime":2647.17,"endTime":2650.2,"body":"bacteria always picking up bits"},{"startTime":2647.17,"endTime":2650.2,"body":"of DNA from the environment"},{"startTime":2650.2,"endTime":2651.7,"body":"and doing stuff with them."},{"startTime":2651.7,"endTime":2652.977,"body":"But humans have learnt to harness that."},{"startTime":2652.977,"endTime":2655.3,"body":"And so you can produce, in bacteria,"},{"startTime":2655.3,"endTime":2657.07,"body":"all sorts of interesting things"},{"startTime":2657.07,"endTime":2659.14,"body":"that they're not normally going to make."},{"startTime":2659.14,"endTime":2661.33,"body":"So insulin, for example,"},{"startTime":2659.14,"endTime":2661.33,"body":"if you're a diabetic,"},{"startTime":2661.33,"endTime":2662.893,"body":"your insulin is probably"},{"startTime":2661.33,"endTime":2662.893,"body":"coming from a bacteria"},{"startTime":2662.893,"endTime":2664.423,"body":"that is producing that."},{"startTime":2665.8,"endTime":2667.6,"body":"And one of the nicest examples, I think,"},{"startTime":2667.6,"endTime":2668.59,"body":"is this final one here."},{"startTime":2668.59,"endTime":2671.74,"body":"So silk, spider silk is a"},{"startTime":2668.59,"endTime":2671.74,"body":"material, as I'm sure you know,"},{"startTime":2671.74,"endTime":2674.41,"body":"that has huge potential,"},{"startTime":2671.74,"endTime":2674.41,"body":"enormously strong,"},{"startTime":2674.41,"endTime":2677.74,"body":"really light, biodegradable,"},{"startTime":2674.41,"endTime":2677.74,"body":"all sorts of benefits."},{"startTime":2677.74,"endTime":2679.15,"body":"If only we could make this in a way"},{"startTime":2679.15,"endTime":2681.1,"body":"that didn't require spiders,"},{"startTime":2681.1,"endTime":2683.11,"body":"which are tricky to work"},{"startTime":2681.1,"endTime":2683.11,"body":"with, that would be great."},{"startTime":2683.11,"endTime":2685.75,"body":"And indeed a group in Japan"},{"startTime":2683.11,"endTime":2685.75,"body":"has recently done that."},{"startTime":2685.75,"endTime":2688.81,"body":"They have taken this"},{"startTime":2685.75,"endTime":2688.81,"body":"organisms rate of volume"},{"startTime":2688.81,"endTime":2691.93,"body":"and they have expressed"},{"startTime":2688.81,"endTime":2691.93,"body":"in this a spider protein"},{"startTime":2691.93,"endTime":2695.32,"body":"that allows it to produce spider silk."},{"startTime":2695.32,"endTime":2696.97,"body":"It's not quite as elegant"},{"startTime":2695.32,"endTime":2696.97,"body":"as the spider silk"},{"startTime":2696.97,"endTime":2698.08,"body":"that you see here,"},{"startTime":2698.08,"endTime":2700.21,"body":"but this is a single"},{"startTime":2698.08,"endTime":2700.21,"body":"fiber of that spider silk."},{"startTime":2700.21,"endTime":2701.59,"body":"It's very early days,"},{"startTime":2701.59,"endTime":2705.13,"body":"but that silk looks actually"},{"startTime":2701.59,"endTime":2705.13,"body":"and feels quite similar"},{"startTime":2705.13,"endTime":2707.11,"body":"to the kind of classical spider silk."},{"startTime":2707.11,"endTime":2709.75,"body":"But now, of course, you're"},{"startTime":2707.11,"endTime":2709.75,"body":"producing it in a bacteria"},{"startTime":2709.75,"endTime":2711.25,"body":"and there are two big benefits there."},{"startTime":2711.25,"endTime":2713.89,"body":"One, this thing is photosynthetic,"},{"startTime":2713.89,"endTime":2715.9,"body":"so you don't need to"},{"startTime":2713.89,"endTime":2715.9,"body":"feed it lots of energy,"},{"startTime":2715.9,"endTime":2717.43,"body":"you don't need to feed, it flies,"},{"startTime":2717.43,"endTime":2719.41,"body":"you can grow it in sunlight"},{"startTime":2719.41,"endTime":2721.72,"body":"and it will produce for you this silk."},{"startTime":2721.72,"endTime":2724.87,"body":"Secondly, there is no"},{"startTime":2721.72,"endTime":2724.87,"body":"limit to the scale here,"},{"startTime":2724.87,"endTime":2726.88,"body":"you can grow bacteria in liter vessels,"},{"startTime":2726.88,"endTime":2729.16,"body":"a hundred liter vessels,"},{"startTime":2726.88,"endTime":2729.16,"body":"massive factories."},{"startTime":2729.16,"endTime":2731.8,"body":"You could produce huge"},{"startTime":2729.16,"endTime":2731.8,"body":"quantities of this silk"},{"startTime":2731.8,"endTime":2733.09,"body":"from those organisms"},{"startTime":2733.09,"endTime":2735.46,"body":"for use in all sorts of"},{"startTime":2733.09,"endTime":2735.46,"body":"interesting man-made materials."},{"startTime":2735.46,"endTime":2737.56,"body":"And I think that really is"},{"startTime":2735.46,"endTime":2737.56,"body":"the point I want to end on"},{"startTime":2737.56,"endTime":2738.543,"body":"with the excitement and the potential"},{"startTime":2738.543,"endTime":2740.17,"body":"of this for the future."},{"startTime":2740.17,"endTime":2742.66,"body":"And with the proposition"},{"startTime":2740.17,"endTime":2742.66,"body":"really that maybe in 10,"},{"startTime":2742.66,"endTime":2746.14,"body":"20 years from now when we"},{"startTime":2742.66,"endTime":2746.14,"body":"think chemical fabrication,"},{"startTime":2746.14,"endTime":2747.37,"body":"we will be thinking less about"},{"startTime":2747.37,"endTime":2749.44,"body":"large chemical factories like this"},{"startTime":2749.44,"endTime":2753.04,"body":"and more like biological"},{"startTime":2749.44,"endTime":2753.04,"body":"fermentation places like this,"},{"startTime":2753.04,"endTime":2754.12,"body":"is my proposition,"},{"startTime":2754.12,"endTime":2755.77,"body":"come back in 20 years and"},{"startTime":2754.12,"endTime":2755.77,"body":"tell me if I was right."