{"version":"1.0.0","segments":[{"startTime":0.323,"endTime":3.156,"body":"(title swooshing)"},{"startTime":4.41,"endTime":6.51,"body":"- Ladies and gentlemen, good evening."},{"startTime":6.51,"endTime":10.832,"body":"Welcome to the rather"},{"startTime":6.51,"endTime":10.832,"body":"brightly lit Dark Ages,"},{"startTime":10.832,"endTime":12.0,"body":"(audience laughing)"},{"startTime":12.0,"endTime":15.873,"body":"but they'll still be pretty"},{"startTime":12.0,"endTime":15.873,"body":"dark for our subject tonight,"},{"startTime":16.74,"endTime":21.74,"body":"because this is the paradox"},{"startTime":16.74,"endTime":21.74,"body":"of Anglo-Saxon paganism."},{"startTime":23.73,"endTime":28.73,"body":"Although it arrived in Britain"},{"startTime":23.73,"endTime":28.73,"body":"later than Roman paganism did"},{"startTime":29.34,"endTime":33.99,"body":"in a period we regard firmly"},{"startTime":29.34,"endTime":33.99,"body":"in general as historical,"},{"startTime":33.99,"endTime":38.34,"body":"much less is known about"},{"startTime":33.99,"endTime":38.34,"body":"Anglo-Saxon paganism"},{"startTime":38.34,"endTime":40.347,"body":"than that of the Romans."},{"startTime":40.347,"endTime":45.15,"body":"And this is because it was a"},{"startTime":40.347,"endTime":45.15,"body":"foreign importation to Britain,"},{"startTime":45.15,"endTime":48.81,"body":"which didn't apparently combine well"},{"startTime":48.81,"endTime":51.3,"body":"with any native religions,"},{"startTime":51.3,"endTime":55.2,"body":"and had no time to put down deep roots."},{"startTime":55.2,"endTime":59.1,"body":"But nonetheless, it left permanent impact"},{"startTime":59.1,"endTime":61.47,"body":"on the British landscape"},{"startTime":61.47,"endTime":66.47,"body":"and made some lasting creative"},{"startTime":61.47,"endTime":66.47,"body":"impact on art and literature."},{"startTime":68.76,"endTime":71.4,"body":"So let's set the scene."},{"startTime":71.4,"endTime":74.37,"body":"It's a pretty dreadful scene."},{"startTime":74.37,"endTime":79.37,"body":"The arriving Anglo-Saxons had"},{"startTime":74.37,"endTime":79.37,"body":"the extraordinary experience"},{"startTime":79.38,"endTime":83.49,"body":"of occupying a land which"},{"startTime":79.38,"endTime":83.49,"body":"had recently gone through"},{"startTime":83.49,"endTime":87.87,"body":"what scholars call a systems collapse."},{"startTime":87.87,"endTime":91.35,"body":"In other words, they found"},{"startTime":87.87,"endTime":91.35,"body":"an economy and society"},{"startTime":91.35,"endTime":94.08,"body":"which was very much a tribal one"},{"startTime":94.08,"endTime":97.44,"body":"of petty kingdoms like their own"},{"startTime":97.44,"endTime":102.44,"body":"with subsistence farming"},{"startTime":97.44,"endTime":102.44,"body":"and wooden huts and halls,"},{"startTime":102.48,"endTime":107.48,"body":"yet all around were the"},{"startTime":102.48,"endTime":107.48,"body":"imposing stone ruins"},{"startTime":107.82,"endTime":112.82,"body":"of Roman towns, villas,"},{"startTime":107.82,"endTime":112.82,"body":"fortresses, and factories."},{"startTime":114.51,"endTime":117.42,"body":"Except for the lack of ecological damage"},{"startTime":117.42,"endTime":120.81,"body":"and a sudden population crash,"},{"startTime":120.81,"endTime":125.16,"body":"it was like a landscape"},{"startTime":120.81,"endTime":125.16,"body":"following a nuclear holocaust."},{"startTime":125.16,"endTime":128.79,"body":"It awed and troubled the newcomers,"},{"startTime":128.79,"endTime":130.74,"body":"who left poetry"},{"startTime":130.74,"endTime":135.74,"body":"testifying to the sense of"},{"startTime":130.74,"endTime":135.74,"body":"melancholy and disorientation"},{"startTime":136.77,"endTime":141.77,"body":"provoked by a new life among"},{"startTime":136.77,"endTime":141.77,"body":"the wrecked constructions"},{"startTime":142.05,"endTime":145.08,"body":"of peoples whom the newly-arrived English"},{"startTime":145.08,"endTime":148.2,"body":"thought must have been giants."},{"startTime":148.2,"endTime":151.26,"body":"I've put this particular"},{"startTime":148.2,"endTime":151.26,"body":"bit of ruined Roman wall"},{"startTime":151.26,"endTime":152.25,"body":"on the screen"},{"startTime":152.25,"endTime":157.08,"body":"at the city of Wroxeter, the"},{"startTime":152.25,"endTime":157.08,"body":"Roman city in Shropshire,"},{"startTime":157.08,"endTime":160.98,"body":"because it could actually be the very wall"},{"startTime":160.98,"endTime":165.98,"body":"featured in one of the poems"},{"startTime":160.98,"endTime":165.98,"body":"to which I'm referring,"},{"startTime":166.35,"endTime":168.567,"body":"known as \"The Wanderer.\""},{"startTime":169.807,"endTime":172.77,"body":"\"Where now the horse and the rider?"},{"startTime":172.77,"endTime":175.95,"body":"Where are the folk and the givers of gold?"},{"startTime":175.95,"endTime":178.647,"body":"Where is the hand on the harpstring"},{"startTime":178.647,"endTime":181.11,"body":"and the red fire glowing?"},{"startTime":181.11,"endTime":185.4,"body":"I mourn the gleaming cups,"},{"startTime":181.11,"endTime":185.4,"body":"the helms, and the hauberks,"},{"startTime":185.4,"endTime":187.77,"body":"the glory of the prince."},{"startTime":187.77,"endTime":190.773,"body":"Now that time has passed away,"},{"startTime":192.12,"endTime":197.12,"body":"darkened beneath night's"},{"startTime":192.12,"endTime":197.12,"body":"shadow as if it had never been."},{"startTime":197.43,"endTime":202.43,"body":"Where the loved people were is"},{"startTime":197.43,"endTime":202.43,"body":"now a wall of wondrous height"},{"startTime":203.64,"endTime":206.49,"body":"carved with serpent forms."},{"startTime":206.49,"endTime":210.54,"body":"The savage ash spears, avid for slaughter,"},{"startTime":210.54,"endTime":213.51,"body":"have claimed all the warriors."},{"startTime":213.51,"endTime":215.94,"body":"Fate is mighty."},{"startTime":215.94,"endTime":218.52,"body":"They have passed like"},{"startTime":215.94,"endTime":218.52,"body":"the rain on the mountain,"},{"startTime":218.52,"endTime":220.35,"body":"like the wind in the meadow."},{"startTime":220.35,"endTime":223.92,"body":"Winter howls, then darkness draws on."},{"startTime":223.92,"endTime":226.62,"body":"The day has gone down in the west,"},{"startTime":226.62,"endTime":229.05,"body":"behind the hills into shadow."