},{"startTime":2755.77,"endTime":2757.575,"body":"Thank you very much."},{"startTime":2757.575,"endTime":2760.742,"body":"(audience applauding)"},{"startTime":2762.543,"endTime":2764.38,"body":"- Thank you a lot, Professor May."},{"startTime":2764.38,"endTime":2766.03,"body":"We do have time for a couple of questions."},{"startTime":2766.03,"endTime":2766.96,"body":"So what I'll do first"},{"startTime":2766.96,"endTime":2768.85,"body":"is I'll take a few from"},{"startTime":2766.96,"endTime":2768.85,"body":"the online audience"},{"startTime":2768.85,"endTime":2771.16,"body":"and then I'll open it up to the floor."},{"startTime":2771.16,"endTime":2773.667,"body":"So the first one is a little"},{"startTime":2771.16,"endTime":2773.667,"body":"bit back to the chemistry"},{"startTime":2773.667,"endTime":2775.72,"body":"at the start."},{"startTime":2775.72,"endTime":2778.75,"body":"Where does the phosphorus"},{"startTime":2775.72,"endTime":2778.75,"body":"in ATP come from?"},{"startTime":2778.75,"endTime":2781.12,"body":"- Oh, there's always a"},{"startTime":2778.75,"endTime":2781.12,"body":"chemist online, isn't it?"},{"startTime":2781.12,"endTime":2782.77,"body":"That's a rule for life."},{"startTime":2782.77,"endTime":2784.99,"body":"Yeah, so when I said it was"},{"startTime":2782.77,"endTime":2784.99,"body":"very oversimplified chemistry,"},{"startTime":2784.99,"endTime":2786.58,"body":"that's right, I said phosphorus, in fact,"},{"startTime":2786.58,"endTime":2788.62,"body":"there are far more elements"},{"startTime":2786.58,"endTime":2788.62,"body":"than just these three"},{"startTime":2788.62,"endTime":2790.3,"body":"that are obviously essential for life."},{"startTime":2790.3,"endTime":2791.44,"body":"Phosphorus in those cases,"},{"startTime":2791.44,"endTime":2794.11,"body":"so for us, phosphorus"},{"startTime":2791.44,"endTime":2794.11,"body":"is coming from our food."},{"startTime":2794.11,"endTime":2795.61,"body":"If you are a photosynthetic plant,"},{"startTime":2795.61,"endTime":2797.77,"body":"you're gathering phosphate from the soil."},{"startTime":2797.77,"endTime":2800.2,"body":"And those of you who might"},{"startTime":2797.77,"endTime":2800.2,"body":"have seen my first lecture,"},{"startTime":2800.2,"endTime":2802.6,"body":"we talked a bit about this symbiosis"},{"startTime":2802.6,"endTime":2803.68,"body":"between a fungus and a plant"},{"startTime":2803.68,"endTime":2806.08,"body":"where the fungus is donating phosphate,"},{"startTime":2806.08,"endTime":2808.36,"body":"so phosphorus to the plant to then use."},{"startTime":2808.36,"endTime":2810.61,"body":"So yeah, you need phosphate,"},{"startTime":2808.36,"endTime":2810.61,"body":"you need lots of other things,"},{"startTime":2810.61,"endTime":2813.64,"body":"potassium as other example"},{"startTime":2810.61,"endTime":2813.64,"body":"from other sources,"},{"startTime":2813.64,"endTime":2815.05,"body":"either the soil if you're a plant,"},{"startTime":2815.05,"endTime":2818.56,"body":"rocks if you are a microbe,"},{"startTime":2815.05,"endTime":2818.56,"body":"or food if you're a human."},{"startTime":2818.56,"endTime":2820.84,"body":"But thank you for picking me"},{"startTime":2818.56,"endTime":2820.84,"body":"up on my oversimplification"},{"startTime":2820.84,"endTime":2822.1,"body":"whoever that was online."},{"startTime":2822.1,"endTime":2823.33,"body":"- Thank you."},{"startTime":2823.33,"endTime":2825.58,"body":"We do have one about microbes"},{"startTime":2825.58,"endTime":2827.53,"body":"and how they break down plastic."},{"startTime":2827.53,"endTime":2829.21,"body":"So could you just tell us a bit more"},{"startTime":2829.21,"endTime":2831.31,"body":"on the actual process involved?"},{"startTime":2831.31,"endTime":2833.65,"body":"- Yeah, so it's still"},{"startTime":2831.31,"endTime":2833.65,"body":"largely unknown actually,"},{"startTime":2833.65,"endTime":2836.02,"body":"the full details of the"},{"startTime":2833.65,"endTime":2836.02,"body":"kind of chemical process,"},{"startTime":2836.02,"endTime":2837.04,"body":"it looks like..."},{"startTime":2837.04,"endTime":2841.12,"body":"So plastics are actually"},{"startTime":2837.04,"endTime":2841.12,"body":"very useful feed stock,"},{"startTime":2841.12,"endTime":2841.96,"body":"if you like."},{"startTime":2841.96,"endTime":2842.793,"body":"I don't do this at home,"},{"startTime":2842.793,"endTime":2844.54,"body":"but if you've burnt plastic in ventili,"},{"startTime":2844.54,"endTime":2845.86,"body":"you know it actually burnt really well."},{"startTime":2845.86,"endTime":2846.88,"body":"It's a hydrocarbon,"},{"startTime":2846.88,"endTime":2849.52,"body":"it's an oil derived thing"},{"startTime":2846.88,"endTime":2849.52,"body":"like petrol or diesel,"},{"startTime":2849.52,"endTime":2851.23,"body":"so there's a lot of energy in plastic."},{"startTime":2851.23,"endTime":2854.14,"body":"And so in some senses it's not surprising"},{"startTime":2854.14,"endTime":2856.51,"body":"that some microbes want"},{"startTime":2854.14,"endTime":2856.51,"body":"to use their energy"},{"startTime":2856.51,"endTime":2857.86,"body":"so they're breaking down the plastic"},{"startTime":2857.86,"endTime":2859.39,"body":"in the same way that we"},{"startTime":2857.86,"endTime":2859.39,"body":"break down that sugar"},{"startTime":2859.39,"endTime":2861.73,"body":"or something else for"},{"startTime":2859.39,"endTime":2861.73,"body":"their own energy use."