},{"startTime":229.05,"endTime":231.96,"body":"Nothing is easy in the kingdom of earth."},{"startTime":231.96,"endTime":236.49,"body":"The world beneath the heavens"},{"startTime":231.96,"endTime":236.49,"body":"is in the hands of fate."},{"startTime":236.49,"endTime":238.68,"body":"Here man is passing."},{"startTime":238.68,"endTime":241.05,"body":"Here maid is passing."},{"startTime":241.05,"endTime":243.36,"body":"Here life is passing."},{"startTime":243.36,"endTime":245.94,"body":"Here love is passing."},{"startTime":245.94,"endTime":250.38,"body":"All the face of the earth stands empty.\""},{"startTime":250.38,"endTime":252.09,"body":"Cheerful stuff, isn't it?"},{"startTime":250.38,"endTime":252.09,"body":"(audience laughing)"},{"startTime":252.09,"endTime":257.09,"body":"But it's one clear reaction"},{"startTime":252.09,"endTime":257.09,"body":"to occupying a ruined land,"},{"startTime":259.02,"endTime":261.18,"body":"not ruined by them,"},{"startTime":261.18,"endTime":264.483,"body":"but by the collapse of an imperial system."},{"startTime":265.53,"endTime":267.33,"body":"But there's also another side"},{"startTime":267.33,"endTime":270.12,"body":"which is unusual about the Anglo-Saxons"},{"startTime":270.12,"endTime":272.22,"body":"or to the Anglo-Saxons,"},{"startTime":272.22,"endTime":275.76,"body":"and that is a tender humanity."},{"startTime":275.76,"endTime":279.63,"body":"I think only an Anglo-Saxon"},{"startTime":275.76,"endTime":279.63,"body":"could have written a poem"},{"startTime":279.63,"endTime":282.87,"body":"like \"Wulf and Eadwacer,\""},{"startTime":282.87,"endTime":287.87,"body":"giving voice to the complex"},{"startTime":282.87,"endTime":287.87,"body":"feelings of a young woman"},{"startTime":288.03,"endTime":292.11,"body":"who has just impulsively been unfaithful"},{"startTime":292.11,"endTime":295.237,"body":"to her long-absent boyfriend."},{"startTime":295.237,"endTime":299.76,"body":"\"Its was rainy weather and"},{"startTime":295.237,"endTime":299.76,"body":"I wept beside the hearth,"},{"startTime":299.76,"endTime":303.21,"body":"thinking of my Wulf's far wanderings."},{"startTime":303.21,"endTime":306.57,"body":"One of the captains caught me in his arms."},{"startTime":306.57,"endTime":310.89,"body":"It gladdened me then,"},{"startTime":306.57,"endTime":310.89,"body":"but it grieved me, too."},{"startTime":310.89,"endTime":313.41,"body":"O Wulf, my Wulf."},{"startTime":313.41,"endTime":316.95,"body":"It was my wanting you that made me sick."},{"startTime":316.95,"endTime":321.18,"body":"Your seldom coming, my"},{"startTime":316.95,"endTime":321.18,"body":"hollowness at heart,"},{"startTime":321.18,"endTime":324.06,"body":"not the hunger in my flesh."},{"startTime":324.06,"endTime":329.06,"body":"And I hear you say it's easy"},{"startTime":324.06,"endTime":329.06,"body":"to smash what was not yet made,"},{"startTime":330.69,"endTime":332.757,"body":"our life together.\""},{"startTime":335.46,"endTime":337.68,"body":"So let's look at the particular problems"},{"startTime":337.68,"endTime":340.59,"body":"of studying paganism."},{"startTime":340.59,"endTime":343.95,"body":"The pagan Anglo-Saxons were illiterate,"},{"startTime":343.95,"endTime":346.98,"body":"and so we have no texts of theirs"},{"startTime":346.98,"endTime":350.88,"body":"to testify to their beliefs and practices,"},{"startTime":350.88,"endTime":354.12,"body":"and their period of residence"},{"startTime":350.88,"endTime":354.12,"body":"in Britain as pagans"},{"startTime":354.12,"endTime":358.17,"body":"was too short to leave"},{"startTime":354.12,"endTime":358.17,"body":"archeological material"},{"startTime":358.17,"endTime":361.31,"body":"comparable with that from Roman Britain"},{"startTime":361.31,"endTime":363.78,"body":"or the pre-Roman Iron Age."},{"startTime":363.78,"endTime":368.04,"body":"Early English literature"},{"startTime":363.78,"endTime":368.04,"body":"is smaller in quantity"},{"startTime":368.04,"endTime":370.38,"body":"than that of medieval Ireland"},{"startTime":370.38,"endTime":373.35,"body":"and lacks the medieval Welsh taste"},{"startTime":373.35,"endTime":377.253,"body":"for tales of magic and of epic."},{"startTime":378.27,"endTime":383.27,"body":"There's a real possibility that"},{"startTime":378.27,"endTime":383.27,"body":"a typical pagan Anglo-Saxon"},{"startTime":384.6,"endTime":388.83,"body":"would not have been able to"},{"startTime":384.6,"endTime":388.83,"body":"describe her or his religion,"},{"startTime":388.83,"endTime":390.873,"body":"even if we could interview them."},{"startTime":392.97,"endTime":394.699,"body":"It shows no sign"},{"startTime":394.699,"endTime":399.699,"body":"of having had either clear"},{"startTime":394.699,"endTime":399.699,"body":"or universal principles."},{"startTime":401.04,"endTime":402.78,"body":"Much of what we know of it"},{"startTime":402.78,"endTime":406.89,"body":"is inferred from later"},{"startTime":402.78,"endTime":406.89,"body":"Christian English sources"},{"startTime":406.89,"endTime":411.89,"body":"or those of the Romans, or"},{"startTime":406.89,"endTime":411.89,"body":"later, Icelandic literature."},{"startTime":412.26,"endTime":416.52,"body":"The Icelandic literature"},{"startTime":412.26,"endTime":416.52,"body":"appears to represent"},{"startTime":416.52,"endTime":418.398,"body":"a kind of paganism"},{"startTime":418.398,"endTime":423.398,"body":"that was very similar to"},{"startTime":418.398,"endTime":423.398,"body":"that of the early English."},{"startTime":423.78,"endTime":428.25,"body":"However, that paganism was long defunct"},{"startTime":428.25,"endTime":431.19,"body":"by the time the Icelanders wrote of it,"},{"startTime":431.19,"endTime":434.01,"body":"and although related to the English brand,"},{"startTime":434.01,"endTime":436.8,"body":"it wasn't identical."},{"startTime":436.8,"endTime":439.08,"body":"So let's go to the evidence."},{"startTime":439.08,"endTime":441.303,"body":"Let's look for deities."},{"startTime":442.29,"endTime":447.29,"body":"We know a small amount about"},{"startTime":442.29,"endTime":447.29,"body":"individual Anglo-Saxon deities"},{"startTime":447.3,"endTime":451.29,"body":"from scraps of native"},{"startTime":447.3,"endTime":451.29,"body":"literature, place names,"},{"startTime":451.29,"endTime":455.64,"body":"and mostly comparisons with divinities"},{"startTime":455.64,"endTime":458.34,"body":"in better recorded pantheons."