},{"startTime":2861.73,"endTime":2864.61,"body":"How they do it and what they"},{"startTime":2861.73,"endTime":2864.61,"body":"produce at the other end"},{"startTime":2864.61,"endTime":2865.9,"body":"is still a bit vague,"},{"startTime":2865.9,"endTime":2867.73,"body":"and one of the big challenges that we have"},{"startTime":2867.73,"endTime":2870.13,"body":"is making sure that what"},{"startTime":2867.73,"endTime":2870.13,"body":"they're producing from it"},{"startTime":2870.13,"endTime":2871.96,"body":"is not in itself harmful."},{"startTime":2871.96,"endTime":2873.28,"body":"So you obviously don't"},{"startTime":2871.96,"endTime":2873.28,"body":"want to break down plastic"},{"startTime":2873.28,"endTime":2876.22,"body":"into two equally harmful"},{"startTime":2873.28,"endTime":2876.22,"body":"things that then diffuse away."},{"startTime":2876.22,"endTime":2877.893,"body":"And so that's kind of"},{"startTime":2876.22,"endTime":2877.893,"body":"watch this space answer,"},{"startTime":2877.893,"endTime":2878.833,"body":"I think for that."},{"startTime":2880.18,"endTime":2882.01,"body":"- Do we have any"},{"startTime":2880.18,"endTime":2882.01,"body":"questions in the audience?"},{"startTime":2882.01,"endTime":2883.96,"body":"My colleagues' just bringing you a mic."},{"startTime":2887.53,"endTime":2888.786,"body":"- [Audience Member] Sorry."},{"startTime":2888.786,"endTime":2890.17,"body":"It's just thank you for"},{"startTime":2888.786,"endTime":2890.17,"body":"very good talk by the way."},{"startTime":2890.17,"endTime":2892.45,"body":"It's just a follow on from"},{"startTime":2890.17,"endTime":2892.45,"body":"the plastics piece there."},{"startTime":2892.45,"endTime":2896.14,"body":"So how do you mitigate against,"},{"startTime":2892.45,"endTime":2896.14,"body":"as these bugs are developed,"},{"startTime":2896.14,"endTime":2898.39,"body":"which can do a great rate."},{"startTime":2898.39,"endTime":2901.33,"body":"If they're not used in that context"},{"startTime":2901.33,"endTime":2902.98,"body":"and they're just prevalent"},{"startTime":2901.33,"endTime":2902.98,"body":"in the environment,"},{"startTime":2902.98,"endTime":2905.68,"body":"surely they can degrade"},{"startTime":2902.98,"endTime":2905.68,"body":"structural plastics and containers"},{"startTime":2905.68,"endTime":2908.68,"body":"and things which are needed"},{"startTime":2905.68,"endTime":2908.68,"body":"to do their job right now."},{"startTime":2908.68,"endTime":2912.28,"body":"So how do you get one"},{"startTime":2908.68,"endTime":2912.28,"body":"thing without the other?"},{"startTime":2912.28,"endTime":2913.25,"body":"- Yeah, that's a very good question."},{"startTime":2913.25,"endTime":2915.28,"body":"So in the specific case of Ideonella,"},{"startTime":2915.28,"endTime":2916.39,"body":"so the organism that's this,"},{"startTime":2916.39,"endTime":2918.792,"body":"it's actually not a very"},{"startTime":2916.39,"endTime":2918.792,"body":"widespread organism,"},{"startTime":2918.792,"endTime":2920.56,"body":"which is why we don't get, you know,"},{"startTime":2920.56,"endTime":2921.46,"body":"you don't go to your supermarket"},{"startTime":2921.46,"endTime":2923.5,"body":"and discover all the"},{"startTime":2921.46,"endTime":2923.5,"body":"water bottles collapsing"},{"startTime":2923.5,"endTime":2924.85,"body":"because of this."},{"startTime":2924.85,"endTime":2926.77,"body":"But I think that's a valid concern"},{"startTime":2926.77,"endTime":2929.26,"body":"when we start to think about if"},{"startTime":2926.77,"endTime":2929.26,"body":"you're going to engineer this,"},{"startTime":2929.26,"endTime":2932.14,"body":"say for example if you're"},{"startTime":2929.26,"endTime":2932.14,"body":"going to take that ability"},{"startTime":2932.14,"endTime":2934.27,"body":"and put it into a much"},{"startTime":2932.14,"endTime":2934.27,"body":"more widespread bacteria"},{"startTime":2934.27,"endTime":2936.4,"body":"that might be useful"},{"startTime":2934.27,"endTime":2936.4,"body":"for all sorts of things,"},{"startTime":2936.4,"endTime":2937.48,"body":"you'd want to be pretty sure"},{"startTime":2937.48,"endTime":2939.19,"body":"that if you're going to release"},{"startTime":2937.48,"endTime":2939.19,"body":"that to the environment,"},{"startTime":2939.19,"endTime":2940.023,"body":"for example,"},{"startTime":2940.023,"endTime":2941.89,"body":"that it's not about to"},{"startTime":2940.023,"endTime":2941.89,"body":"destroy the plastic industry"},{"startTime":2941.89,"endTime":2943.633,"body":"and civilization as we know it."},{"startTime":2944.47,"endTime":2947.396,"body":"But I think in terms of"},{"startTime":2944.47,"endTime":2947.396,"body":"why we don't see more,"},{"startTime":2947.396,"endTime":2948.813,"body":"I mean that's an interesting question."},{"startTime":2949.69,"endTime":2952.33,"body":"The straightforward answer, the"},{"startTime":2949.69,"endTime":2952.33,"body":"plastics are relatively new."},{"startTime":2952.33,"endTime":2954.25,"body":"Evolutionarily speaking,"},{"startTime":2952.33,"endTime":2954.25,"body":"they're incredibly new."},{"startTime":2954.25,"endTime":2958.03,"body":"We've only had plastic"},{"startTime":2954.25,"endTime":2958.03,"body":"for about a century or so"},{"startTime":2958.03,"endTime":2960.4,"body":"and so there has not been"},{"startTime":2958.03,"endTime":2960.4,"body":"time for organisms to evolve."