},{"startTime":458.34,"endTime":463.34,"body":"Both place names and the family"},{"startTime":458.34,"endTime":463.34,"body":"trees of early English kings"},{"startTime":463.92,"endTime":468.92,"body":"indicates that the most important"},{"startTime":463.92,"endTime":468.92,"body":"deity was the god Woden."},{"startTime":469.11,"endTime":473.43,"body":"He's this astonished looking"},{"startTime":469.11,"endTime":473.43,"body":"character on the screen."},{"startTime":473.43,"endTime":477.12,"body":"He was noted as equivalent"},{"startTime":473.43,"endTime":477.12,"body":"to the Roman Mercury,"},{"startTime":477.12,"endTime":481.8,"body":"the German Wotan, and"},{"startTime":477.12,"endTime":481.8,"body":"the Scandinavian Odin"},{"startTime":481.8,"endTime":486.8,"body":"as a patron of rulers,"},{"startTime":481.8,"endTime":486.8,"body":"wisdom, voyages, and skills."},{"startTime":487.92,"endTime":492.564,"body":"A 10th-century homily"},{"startTime":487.92,"endTime":492.564,"body":"calls him king of the gods"},{"startTime":492.564,"endTime":497.564,"body":"and a cunning deceiver, at"},{"startTime":492.564,"endTime":497.564,"body":"home on hills and crossroads."},{"startTime":498.21,"endTime":501.93,"body":"A charm calls him an enchanter."},{"startTime":501.93,"endTime":505.38,"body":"This all seems so"},{"startTime":501.93,"endTime":505.38,"body":"similar to the Norse Odin"},{"startTime":505.38,"endTime":509.52,"body":"that it's easy to imagine"},{"startTime":505.38,"endTime":509.52,"body":"their mythology was identical,"},{"startTime":509.52,"endTime":511.8,"body":"but this isn't definitely so."},{"startTime":511.8,"endTime":516.3,"body":"To take what is literally"},{"startTime":511.8,"endTime":516.3,"body":"a glaring example,"},{"startTime":516.3,"endTime":520.71,"body":"one of the traits of Odin"},{"startTime":516.3,"endTime":520.71,"body":"is he has only one eye,"},{"startTime":520.71,"endTime":524.01,"body":"having sacrificed the"},{"startTime":520.71,"endTime":524.01,"body":"other to gain wisdom."},{"startTime":524.01,"endTime":527.85,"body":"And as you can see in the"},{"startTime":524.01,"endTime":527.85,"body":"few medieval pictures,"},{"startTime":527.85,"endTime":530.79,"body":"Woden has very clearly two eyes."},{"startTime":530.79,"endTime":534.213,"body":"So the myths don't necessarily match."},{"startTime":535.32,"endTime":539.49,"body":"Place name frequency puts Thunor next"},{"startTime":539.49,"endTime":542.37,"body":"and makes him dominant"},{"startTime":539.49,"endTime":542.37,"body":"in southeastern England."},{"startTime":542.37,"endTime":546.24,"body":"So if you're a Londoner,"},{"startTime":542.37,"endTime":546.24,"body":"Thunor would be your guy"},{"startTime":546.24,"endTime":548.43,"body":"as a pagan Anglo-Saxon."},{"startTime":548.43,"endTime":552.39,"body":"A homily compares him"},{"startTime":548.43,"endTime":552.39,"body":"to the Roman god Jupiter"},{"startTime":552.39,"endTime":557.39,"body":"as a patron of thunder,"},{"startTime":552.39,"endTime":557.39,"body":"weather, and farming."},{"startTime":557.67,"endTime":561.69,"body":"So he's also got to be like the Norse Thor"},{"startTime":561.69,"endTime":564.963,"body":"from whom this modern"},{"startTime":561.69,"endTime":564.963,"body":"image of Thunor is taken."},{"startTime":566.01,"endTime":571.01,"body":"The German Donar and"},{"startTime":566.01,"endTime":571.01,"body":"the Rhinelands' Taranis."},{"startTime":572.73,"endTime":576.45,"body":"His symbols were the hammer and swastika,"},{"startTime":576.45,"endTime":579.51,"body":"both suggesting thunderbolts."},{"startTime":579.51,"endTime":581.877,"body":"And then there's Tiw."},{"startTime":581.877,"endTime":584.7,"body":"He was equated with the Roman Mars,"},{"startTime":584.7,"endTime":589.14,"body":"and his symbol, a T"},{"startTime":584.7,"endTime":589.14,"body":"rune, appears on weapons,"},{"startTime":589.14,"endTime":591.81,"body":"so he must have been a war god."},{"startTime":591.81,"endTime":596.81,"body":"He, too, appears in a scatter"},{"startTime":591.81,"endTime":596.81,"body":"of place of place names."},{"startTime":596.97,"endTime":599.88,"body":"And finally, at last we have a lady."},{"startTime":599.88,"endTime":603.39,"body":"We have Frigg, who was"},{"startTime":599.88,"endTime":603.39,"body":"given the day of the week"},{"startTime":603.39,"endTime":606.72,"body":"that the Romans had awarded to Venus,"},{"startTime":606.72,"endTime":610.92,"body":"and so was presumably"},{"startTime":606.72,"endTime":610.92,"body":"also a goddess of love,"},{"startTime":610.92,"endTime":613.863,"body":"fertility, and abundance."},{"startTime":614.94,"endTime":618.195,"body":"These were clearly the most important,"},{"startTime":618.195,"endTime":623.195,"body":"but there are slight"},{"startTime":618.195,"endTime":623.195,"body":"traces of other deities."},{"startTime":623.31,"endTime":626.16,"body":"The kings of Essex traced their descent"},{"startTime":626.16,"endTime":628.633,"body":"from a god called Seaxnet."},{"startTime":628.633,"endTime":632.441,"body":"A runic poem mentions one called Ing."},{"startTime":632.441,"endTime":635.883,"body":"A royal biographer speaks another, Geat."},{"startTime":636.99,"endTime":640.02,"body":"The great early English historian Bede"},{"startTime":640.02,"endTime":642.074,"body":"recorded two goddesses,"},{"startTime":642.074,"endTime":646.35,"body":"Hreda, whose name suggests the earth,"},{"startTime":646.35,"endTime":650.88,"body":"and Eostre, whose name suggests the dawn,"},{"startTime":650.88,"endTime":653.22,"body":"as worshiped in spring."},{"startTime":653.22,"endTime":656.64,"body":"However, we're not"},{"startTime":653.22,"endTime":656.64,"body":"short of the reliability"},{"startTime":656.64,"endTime":660.6,"body":"of any of these sources in this respect,"},{"startTime":660.6,"endTime":663.21,"body":"and we've certainly almost certainly lost"},{"startTime":663.21,"endTime":667.386,"body":"loads and loads of"},{"startTime":663.21,"endTime":667.386,"body":"tribal and local deities,"},{"startTime":667.386,"endTime":672.386,"body":"as Anglo-Saxon culture"},{"startTime":667.386,"endTime":672.386,"body":"lacks the very sources,"},{"startTime":672.69,"endTime":677.19,"body":"that's inscriptions and"},{"startTime":672.69,"endTime":677.19,"body":"stories attached to places"},{"startTime":677.19,"endTime":681.21,"body":"that record these beings"},{"startTime":677.19,"endTime":681.21,"body":"in other cultures."