},{"startTime":2960.4,"endTime":2962.47,"body":"You could play that"},{"startTime":2960.4,"endTime":2962.47,"body":"tape forwards and think,"},{"startTime":2962.47,"endTime":2964.66,"body":"okay, what about a"},{"startTime":2962.47,"endTime":2964.66,"body":"thousand years from now,"},{"startTime":2964.66,"endTime":2967.69,"body":"actually, will we see that"},{"startTime":2964.66,"endTime":2967.69,"body":"bacteria have diversified"},{"startTime":2967.69,"endTime":2969.31,"body":"and there's now a whole"},{"startTime":2967.69,"endTime":2969.31,"body":"bunch of really good bacteria"},{"startTime":2969.31,"endTime":2970.96,"body":"that are a problem"},{"startTime":2970.96,"endTime":2973.84,"body":"because they are feeding off"},{"startTime":2970.96,"endTime":2973.84,"body":"all these man-made plastics"},{"startTime":2973.84,"endTime":2976.72,"body":"that we've created, which"},{"startTime":2973.84,"endTime":2976.72,"body":"is a plausible scenario."},{"startTime":2976.72,"endTime":2978.04,"body":"I guess, I won't be"},{"startTime":2976.72,"endTime":2978.04,"body":"around in a thousand years"},{"startTime":2978.04,"endTime":2979.12,"body":"to find out whether I'm right or not,"},{"startTime":2979.12,"endTime":2981.1,"body":"but it it is certainly a possibility."},{"startTime":2981.1,"endTime":2982.0,"body":"- [Audience Member] Bacteria being able"},{"startTime":2982.0,"endTime":2983.08,"body":"to break down plastics."},{"startTime":2983.08,"endTime":2987.55,"body":"So is it a safe enough assumption to think"},{"startTime":2987.55,"endTime":2990.94,"body":"that we will also be able"},{"startTime":2987.55,"endTime":2990.94,"body":"to use some microorganisms"},{"startTime":2990.94,"endTime":2994.54,"body":"to break down all the oil"},{"startTime":2990.94,"endTime":2994.54,"body":"spills that have been happening"},{"startTime":2994.54,"endTime":2996.07,"body":"in the sea and oceans"},{"startTime":2996.07,"endTime":2999.1,"body":"because since plastics"},{"startTime":2996.07,"endTime":2999.1,"body":"are also natural gas"},{"startTime":2999.1,"endTime":3001.56,"body":"and oil derived products?"},{"startTime":3001.56,"endTime":3003.777,"body":"- Yep, yep, that is a"},{"startTime":3001.56,"endTime":3003.777,"body":"very safe assumption."},{"startTime":3003.777,"endTime":3004.61,"body":"And the reason I can say that"},{"startTime":3004.61,"endTime":3007.08,"body":"is that we actually already"},{"startTime":3004.61,"endTime":3007.08,"body":"know of some organisms"},{"startTime":3007.08,"endTime":3010.32,"body":"that are capable of breaking"},{"startTime":3007.08,"endTime":3010.32,"body":"down petroleum products"},{"startTime":3010.32,"endTime":3011.46,"body":"like oil slicks"},{"startTime":3011.46,"endTime":3014.22,"body":"and there's been a lot of"},{"startTime":3011.46,"endTime":3014.22,"body":"interest actually in two areas."},{"startTime":3014.22,"endTime":3017.88,"body":"So one is in terms of natural"},{"startTime":3014.22,"endTime":3017.88,"body":"organisms that might be used,"},{"startTime":3017.88,"endTime":3021.33,"body":"for example, in oil spill in"},{"startTime":3017.88,"endTime":3021.33,"body":"the ocean to degrade the oil."},{"startTime":3021.33,"endTime":3024.73,"body":"And so geobacter that one I"},{"startTime":3021.33,"endTime":3024.73,"body":"talked about with the metal"},{"startTime":3025.62,"endTime":3027.12,"body":"also actually has a second ability"},{"startTime":3027.12,"endTime":3029.76,"body":"to degrade some petroleum products."},{"startTime":3029.76,"endTime":3031.2,"body":"The second aspect of that is"},{"startTime":3031.2,"endTime":3033.06,"body":"it can also sometimes be a problem."},{"startTime":3033.06,"endTime":3034.77,"body":"So, in oil tankers,"},{"startTime":3034.77,"endTime":3037.98,"body":"you can sometimes get microbial"},{"startTime":3034.77,"endTime":3037.98,"body":"contamination of the oil"},{"startTime":3037.98,"endTime":3039.36,"body":"and that's actually a real nightmare"},{"startTime":3039.36,"endTime":3040.89,"body":"because it's then growing on the petrol"},{"startTime":3040.89,"endTime":3042.75,"body":"and causing all sorts of problems."},{"startTime":3042.75,"endTime":3045.06,"body":"So a bit like the answer"},{"startTime":3042.75,"endTime":3045.06,"body":"around the plastics,"},{"startTime":3045.06,"endTime":3046.86,"body":"there's a kind of ying yang there."},{"startTime":3046.86,"endTime":3049.59,"body":"I think the key question"},{"startTime":3046.86,"endTime":3049.59,"body":"for us, really, it will be,"},{"startTime":3049.59,"endTime":3052.56,"body":"how you get that activity in"},{"startTime":3049.59,"endTime":3052.56,"body":"a way that is controllable"},{"startTime":3052.56,"endTime":3054.45,"body":"to remove where it's a problem"},{"startTime":3054.45,"endTime":3057.93,"body":"but not to inadvertently"},{"startTime":3054.45,"endTime":3057.93,"body":"remove petrol engines."},{"startTime":3057.93,"endTime":3059.7,"body":"Although, of course, actually"},{"startTime":3057.93,"endTime":3059.7,"body":"there may be good reasons"},{"startTime":3059.7,"endTime":3062.479,"body":"to remove petrol engines"},{"startTime":3059.7,"endTime":3062.479,"body":"for other purposes."},{"startTime":3062.479,"endTime":3064.377,"body":"- [Audience Member] I was"},{"startTime":3062.479,"endTime":3064.377,"body":"interested in the geobacter"},{"startTime":3064.377,"endTime":3067.08,"body":"and the comments you're"},{"startTime":3064.377,"endTime":3067.08,"body":"making about uranium."},{"startTime":3067.08,"endTime":3068.88,"body":"And I was wondering if there was any work"},{"startTime":3068.88,"endTime":3071.67,"body":"to look at recovery of rare earths"},{"startTime":3071.67,"endTime":3075.06,"body":"and transition metals"},{"startTime":3071.67,"endTime":3075.06,"body":"from electronic waste?"},{"startTime":3075.06,"endTime":3078.78,"body":"- Yes, there's there's been"},{"startTime":3075.06,"endTime":3078.78,"body":"a lot of interest in that,"},{"startTime":3078.78,"endTime":3079.74,"body":"how you might use..."},{"startTime":3079.74,"endTime":3081.66,"body":"So one of the things"},{"startTime":3079.74,"endTime":3081.66,"body":"bacteria really good at"},{"startTime":3081.66,"endTime":3083.7,"body":"is taking stuff that's very, very diffuse"},{"startTime":3083.7,"endTime":3087.15,"body":"and concentrating it because"},{"startTime":3083.7,"endTime":3087.15,"body":"they want it in their cells."},{"startTime":3087.15,"endTime":3089.07,"body":"And so one of the most"},{"startTime":3087.15,"endTime":3089.07,"body":"interesting examples"},{"startTime":3089.07,"endTime":3092.82,"body":"I've seen of that actually"},{"startTime":3089.07,"endTime":3092.82,"body":"is from catalysts in cars."},{"startTime":3092.82,"endTime":3093.747,"body":"So all of us, you drive cars,"},{"startTime":3093.747,"endTime":3095.67,"body":"and you have a catalytic converter."},{"startTime":3095.67,"endTime":3098.1,"body":"There are lots of relatively rare metals"},{"startTime":3098.1,"endTime":3101.91,"body":"in that catalyst that are"},{"startTime":3098.1,"endTime":3101.91,"body":"helping to break down, you know,"},{"startTime":3101.91,"endTime":3105.06,"body":"the dangerous fumes you are"},{"startTime":3101.91,"endTime":3105.06,"body":"releasing from your exhaust."},{"startTime":3105.06,"endTime":3106.74,"body":"Over the lifetime of vehicle,"},{"startTime":3106.74,"endTime":3109.53,"body":"those metals are being"},{"startTime":3106.74,"endTime":3109.53,"body":"deposited in your exhaust fumes"},{"startTime":3109.53,"endTime":3110.363,"body":"onto roads."},{"startTime":3110.363,"endTime":3112.86,"body":"So roads have actually a"},{"startTime":3110.363,"endTime":3112.86,"body":"reasonably economically"},{"startTime":3112.86,"endTime":3116.04,"body":"viable amount of these rare"},{"startTime":3112.86,"endTime":3116.04,"body":"metals on their surface,"},{"startTime":3116.04,"endTime":3116.88,"body":"but you can't get them"},{"startTime":3116.88,"endTime":3119.07,"body":"because they're spread"},{"startTime":3116.88,"endTime":3119.07,"body":"across the road network."},{"startTime":3119.07,"endTime":3121.41,"body":"There's been some really"},{"startTime":3119.07,"endTime":3121.41,"body":"interesting work using bacteria"},{"startTime":3121.41,"endTime":3123.96,"body":"that are particularly good"},{"startTime":3121.41,"endTime":3123.96,"body":"at harvesting these metals"},{"startTime":3123.96,"endTime":3125.82,"body":"with the idea that you might"},{"startTime":3123.96,"endTime":3125.82,"body":"be able to, for example,"},{"startTime":3125.82,"endTime":3128.7,"body":"wash all your bacteria and"},{"startTime":3125.82,"endTime":3128.7,"body":"then there were some bacteria,"},{"startTime":3128.7,"endTime":3129.533,"body":"for example,"},{"startTime":3129.533,"endTime":3132.12,"body":"that are magnetic and so you"},{"startTime":3129.533,"endTime":3132.12,"body":"could combine those traits."},{"startTime":3132.12,"endTime":3133.92,"body":"What about if you could"},{"startTime":3132.12,"endTime":3133.92,"body":"wash all your bacteria,"},{"startTime":3133.92,"endTime":3136.14,"body":"leave them for a day, and then"},{"startTime":3133.92,"endTime":3136.14,"body":"come back with your magnets,"},{"startTime":3136.14,"endTime":3137.58,"body":"scoop them all up, and voila,"},{"startTime":3137.58,"endTime":3139.92,"body":"you've got your palladium or, you know,"},{"startTime":3139.92,"endTime":3142.68,"body":"whatever the rare metal is that you want"},{"startTime":3142.68,"endTime":3143.85,"body":"nicely concentrated."},{"startTime":3143.85,"endTime":3146.7,"body":"I think there's lots of"},{"startTime":3143.85,"endTime":3146.7,"body":"potential there also for mining."},{"startTime":3146.7,"endTime":3148.11,"body":"People interested about"},{"startTime":3146.7,"endTime":3148.11,"body":"whether you could do this"},{"startTime":3148.11,"endTime":3150.15,"body":"in a much less damaging way."},{"startTime":3150.15,"endTime":3151.86,"body":"Could you mine by putting bacteria in"},{"startTime":3151.86,"endTime":3152.7,"body":"then pulling them back out"},{"startTime":3152.7,"endTime":3154.8,"body":"instead of drilling massive holes."},{"startTime":3154.8,"endTime":3156.36,"body":"So yes, lots of potential."},{"startTime":3156.36,"endTime":3159.507,"body":"Pretty early days, but"},{"startTime":3156.36,"endTime":3159.507,"body":"quite exciting I think."},{"startTime":3159.507,"endTime":3161.597,"body":"- [Audience Member] So I had a question."},{"startTime":3161.597,"endTime":3162.947,"body":"You talked about geobactor."},{"startTime":3162.947,"endTime":3165.03,"body":"So in that you talked about"},{"startTime":3165.03,"endTime":3167.79,"body":"how it can be used as electrolytic cells."},{"startTime":3167.79,"endTime":3171.078,"body":"How uranium and the"},{"startTime":3167.79,"endTime":3171.078,"body":"heavy metals can be used"},{"startTime":3171.078,"endTime":3174.54,"body":"as the thread that is in the geobactor"},{"startTime":3174.54,"endTime":3176.19,"body":"acts as a copper wire, et cetera."},{"startTime":3176.19,"endTime":3181.17,"body":"So these cells, most probably,"},{"startTime":3176.19,"endTime":3181.17,"body":"won't be rechargeable"},{"startTime":3181.17,"endTime":3183.03,"body":"because since the heavy metals"},{"startTime":3183.03,"endTime":3184.83,"body":"would be converted into the salts."},{"startTime":3184.83,"endTime":3187.8,"body":"So what if like, you can shed light"},{"startTime":3187.8,"endTime":3190.83,"body":"on how these can be used as viable cells"},{"startTime":3190.83,"endTime":3192.21,"body":"in our normal lives?"