},{"startTime":681.21,"endTime":685.26,"body":"So let's look for holy places."},{"startTime":685.26,"endTime":690.26,"body":"The best evidence for these"},{"startTime":685.26,"endTime":690.26,"body":"comes from place names."},{"startTime":690.81,"endTime":695.31,"body":"Two place names have been"},{"startTime":690.81,"endTime":695.31,"body":"identified by philologists"},{"startTime":695.31,"endTime":697.71,"body":"as especially significant,"},{"startTime":697.71,"endTime":702.24,"body":"both being found in southern"},{"startTime":697.71,"endTime":702.24,"body":"and eastern England."},{"startTime":702.24,"endTime":707.24,"body":"One is hearg, which seems to"},{"startTime":702.24,"endTime":707.24,"body":"mean a holy place on a hill,"},{"startTime":708.12,"endTime":711.06,"body":"though this is uncertain."},{"startTime":711.06,"endTime":713.82,"body":"It often ends up today as harrow,"},{"startTime":713.82,"endTime":717.24,"body":"such as Harrow on the Hill west of London"},{"startTime":717.24,"endTime":719.49,"body":"where the famous school is,"},{"startTime":719.49,"endTime":721.98,"body":"which was the chief shrine"},{"startTime":721.98,"endTime":725.667,"body":"of the Middlesex clan of the Gumenings."},{"startTime":725.667,"endTime":730.05,"body":"And that's a circa 1800"},{"startTime":725.667,"endTime":730.05,"body":"view of the hill at Harrow"},{"startTime":730.05,"endTime":731.76,"body":"where the shrine was."},{"startTime":731.76,"endTime":733.65,"body":"At Harrow in Sussex,"},{"startTime":733.65,"endTime":738.107,"body":"a dump of over a thousand"},{"startTime":733.65,"endTime":738.107,"body":"ox skulls was found,"},{"startTime":738.107,"endTime":741.57,"body":"which seem to be the"},{"startTime":738.107,"endTime":741.57,"body":"remains of sacrifices."},{"startTime":741.57,"endTime":743.664,"body":"And the other name is weoh,"},{"startTime":743.664,"endTime":748.32,"body":"which perhaps indicates a"},{"startTime":743.664,"endTime":748.32,"body":"holy place on level ground,"},{"startTime":748.32,"endTime":750.213,"body":"especially near roads."},{"startTime":751.8,"endTime":756.8,"body":"Now, both are found near"},{"startTime":751.8,"endTime":756.8,"body":"early English settlements."},{"startTime":757.11,"endTime":759.39,"body":"By contrast, interestingly,"},{"startTime":759.39,"endTime":763.05,"body":"place names that reference deities"},{"startTime":763.05,"endTime":766.32,"body":"tend to be found away from habitation"},{"startTime":766.32,"endTime":771.06,"body":"in lonely places close to burial mounds"},{"startTime":771.06,"endTime":774.06,"body":"and frontier earthworks."},{"startTime":774.06,"endTime":777.06,"body":"And perhaps those were cult places"},{"startTime":777.06,"endTime":780.03,"body":"for the particular divinities concerned,"},{"startTime":780.03,"endTime":784.47,"body":"whereas the heogs and weohs"},{"startTime":780.03,"endTime":784.47,"body":"were for the divine in general,"},{"startTime":784.47,"endTime":786.21,"body":"but we're not sure."},{"startTime":786.21,"endTime":789.15,"body":"So what can archeology tell us?"},{"startTime":789.15,"endTime":792.09,"body":"The answer is practically nothing"},{"startTime":792.09,"endTime":795.213,"body":"with regard to shrines and temples."},{"startTime":798.06,"endTime":802.95,"body":"So far, archeology has failed"},{"startTime":798.06,"endTime":802.95,"body":"to identify a single one."},{"startTime":802.95,"endTime":806.91,"body":"There is a famous letter"},{"startTime":802.95,"endTime":806.91,"body":"from Pope Gregory the Great"},{"startTime":806.91,"endTime":809.55,"body":"ordering his missionaries in England"},{"startTime":809.55,"endTime":813.75,"body":"to convert the heathen"},{"startTime":809.55,"endTime":813.75,"body":"temples there to churches,"},{"startTime":813.75,"endTime":817.2,"body":"but not a single Anglo-Saxon temple"},{"startTime":817.2,"endTime":820.8,"body":"has been found underneath"},{"startTime":817.2,"endTime":820.8,"body":"any medieval church."},{"startTime":820.8,"endTime":823.746,"body":"And Gregory had sent an earlier letter"},{"startTime":823.746,"endTime":827.85,"body":"ordering his people to"},{"startTime":823.746,"endTime":827.85,"body":"destroy the temples,"},{"startTime":827.85,"endTime":829.86,"body":"and the only records we have"},{"startTime":829.86,"endTime":834.18,"body":"indicate this was the"},{"startTime":829.86,"endTime":834.18,"body":"instruction that was obeyed."},{"startTime":834.18,"endTime":839.18,"body":"So do we have a good candidate"},{"startTime":834.18,"endTime":839.18,"body":"for an Anglo-Saxon temple?"},{"startTime":839.37,"endTime":843.0,"body":"Yeah, Yeavering in Northumberland."},{"startTime":843.0,"endTime":847.47,"body":"It's the seat of seventh-century"},{"startTime":843.0,"endTime":847.47,"body":"Northumbrian kings."},{"startTime":847.47,"endTime":851.09,"body":"They had a big palace"},{"startTime":847.47,"endTime":851.09,"body":"complex there in a valley,"},{"startTime":851.09,"endTime":856.09,"body":"and it included a large"},{"startTime":851.09,"endTime":856.09,"body":"rectangular wooden building."},{"startTime":856.11,"endTime":859.68,"body":"It's reconstructed up there on the screen"},{"startTime":859.68,"endTime":862.32,"body":"inside a fenced enclosure"},{"startTime":862.32,"endTime":866.01,"body":"along with posts that"},{"startTime":862.32,"endTime":866.01,"body":"may have been totem poles"},{"startTime":866.01,"endTime":869.25,"body":"or poles from which trophies were hung."},{"startTime":869.25,"endTime":872.55,"body":"The enclosure also had a"},{"startTime":869.25,"endTime":872.55,"body":"pit full of animal bones,"},{"startTime":872.55,"endTime":874.83,"body":"especially ox skulls,"},{"startTime":874.83,"endTime":877.342,"body":"and more such bones were buried"},{"startTime":877.342,"endTime":880.713,"body":"along one side of the enclosure."