},{"startTime":3192.21,"endTime":3193.353,"body":"- Right. That's a very good question."},{"startTime":3193.353,"endTime":3195.36,"body":"Yes, and very stupid a chemistry."},{"startTime":3195.36,"endTime":3197.88,"body":"So to deposit the metal you"},{"startTime":3195.36,"endTime":3197.88,"body":"need to do something with it,"},{"startTime":3197.88,"endTime":3198.96,"body":"like turn it into salt,"},{"startTime":3198.96,"endTime":3201.36,"body":"which might in itself make it less use."},{"startTime":3201.36,"endTime":3203.37,"body":"At the moment, the way people"},{"startTime":3201.36,"endTime":3203.37,"body":"are thinking about these,"},{"startTime":3203.37,"endTime":3206.37,"body":"I think is not as a"},{"startTime":3203.37,"endTime":3206.37,"body":"living electronic circuit."},{"startTime":3206.37,"endTime":3208.02,"body":"I don't think people are envisaging,"},{"startTime":3208.02,"endTime":3209.37,"body":"although actually it's"},{"startTime":3208.02,"endTime":3209.37,"body":"an interesting concept"},{"startTime":3209.37,"endTime":3211.2,"body":"that you'd have your"},{"startTime":3209.37,"endTime":3211.2,"body":"kind of live bacteria."},{"startTime":3211.2,"endTime":3212.28,"body":"But what you might do,"},{"startTime":3212.28,"endTime":3213.81,"body":"a little bit akin to the previous answers,"},{"startTime":3213.81,"endTime":3216.9,"body":"you might get them to"},{"startTime":3213.81,"endTime":3216.9,"body":"synthesize these fibers."},{"startTime":3216.9,"endTime":3219.63,"body":"You could then harvest the"},{"startTime":3216.9,"endTime":3219.63,"body":"fibers, a bit like we harvest,"},{"startTime":3219.63,"endTime":3222.712,"body":"you know, silk from cocoons or"},{"startTime":3219.63,"endTime":3222.712,"body":"something, you know, cotton,"},{"startTime":3222.712,"endTime":3225.15,"body":"and then you could treat it in a way"},{"startTime":3225.15,"endTime":3228.48,"body":"that might remove the salt, for"},{"startTime":3225.15,"endTime":3228.48,"body":"example, and make it usable."},{"startTime":3228.48,"endTime":3230.88,"body":"Ultimately, I could imagine"},{"startTime":3228.48,"endTime":3230.88,"body":"what you could do possibly"},{"startTime":3230.88,"endTime":3232.98,"body":"is tweak the biology of the microbe"},{"startTime":3232.98,"endTime":3235.26,"body":"so it doesn't even do that"},{"startTime":3232.98,"endTime":3235.26,"body":"annoying bit in the first place."},{"startTime":3235.26,"endTime":3236.67,"body":"But that's much further down the line."},{"startTime":3236.67,"endTime":3238.74,"body":"But even now, I mean,"},{"startTime":3236.67,"endTime":3238.74,"body":"we're used to doing this,"},{"startTime":3238.74,"endTime":3242.7,"body":"a lot of the products that"},{"startTime":3238.74,"endTime":3242.7,"body":"we use from microbes already,"},{"startTime":3242.7,"endTime":3244.17,"body":"when they're produced by the microbe,"},{"startTime":3244.17,"endTime":3245.64,"body":"but not immediately usable,"},{"startTime":3245.64,"endTime":3247.68,"body":"you have to do something to them."},{"startTime":3247.68,"endTime":3250.23,"body":"But what you have to do to"},{"startTime":3247.68,"endTime":3250.23,"body":"them is much less onerous"},{"startTime":3250.23,"endTime":3252.18,"body":"than what you would've had to"},{"startTime":3250.23,"endTime":3252.18,"body":"do to create them from scratch"},{"startTime":3252.18,"endTime":3253.203,"body":"in the first place."},{"startTime":3255.06,"endTime":3257.58,"body":"- [Audience Member]"},{"startTime":3255.06,"endTime":3257.58,"body":"There's an older wives tale"},{"startTime":3257.58,"endTime":3261.183,"body":"from my part of the"},{"startTime":3257.58,"endTime":3261.183,"body":"world, which it goes that,"},{"startTime":3262.62,"endTime":3267.62,"body":"phosphates are in fish and"},{"startTime":3262.62,"endTime":3267.62,"body":"if you eat a lot of fish,"},{"startTime":3268.05,"endTime":3269.31,"body":"that's good for the brain."},{"startTime":3269.31,"endTime":3271.413,"body":"Is there any evidence of that?"},{"startTime":3272.46,"endTime":3274.47,"body":"- I feel like I'm on"},{"startTime":3272.46,"endTime":3274.47,"body":"thin ice here, advisor."},{"startTime":3274.47,"endTime":3278.19,"body":"So phosphate absolutely important,"},{"startTime":3278.19,"endTime":3281.19,"body":"you can't live without phosphate,"},{"startTime":3278.19,"endTime":3281.19,"body":"so that's quite important."},{"startTime":3281.19,"endTime":3282.9,"body":"How much phosphate you need in your diet"},{"startTime":3282.9,"endTime":3285.3,"body":"and whether you should"},{"startTime":3282.9,"endTime":3285.3,"body":"eat fish is up for grabs,"},{"startTime":3285.3,"endTime":3286.133,"body":"I would say."},{"startTime":3286.133,"endTime":3289.02,"body":"I mean, separately from that,"},{"startTime":3286.133,"endTime":3289.02,"body":"the evidence for oily fish,"},{"startTime":3289.02,"endTime":3291.0,"body":"some oily fish in your"},{"startTime":3289.02,"endTime":3291.0,"body":"diet being very healthy"},{"startTime":3291.0,"endTime":3292.86,"body":"is pretty strong."},{"startTime":3292.86,"endTime":3294.54,"body":"But in terms of, for example,"},{"startTime":3294.54,"endTime":3297.39,"body":"microbial based phosphate"},{"startTime":3294.54,"endTime":3297.39,"body":"to stimulate diets,"},{"startTime":3297.39,"endTime":3299.46,"body":"I mean there's lots of"},{"startTime":3297.39,"endTime":3299.46,"body":"interest in, as you know,"},{"startTime":3299.46,"endTime":3300.83,"body":"in sort of probiotics for example,"},{"startTime":3300.83,"endTime":3302.82,"body":"in microbes as dietary supplements."