},{"startTime":882.69,"endTime":887.01,"body":"So all this looks pretty"},{"startTime":882.69,"endTime":887.01,"body":"good for a pagan temple,"},{"startTime":887.01,"endTime":890.193,"body":"the pagan temple of the"},{"startTime":887.01,"endTime":890.193,"body":"kings of Northumbria."},{"startTime":891.06,"endTime":894.03,"body":"And what's more, it was"},{"startTime":891.06,"endTime":894.03,"body":"burned to the ground,"},{"startTime":894.03,"endTime":897.69,"body":"which could mean that"},{"startTime":894.03,"endTime":897.69,"body":"Christianity destroyed it."},{"startTime":897.69,"endTime":899.97,"body":"On the other hand, burning"},{"startTime":897.69,"endTime":899.97,"body":"things to the ground"},{"startTime":899.97,"endTime":904.2,"body":"was the favorite pastime of"},{"startTime":899.97,"endTime":904.2,"body":"feuding early English kings"},{"startTime":904.2,"endTime":907.2,"body":"and rival kings for the same kingdom,"},{"startTime":907.2,"endTime":909.36,"body":"and so it could be the"},{"startTime":907.2,"endTime":909.36,"body":"what we're looking at"},{"startTime":909.36,"endTime":911.73,"body":"is not a temple at all,"},{"startTime":911.73,"endTime":916.73,"body":"but a royal hall with trophies"},{"startTime":911.73,"endTime":916.73,"body":"and with feasts there,"},{"startTime":917.4,"endTime":920.043,"body":"and it got burnt by a rival."},{"startTime":921.15,"endTime":924.63,"body":"The early English king, Bede,"},{"startTime":924.63,"endTime":929.63,"body":"wrote of idols having been made"},{"startTime":924.63,"endTime":929.63,"body":"by people in early England."},{"startTime":930.21,"endTime":932.46,"body":"If so, they're probably of wood"},{"startTime":932.46,"endTime":934.23,"body":"and so wouldn't have survived"},{"startTime":934.23,"endTime":937.98,"body":"even if they hadn't been"},{"startTime":934.23,"endTime":937.98,"body":"burned by Christians as well."},{"startTime":937.98,"endTime":939.813,"body":"So what about holy people?"},{"startTime":941.43,"endTime":945.45,"body":"The great historian Bede"},{"startTime":941.43,"endTime":945.45,"body":"often mentions pagan priests,"},{"startTime":945.45,"endTime":947.43,"body":"so they must have been there,"},{"startTime":947.43,"endTime":951.03,"body":"and he says that the"},{"startTime":947.43,"endTime":951.03,"body":"Northumbrians, his own people,"},{"startTime":951.03,"endTime":955.718,"body":"had a high priest, an"},{"startTime":951.03,"endTime":955.718,"body":"overall charge called Coifi,"},{"startTime":955.718,"endTime":957.81,"body":"and he's the chap up on the screen"},{"startTime":957.81,"endTime":961.98,"body":"in a modern or actually a"},{"startTime":957.81,"endTime":961.98,"body":"Victorian reconstruction."},{"startTime":961.98,"endTime":964.77,"body":"The Roman historian Tacitus"},{"startTime":964.77,"endTime":969.77,"body":"and the famous early"},{"startTime":964.77,"endTime":969.77,"body":"English poem \"Beowolf\""},{"startTime":970.23,"endTime":972.24,"body":"speak of divination"},{"startTime":972.24,"endTime":977.24,"body":"in the Anglo-Saxons' continental"},{"startTime":972.24,"endTime":977.24,"body":"homeland by wise men,"},{"startTime":977.877,"endTime":982.53,"body":"including the casting of"},{"startTime":977.877,"endTime":982.53,"body":"lots, the flight of birds,"},{"startTime":982.53,"endTime":984.72,"body":"and the motion of horses"},{"startTime":984.72,"endTime":988.44,"body":"all being used as means"},{"startTime":984.72,"endTime":988.44,"body":"to predict the future."},{"startTime":988.44,"endTime":992.91,"body":"There's also some evidence of taboos"},{"startTime":992.91,"endTime":995.79,"body":"that bound religious functionaries."},{"startTime":995.79,"endTime":998.414,"body":"For example, Bede tells us"},{"startTime":998.414,"endTime":1003.109,"body":"that the Northumbrian high priest, Coifi,"},{"startTime":1003.109,"endTime":1006.95,"body":"could not carry weapons"},{"startTime":1003.109,"endTime":1006.95,"body":"or ride a stallion."},{"startTime":1006.95,"endTime":1009.2,"body":"Now, you'll observe that's exactly"},{"startTime":1009.2,"endTime":1011.87,"body":"what he's doing in the picture"},{"startTime":1009.2,"endTime":1011.87,"body":"(audience laughing)"},{"startTime":1011.87,"endTime":1015.74,"body":"but the whole point is he's"},{"startTime":1011.87,"endTime":1015.74,"body":"just converted to Christianity"},{"startTime":1015.74,"endTime":1017.36,"body":"and so he can shout, \"Yay!\""},{"startTime":1017.36,"endTime":1019.1,"body":"and indulge in all the things"},{"startTime":1019.1,"endTime":1022.85,"body":"he was tabooed to do"},{"startTime":1019.1,"endTime":1022.85,"body":"before his conversion."},{"startTime":1022.85,"endTime":1024.983,"body":"So there's a happy-looking Coifi."},{"startTime":1027.02,"endTime":1032.02,"body":"Kings also seem to have"},{"startTime":1027.02,"endTime":1032.02,"body":"had some sacred status,"},{"startTime":1032.66,"endTime":1035.271,"body":"being blamed for natural disasters"},{"startTime":1035.271,"endTime":1040.271,"body":"and being proclaimed king by"},{"startTime":1035.271,"endTime":1040.271,"body":"being seated on special stones"},{"startTime":1040.751,"endTime":1044.9,"body":"like the one that survives"},{"startTime":1040.751,"endTime":1044.9,"body":"at Kingston in Surrey,"},{"startTime":1044.9,"endTime":1048.83,"body":"and of course gave its name to"},{"startTime":1044.9,"endTime":1048.83,"body":"the town Kingston on Thames."},{"startTime":1048.83,"endTime":1053.81,"body":"There's no trace of priestesses,"},{"startTime":1048.83,"endTime":1053.81,"body":"but some of prophetesses,"},{"startTime":1053.81,"endTime":1058.04,"body":"at least in ancient Germany,"},{"startTime":1053.81,"endTime":1058.04,"body":"from which the English came."},{"startTime":1058.04,"endTime":1061.67,"body":"The Romans mentioned them"},{"startTime":1058.04,"endTime":1061.67,"body":"as really important there,"},{"startTime":1061.67,"endTime":1065.57,"body":"but alas, once the"},{"startTime":1061.67,"endTime":1065.57,"body":"Anglo-Saxons get to England,"},{"startTime":1065.57,"endTime":1067.013,"body":"you don't hear more of them."},{"startTime":1067.88,"endTime":1071.48,"body":"The Romans said no more of the matter,"},{"startTime":1071.48,"endTime":1073.67,"body":"so we're left to dream it."