},{"startTime":3302.82,"endTime":3303.81,"body":"It'd be really interesting"},{"startTime":3302.82,"endTime":3303.81,"body":"to look at that,"},{"startTime":3303.81,"endTime":3304.74,"body":"probably not for phosphate,"},{"startTime":3304.74,"endTime":3305.94,"body":"which we get quite a lot of already,"},{"startTime":3305.94,"endTime":3308.67,"body":"but for some of the trace"},{"startTime":3305.94,"endTime":3308.67,"body":"elements that you need in diets,"},{"startTime":3308.67,"endTime":3310.08,"body":"lots of interest about"},{"startTime":3308.67,"endTime":3310.08,"body":"whether you might be able"},{"startTime":3310.08,"endTime":3312.18,"body":"to harness microbes to do that."},{"startTime":3312.18,"endTime":3313.717,"body":"And I think old wive's tales, I think,"},{"startTime":3313.717,"endTime":3316.38,"body":"you know, or folk legend, if you like,"},{"startTime":3316.38,"endTime":3318.09,"body":"I think, are a really interesting source"},{"startTime":3318.09,"endTime":3320.73,"body":"of kind of questions that"},{"startTime":3318.09,"endTime":3320.73,"body":"can be answered by science"},{"startTime":3320.73,"endTime":3322.173,"body":"in that context, absolutely."},{"startTime":3324.18,"endTime":3327.09,"body":"- [Audience Member] I think you"},{"startTime":3324.18,"endTime":3327.09,"body":"partly answered my question,"},{"startTime":3327.09,"endTime":3329.91,"body":"which was posed by someone else,"},{"startTime":3329.91,"endTime":3331.32,"body":"but I'm going to ask you anyway."},{"startTime":3331.32,"endTime":3334.41,"body":"Generally, in history,"},{"startTime":3331.32,"endTime":3334.41,"body":"when we tinker with nature,"},{"startTime":3334.41,"endTime":3336.63,"body":"there are unforeseen consequences,"},{"startTime":3336.63,"endTime":3338.22,"body":"and a lot of the solutions"},{"startTime":3338.22,"endTime":3341.28,"body":"that you've put forward"},{"startTime":3338.22,"endTime":3341.28,"body":"are solutions to problems"},{"startTime":3341.28,"endTime":3343.11,"body":"because we've tinkered with nature."},{"startTime":3343.11,"endTime":3344.76,"body":"So plastic isn't our problem"},{"startTime":3344.76,"endTime":3347.793,"body":"until you really put it"},{"startTime":3344.76,"endTime":3347.793,"body":"on an industrial scale."},{"startTime":3349.05,"endTime":3351.12,"body":"When we start deploying things"},{"startTime":3351.12,"endTime":3354.9,"body":"that are at a very small"},{"startTime":3351.12,"endTime":3354.9,"body":"level that you can't see,"},{"startTime":3354.9,"endTime":3358.98,"body":"the risks become huge because"},{"startTime":3354.9,"endTime":3358.98,"body":"we can't see what's happening."},{"startTime":3358.98,"endTime":3362.88,"body":"So what's your view on"},{"startTime":3358.98,"endTime":3362.88,"body":"us tinkering with nature"},{"startTime":3362.88,"endTime":3364.14,"body":"at this very small level"},{"startTime":3364.14,"endTime":3367.44,"body":"and what are the potentially"},{"startTime":3364.14,"endTime":3367.44,"body":"unforeseen risks in the future?"},{"startTime":3367.44,"endTime":3369.18,"body":"- That is a lovely question."},{"startTime":3369.18,"endTime":3371.345,"body":"Have we got another couple of hours?"},{"startTime":3371.345,"endTime":3372.821,"body":"So what do I think about,"},{"startTime":3372.821,"endTime":3373.654,"body":"I mean, so you're absolutely right"},{"startTime":3373.654,"endTime":3375.6,"body":"that a lot of the problems"},{"startTime":3373.654,"endTime":3375.6,"body":"that the world faces today"},{"startTime":3375.6,"endTime":3377.7,"body":"are problems of humanity's creation."},{"startTime":3377.7,"endTime":3378.93,"body":"In fact, not just plastic,"},{"startTime":3378.93,"endTime":3380.37,"body":"I mean, you could argue that uranium waste"},{"startTime":3380.37,"endTime":3382.533,"body":"is also our own production problem."},{"startTime":3383.43,"endTime":3384.36,"body":"That not with standing though,"},{"startTime":3384.36,"endTime":3386.01,"body":"we have the problem, we've got to fix it."},{"startTime":3386.01,"endTime":3389.4,"body":"So I'm kind of a big"},{"startTime":3386.01,"endTime":3389.4,"body":"believer in doing both."},{"startTime":3389.4,"endTime":3391.35,"body":"So you absolutely have"},{"startTime":3389.4,"endTime":3391.35,"body":"to change behaviors."},{"startTime":3391.35,"endTime":3394.32,"body":"So climate change is a great example."},{"startTime":3394.32,"endTime":3396.42,"body":"We absolutely have to"},{"startTime":3394.32,"endTime":3396.42,"body":"reduce carbon emissions,"},{"startTime":3396.42,"endTime":3397.86,"body":"period, full stop."},{"startTime":3397.86,"endTime":3399.42,"body":"We also need to do"},{"startTime":3397.86,"endTime":3399.42,"body":"something about the fact"},{"startTime":3399.42,"endTime":3401.367,"body":"we already have far too much CO2"},{"startTime":3401.367,"endTime":3404.19,"body":"and so we're going to need some"},{"startTime":3401.367,"endTime":3404.19,"body":"technology solutions there."},{"startTime":3404.19,"endTime":3405.023,"body":"So I think,"},{"startTime":3405.023,"endTime":3407.49,"body":"so the short answer is I"},{"startTime":3405.023,"endTime":3407.49,"body":"think I believe in both."},{"startTime":3407.49,"endTime":3408.39,"body":"I totally take your point."},{"startTime":3408.39,"endTime":3410.7,"body":"I mean, I think with any"},{"startTime":3408.39,"endTime":3410.7,"body":"kind of intervention,"},{"startTime":3410.7,"endTime":3412.32,"body":"particularly an intervention"},{"startTime":3412.32,"endTime":3414.93,"body":"which might ultimately"},{"startTime":3412.32,"endTime":3414.93,"body":"become out of your control."},{"startTime":3414.93,"endTime":3417.39,"body":"So if you're going to do"},{"startTime":3414.93,"endTime":3417.39,"body":"something in the wider environment"},{"startTime":3417.39,"endTime":3418.77,"body":"or release to the environment,"},{"startTime":3418.77,"endTime":3420.69,"body":"you want to be as sure"},{"startTime":3418.77,"endTime":3420.69,"body":"as you possibly can be"},{"startTime":3420.69,"endTime":3422.67,"body":"that you've mitigated all those risks."},{"startTime":3422.67,"endTime":3423.72,"body":"And I think, you know,"},{"startTime":3423.72,"endTime":3425.76,"body":"in the UK we have a pretty"},{"startTime":3423.72,"endTime":3425.76,"body":"robust system for that,"},{"startTime":3425.76,"endTime":3427.53,"body":"that's not true of all countries actually."},{"startTime":3427.53,"endTime":3429.63,"body":"And so there is a big challenge here"},{"startTime":3429.63,"endTime":3431.28,"body":"about kind of international agreements"},{"startTime":3431.28,"endTime":3434.52,"body":"on when you might do"},{"startTime":3431.28,"endTime":3434.52,"body":"something, when you might not."},{"startTime":3434.52,"endTime":3436.08,"body":"Climate change is a great example of that,"},{"startTime":3436.08,"endTime":3437.19,"body":"doesn't matter if, you know,"},{"startTime":3437.19,"endTime":3438.57,"body":"half the world reduces emissions,"},{"startTime":3438.57,"endTime":3440.07,"body":"if the other half keeps growing them,"},{"startTime":3440.07,"endTime":3441.84,"body":"we're still in the same problem."},{"startTime":3441.84,"endTime":3444.84,"body":"So I think that that question"},{"startTime":3441.84,"endTime":3444.84,"body":"of how you address the dangers"},{"startTime":3444.84,"endTime":3448.92,"body":"and the benefits of playing"},{"startTime":3444.84,"endTime":3448.92,"body":"with nature is really important."},{"startTime":3448.92,"endTime":3449.933,"body":"What I would say though, I think is that,"},{"startTime":3449.933,"endTime":3452.31,"body":"that is not a reason to not do it."},{"startTime":3452.31,"endTime":3454.23,"body":"I think there is a lot"},{"startTime":3452.31,"endTime":3454.23,"body":"of potential out there,"},{"startTime":3454.23,"endTime":3458.31,"body":"and I think a lot of our"},{"startTime":3454.23,"endTime":3458.31,"body":"existentially challenging problems"},{"startTime":3458.31,"endTime":3461.04,"body":"that we face can be solved"},{"startTime":3458.31,"endTime":3461.04,"body":"with these kind of technologies"},{"startTime":3461.04,"endTime":3462.3,"body":"if they're appropriately applied."},{"startTime":3462.3,"endTime":3465.69,"body":"So I would urge I guess from"},{"startTime":3462.3,"endTime":3465.69,"body":"my position, go forwards,"},{"startTime":3465.69,"endTime":3467.31,"body":"but go forwards cautiously."},{"startTime":3467.31,"endTime":3469.47,"body":"- [Audience Member] Curious about silk."},{"startTime":3469.47,"endTime":3472.11,"body":"When they're all in that"},{"startTime":3469.47,"endTime":3472.11,"body":"vat, do they produce fibers,"},{"startTime":3472.11,"endTime":3474.36,"body":"or how do you get it to become fibers?"},{"startTime":3474.36,"endTime":3477.75,"body":"- Yeah, so in terms of the silk"},{"startTime":3474.36,"endTime":3477.75,"body":"production, so the early..."},{"startTime":3477.75,"endTime":3480.72,"body":"I should hate this now,"},{"startTime":3477.75,"endTime":3480.72,"body":"this is very early days."},{"startTime":3480.72,"endTime":3482.55,"body":"What's been produced at the"},{"startTime":3480.72,"endTime":3482.55,"body":"minute are very short fibers."},{"startTime":3482.55,"endTime":3486.39,"body":"They are fibers but you"},{"startTime":3482.55,"endTime":3486.39,"body":"can't go rock climbing"},{"startTime":3486.39,"endTime":3488.37,"body":"with one of these silk fibers yet."},{"startTime":3488.37,"endTime":3489.353,"body":"But I think there's two things there."},{"startTime":3489.353,"endTime":3490.86,"body":"I mean, one is that you might be able"},{"startTime":3490.86,"endTime":3493.89,"body":"to weave these into much"},{"startTime":3490.86,"endTime":3493.89,"body":"large, even small fibers."},{"startTime":3493.89,"endTime":3495.03,"body":"You know, cotton is a small fiber,"},{"startTime":3495.03,"endTime":3497.13,"body":"but you can produce"},{"startTime":3495.03,"endTime":3497.13,"body":"pretty impressive stuff."},{"startTime":3497.13,"endTime":3498.42,"body":"But secondly, I think, you know,"},{"startTime":3498.42,"endTime":3499.56,"body":"this is a very early step"},{"startTime":3499.56,"endTime":3501.54,"body":"and that we could end up creating microbes"},{"startTime":3501.54,"endTime":3503.13,"body":"that produce far longer fibers,"},{"startTime":3503.13,"endTime":3504.81,"body":"potentially for use to things like ropes"},{"startTime":3504.81,"endTime":3506.76,"body":"and Kevlar vest and so on and so forth."},{"startTime":3508.14,"endTime":3509.55,"body":"- Well, thank you all for your questions."},{"startTime":3509.55,"endTime":3512.61,"body":"Please join us on Wednesday,"},{"startTime":3509.55,"endTime":3512.61,"body":"the 8th of February,"},{"startTime":3512.61,"endTime":3514.08,"body":"for Professor May's next lecture"},{"startTime":3514.08,"endTime":3516.54,"body":"on Microbial Record Breakers."},{"startTime":3516.54,"endTime":3520.613,"body":"Thank you again, Professor"},{"startTime":3516.54,"endTime":3520.613,"body":"May. (audience applauding)"}]}