},{"startTime":1073.67,"endTime":1077.93,"body":"What seems completely missing"},{"startTime":1073.67,"endTime":1077.93,"body":"from Germanic paganism"},{"startTime":1077.93,"endTime":1081.77,"body":"is a learned class of"},{"startTime":1077.93,"endTime":1081.77,"body":"religious functionaries,"},{"startTime":1081.77,"endTime":1084.803,"body":"like the Druids of"},{"startTime":1081.77,"endTime":1084.803,"body":"Celtic-speaking peoples."},{"startTime":1086.3,"endTime":1091.3,"body":"There's very little evidence"},{"startTime":1086.3,"endTime":1091.3,"body":"for pagan Anglo-Saxon beliefs."},{"startTime":1094.52,"endTime":1099.26,"body":"Bede told a famous story of how Coifi,"},{"startTime":1099.26,"endTime":1103.1,"body":"the rather overworked"},{"startTime":1099.26,"endTime":1103.1,"body":"Northumbrian high priest,"},{"startTime":1103.1,"endTime":1106.1,"body":"likened the pagan view of human life"},{"startTime":1106.1,"endTime":1110.27,"body":"as being that of a sparrow"},{"startTime":1106.1,"endTime":1110.27,"body":"flying through a winter storm,"},{"startTime":1110.27,"endTime":1112.04,"body":"and that's before life,"},{"startTime":1112.04,"endTime":1112.97,"body":"and then the sparrow"},{"startTime":1112.97,"endTime":1115.82,"body":"flies through the window"},{"startTime":1112.97,"endTime":1115.82,"body":"of a feasting hall,"},{"startTime":1115.82,"endTime":1119.24,"body":"suddenly in the warmth"},{"startTime":1115.82,"endTime":1119.24,"body":"and the light and comfort,"},{"startTime":1119.24,"endTime":1122.81,"body":"and then has to fly out the"},{"startTime":1119.24,"endTime":1122.81,"body":"window of the opposite side"},{"startTime":1122.81,"endTime":1125.33,"body":"back into the winter storm again."},{"startTime":1125.33,"endTime":1128.57,"body":"So the feasting hall"},{"startTime":1125.33,"endTime":1128.57,"body":"is our brief experience"},{"startTime":1128.57,"endTime":1130.13,"body":"of the joy of life,"},{"startTime":1130.13,"endTime":1132.74,"body":"and everything else is misery."},{"startTime":1132.74,"endTime":1137.74,"body":"Now, this could actually"},{"startTime":1132.74,"endTime":1137.74,"body":"be vital testimony"},{"startTime":1137.78,"endTime":1140.9,"body":"about Anglo-Saxon pagan belief,"},{"startTime":1140.9,"endTime":1143.69,"body":"or it could have been"},{"startTime":1140.9,"endTime":1143.69,"body":"invented by Christians"},{"startTime":1143.69,"endTime":1147.233,"body":"to prove the superiority of their message."},{"startTime":1148.07,"endTime":1150.89,"body":"Later Anglo-Saxon literature"},{"startTime":1150.89,"endTime":1155.27,"body":"has a powerful and"},{"startTime":1150.89,"endTime":1155.27,"body":"characteristic sense of Wyrd,"},{"startTime":1156.17,"endTime":1159.773,"body":"the implacable force of destiny, fate,"},{"startTime":1160.76,"endTime":1164.39,"body":"and this may reflect"},{"startTime":1160.76,"endTime":1164.39,"body":"earlier pagan tradition,"},{"startTime":1164.39,"endTime":1168.95,"body":"a paganism heavy in Wyrd"},{"startTime":1164.39,"endTime":1168.95,"body":"and the way of Wyrd."},{"startTime":1168.95,"endTime":1173.63,"body":"But, spoilers again,"},{"startTime":1168.95,"endTime":1173.63,"body":"it may instead reflect"},{"startTime":1173.63,"endTime":1176.57,"body":"the great influence in"},{"startTime":1173.63,"endTime":1176.57,"body":"early English culture"},{"startTime":1176.57,"endTime":1181.57,"body":"of a learned and miserable"},{"startTime":1176.57,"endTime":1181.57,"body":"Christian writer called Boethius"},{"startTime":1181.78,"endTime":1183.92,"body":"in sixth-century Italy,"},{"startTime":1183.92,"endTime":1187.58,"body":"who also emphasized the overwhelming power"},{"startTime":1187.58,"endTime":1190.343,"body":"of a person's fate and fortune."},{"startTime":1191.36,"endTime":1193.82,"body":"So what about archeology?"},{"startTime":1193.82,"endTime":1196.37,"body":"Can it get us somewhere after all?"},{"startTime":1196.37,"endTime":1198.41,"body":"And the answer is yes."},{"startTime":1198.41,"endTime":1203.33,"body":"It really comes into its"},{"startTime":1198.41,"endTime":1203.33,"body":"own with burial customs,"},{"startTime":1203.33,"endTime":1206.93,"body":"which provide the only"},{"startTime":1203.33,"endTime":1206.93,"body":"good material evidence"},{"startTime":1206.93,"endTime":1209.12,"body":"of Anglo-Saxon paganism."},{"startTime":1209.12,"endTime":1212.63,"body":"And at last, I've got something"},{"startTime":1209.12,"endTime":1212.63,"body":"to talk about properly,"},{"startTime":1212.63,"endTime":1215.21,"body":"because it's very abundant."},{"startTime":1215.21,"endTime":1220.21,"body":"There are almost 1,200"},{"startTime":1215.21,"endTime":1220.21,"body":"Anglo-Saxon pagan cemeteries"},{"startTime":1220.94,"endTime":1222.83,"body":"discovered to date."},{"startTime":1222.83,"endTime":1227.83,"body":"Most have less than a hundred"},{"startTime":1222.83,"endTime":1227.83,"body":"graves, but 50 have more,"},{"startTime":1227.84,"endTime":1232.647,"body":"and that at Spong Hill in"},{"startTime":1227.84,"endTime":1232.647,"body":"Norfolk had over 2,000."},{"startTime":1236.03,"endTime":1241.03,"body":"Later literary sources like"},{"startTime":1236.03,"endTime":1241.03,"body":"the famous epic poem \"Beowulf\""},{"startTime":1242.48,"endTime":1247.13,"body":"are very hazy with respect"},{"startTime":1242.48,"endTime":1247.13,"body":"to pagan belief and ritual,"},{"startTime":1247.13,"endTime":1250.67,"body":"but quite well informed"},{"startTime":1247.13,"endTime":1250.67,"body":"on funeral customs,"},{"startTime":1250.67,"endTime":1255.14,"body":"either because they"},{"startTime":1250.67,"endTime":1255.14,"body":"remembered them really well"},{"startTime":1255.14,"endTime":1258.59,"body":"or because they dug up pagan graves"},{"startTime":1258.59,"endTime":1263.59,"body":"when tilling new fields or"},{"startTime":1258.59,"endTime":1263.59,"body":"planting new settlements."},{"startTime":1264.71,"endTime":1269.393,"body":"They agree that cremation"},{"startTime":1264.71,"endTime":1269.393,"body":"was the dominant mode."},{"startTime":1270.59,"endTime":1274.01,"body":"On the whole, that seems true,"},{"startTime":1274.01,"endTime":1276.02,"body":"though the Angles,"},{"startTime":1276.02,"endTime":1279.629,"body":"those who settled on the"},{"startTime":1276.02,"endTime":1279.629,"body":"eastern side of the country,"},{"startTime":1279.629,"endTime":1283.76,"body":"seemed to have preferred"},{"startTime":1279.629,"endTime":1283.76,"body":"cremation, the burning of bodies"},{"startTime":1283.76,"endTime":1286.64,"body":"and then the burying of the burnt bodies,"},{"startTime":1286.64,"endTime":1290.93,"body":"and the Saxons preferred inhumation,"},{"startTime":1290.93,"endTime":1295.31,"body":"which is burying bodies"},{"startTime":1290.93,"endTime":1295.31,"body":"complete in the earth."},{"startTime":1295.31,"endTime":1298.7,"body":"But both modes are"},{"startTime":1295.31,"endTime":1298.7,"body":"found almost everywhere."},{"startTime":1298.7,"endTime":1303.53,"body":"There are cremated Saxons"},{"startTime":1298.7,"endTime":1303.53,"body":"and there are inhumed Angles,"},{"startTime":1303.53,"endTime":1306.35,"body":"and they're often found"},{"startTime":1303.53,"endTime":1306.35,"body":"together in the same cemetery,"},{"startTime":1306.35,"endTime":1308.78,"body":"so there seems to have"},{"startTime":1306.35,"endTime":1308.78,"body":"been individual choice"},{"startTime":1308.78,"endTime":1313.67,"body":"involved over such a dramatic choice"},{"startTime":1313.67,"endTime":1316.46,"body":"and a dramatic matter"},{"startTime":1316.46,"endTime":1319.91,"body":"as to how your body is"},{"startTime":1316.46,"endTime":1319.91,"body":"treated in a funeral."},{"startTime":1319.91,"endTime":1322.433,"body":"'Cause if you burn a"},{"startTime":1319.91,"endTime":1322.433,"body":"body or you inhume it,"},{"startTime":1323.81,"endTime":1326.33,"body":"it does suggest different ways"},{"startTime":1326.33,"endTime":1329.9,"body":"in which you view how you"},{"startTime":1326.33,"endTime":1329.9,"body":"should enter the afterlife,"},{"startTime":1329.9,"endTime":1331.13,"body":"and that may suggest"},{"startTime":1331.13,"endTime":1333.77,"body":"there was a variety of opinions about it"},{"startTime":1333.77,"endTime":1335.63,"body":"among the Anglo-Saxons,"},{"startTime":1335.63,"endTime":1339.38,"body":"exactly as there certainly was a variety"},{"startTime":1339.38,"endTime":1342.893,"body":"among the pagan Romans and Roman British."},{"startTime":1343.94,"endTime":1348.94,"body":"The only safe generalization"},{"startTime":1343.94,"endTime":1348.94,"body":"is that the pagan English"},{"startTime":1349.67,"endTime":1354.67,"body":"liked to bury people in the"},{"startTime":1349.67,"endTime":1354.67,"body":"earth and often with goods,"},{"startTime":1354.98,"endTime":1357.8,"body":"and these are far more common"},{"startTime":1357.8,"endTime":1361.7,"body":"than in the British Iron"},{"startTime":1357.8,"endTime":1361.7,"body":"Age or in Roman Britain."},{"startTime":1361.7,"endTime":1366.08,"body":"In fact, if you're looking for"},{"startTime":1361.7,"endTime":1366.08,"body":"grave goods left by pagans,"},{"startTime":1366.08,"endTime":1370.01,"body":"Anglo-Saxon cemeteries"},{"startTime":1366.08,"endTime":1370.01,"body":"are the place to go."},{"startTime":1370.01,"endTime":1373.52,"body":"They're found with most inhumed bodies"},{"startTime":1373.52,"endTime":1375.893,"body":"and about half of all cremations."},{"startTime":1376.76,"endTime":1381.2,"body":"The Anglo-Saxons were"},{"startTime":1376.76,"endTime":1381.2,"body":"clearly inclined to believe"},{"startTime":1381.2,"endTime":1383.0,"body":"one of two things."},{"startTime":1383.0,"endTime":1383.833,"body":"One is that"},{"startTime":1383.833,"endTime":1387.5,"body":"you needed to kit out the"},{"startTime":1383.833,"endTime":1387.5,"body":"dead for the afterlife."},{"startTime":1387.5,"endTime":1389.24,"body":"They couldn't travel light."},{"startTime":1389.24,"endTime":1394.24,"body":"They needed a suitcase full,"},{"startTime":1389.24,"endTime":1394.24,"body":"in effect, of possessions"},{"startTime":1394.34,"endTime":1396.62,"body":"to make for a better afterlife."},{"startTime":1396.62,"endTime":1400.49,"body":"Or it was believed that"},{"startTime":1396.62,"endTime":1400.49,"body":"people's possessions"},{"startTime":1400.49,"endTime":1402.62,"body":"were infected by their spirit."},{"startTime":1402.62,"endTime":1405.02,"body":"They were so intimately connected"},{"startTime":1405.02,"endTime":1407.03,"body":"that if you didn't dump them in the grave,"},{"startTime":1407.03,"endTime":1410.78,"body":"then that person would hang"},{"startTime":1407.03,"endTime":1410.78,"body":"around you after they'd died"},{"startTime":1410.78,"endTime":1412.553,"body":"and make life difficult."},{"startTime":1414.14,"endTime":1417.92,"body":"So let's look at cremations."},{"startTime":1417.92,"endTime":1420.41,"body":"They're generally buried in urns,"},{"startTime":1420.41,"endTime":1423.35,"body":"which got larger and better decorated"},{"startTime":1423.35,"endTime":1427.16,"body":"the older and richer the"},{"startTime":1423.35,"endTime":1427.16,"body":"person inside had been,"},{"startTime":1427.16,"endTime":1428.453,"body":"reasonably enough."},{"startTime":1429.35,"endTime":1433.943,"body":"And as said, you get a lot"},{"startTime":1429.35,"endTime":1433.943,"body":"of goods with cremations."},{"startTime":1435.2,"endTime":1439.867,"body":"You get crystal and glass beads, combs,"},{"startTime":1440.9,"endTime":1445.7,"body":"shears for hair, tweezers, and razors."},{"startTime":1445.7,"endTime":1448.28,"body":"Now, these are really intimate articles,"},{"startTime":1448.28,"endTime":1452.18,"body":"so again, you have this"},{"startTime":1448.28,"endTime":1452.18,"body":"paradox, this choice."},{"startTime":1452.18,"endTime":1456.98,"body":"Either people needed to look"},{"startTime":1452.18,"endTime":1456.98,"body":"really good in the afterlife,"},{"startTime":1456.98,"endTime":1461.98,"body":"you know, perfectly shaved,"},{"startTime":1456.98,"endTime":1461.98,"body":"good haircut, well-combed hair,"},{"startTime":1462.83,"endTime":1465.26,"body":"and the ability to stay like that,"},{"startTime":1465.26,"endTime":1467.18,"body":"or these are the very articles"},{"startTime":1467.18,"endTime":1470.3,"body":"that are so intimately"},{"startTime":1467.18,"endTime":1470.3,"body":"connected with the dead"},{"startTime":1470.3,"endTime":1473.42,"body":"you dare not keep them"},{"startTime":1470.3,"endTime":1473.42,"body":"around and reuse them"},{"startTime":1473.42,"endTime":1475.883,"body":"after the dead have passed on."},{"startTime":1478.01,"endTime":1483.01,"body":"They may have been"},{"startTime":1478.01,"endTime":1483.01,"body":"intended to provide gifts,"},{"startTime":1485.66,"endTime":1489.44,"body":"or they may have been"},{"startTime":1485.66,"endTime":1489.44,"body":"intended to exorcize ghosts,"},{"startTime":1489.44,"endTime":1493.617,"body":"but either way, they"},{"startTime":1489.44,"endTime":1493.617,"body":"weren't burnt themselves,"},{"startTime":1493.617,"endTime":1498.617,"body":"and sometimes miniature"},{"startTime":1493.617,"endTime":1498.617,"body":"models were substituted"},{"startTime":1499.61,"endTime":1501.773,"body":"if the real thing wasn't available."},{"startTime":1502.91,"endTime":1506.84,"body":"And it's hard to believe that dying people"},{"startTime":1506.84,"endTime":1509.75,"body":"would carelessly have lost their combs"},{"startTime":1509.75,"endTime":1513.98,"body":"or their razors or their tweezers,"},{"startTime":1513.98,"endTime":1517.463,"body":"and so it does seem as if"},{"startTime":1517.463,"endTime":1521.3,"body":"objects that hadn't belonged to the dead"},{"startTime":1521.3,"endTime":1523.82,"body":"were regarded as needed to go with them,"},{"startTime":1523.82,"endTime":1526.94,"body":"and this is the bit of"},{"startTime":1523.82,"endTime":1526.94,"body":"evidence that persuades me"},{"startTime":1526.94,"endTime":1531.94,"body":"that it really is about"},{"startTime":1526.94,"endTime":1531.94,"body":"dolling up your beloved dead"},{"startTime":1532.4,"endTime":1534.59,"body":"to look as glamorous as possible"},{"startTime":1534.59,"endTime":1536.99,"body":"when they pass into the next world,"},{"startTime":1536.99,"endTime":1540.2,"body":"rather than being afraid"},{"startTime":1536.99,"endTime":1540.2,"body":"of their possessions"},{"startTime":1540.2,"endTime":1541.703,"body":"and having to get rid of them."},{"startTime":1542.78,"endTime":1546.86,"body":"80% of the funerary urns"},{"startTime":1546.86,"endTime":1551.86,"body":"were decorated with a"},{"startTime":1546.86,"endTime":1551.86,"body":"very complex iconography."},{"startTime":1552.65,"endTime":1557.63,"body":"The most common symbol"},{"startTime":1552.65,"endTime":1557.63,"body":"was a serpent or a dragon,"},{"startTime":1557.63,"endTime":1560.72,"body":"which may have been a spiritual protector"},{"startTime":1560.72,"endTime":1563.75,"body":"to scare off bad luck or evil spirits"},{"startTime":1563.75,"endTime":1566.09,"body":"from the person inside the urn,"},{"startTime":1566.09,"endTime":1569.6,"body":"or it could be that dragons and serpents"},{"startTime":1569.6,"endTime":1572.48,"body":"are a symbol of fire themselves,"},{"startTime":1572.48,"endTime":1577.48,"body":"and so connected with the"},{"startTime":1572.48,"endTime":1577.48,"body":"spiritual process of cremation."},{"startTime":1578.24,"endTime":1580.88,"body":"Next comes the swastika, which of course,"},{"startTime":1580.88,"endTime":1584.9,"body":"has not had a good press"},{"startTime":1580.88,"endTime":1584.9,"body":"in the 20th century,"},{"startTime":1584.9,"endTime":1587.27,"body":"but was a very common"},{"startTime":1587.27,"endTime":1591.98,"body":"and beloved Germanic and"},{"startTime":1587.27,"endTime":1591.98,"body":"Anglo-Saxon decoration,"},{"startTime":1591.98,"endTime":1596.09,"body":"and it seems to have"},{"startTime":1591.98,"endTime":1596.09,"body":"represented fire again."},{"startTime":1596.09,"endTime":1599.27,"body":"Interestingly, none of these motifs"},{"startTime":1599.27,"endTime":1601.7,"body":"seem to be linked to gender."},{"startTime":1601.7,"endTime":1604.07,"body":"In other words, female cremations"},{"startTime":1604.07,"endTime":1605.75,"body":"have the same range of goods"},{"startTime":1605.75,"endTime":1610.313,"body":"and the same range of"},{"startTime":1605.75,"endTime":1610.313,"body":"symbols on their urns as men."},{"startTime":1611.66,"endTime":1612.98,"body":"One of the things we don't know"},{"startTime":1612.98,"endTime":1617.0,"body":"is who chose the symbols on the urns."},{"startTime":1617.0,"endTime":1619.1,"body":"It's a worthwhile question,"},{"startTime":1619.1,"endTime":1622.88,"body":"because they could simply have"},{"startTime":1619.1,"endTime":1622.88,"body":"been potter's brand marks,"},{"startTime":1622.88,"endTime":1624.74,"body":"in other words, indicating the firm"},{"startTime":1624.74,"endTime":1628.61,"body":"that locally made your"},{"startTime":1624.74,"endTime":1628.61,"body":"cremation pot for you"},{"startTime":1628.61,"endTime":1632.6,"body":"and therefore you had a favorite brand."},{"startTime":1632.6,"endTime":1636.44,"body":"Or it could be that the"},{"startTime":1632.6,"endTime":1636.44,"body":"dead, as part of last wishes,"},{"startTime":1636.44,"endTime":1638.96,"body":"chose what they wanted on their urn,"},{"startTime":1638.96,"endTime":1642.02,"body":"or it could be those who"},{"startTime":1638.96,"endTime":1642.02,"body":"arranged the funeral."},{"startTime":1642.02,"endTime":1646.31,"body":"Either the relatives themselves"},{"startTime":1642.02,"endTime":1646.31,"body":"or expert functionaries"},{"startTime":1646.31,"endTime":1649.25,"body":"decided which symbols"},{"startTime":1646.31,"endTime":1649.25,"body":"should go in somebody's urn."},{"startTime":1649.25,"endTime":1651.14,"body":"These are all rather different scenarios."},{"startTime":1651.14,"endTime":1653.3,"body":"Once again, the glory of this"},{"startTime":1653.3,"endTime":1658.3,"body":"is you can dream it for"},{"startTime":1653.3,"endTime":1658.3,"body":"yourselves, take your own choices."},{"startTime":1660.14,"endTime":1663.77,"body":"Now for inhumations."},{"startTime":1663.77,"endTime":1667.37,"body":"We have a wonderful sample of these."},{"startTime":1667.37,"endTime":1669.41,"body":"By the end of the 20th century,"},{"startTime":1669.41,"endTime":1674.41,"body":"5,476 had been properly"},{"startTime":1669.41,"endTime":1674.41,"body":"excavated and recorded."},{"startTime":1678.23,"endTime":1683.23,"body":"Children were often buried"},{"startTime":1678.23,"endTime":1683.23,"body":"crouching, perhaps like fetuses,"},{"startTime":1684.8,"endTime":1688.16,"body":"so they could be returned"},{"startTime":1684.8,"endTime":1688.16,"body":"to the womb of the earth"},{"startTime":1688.16,"endTime":1692.21,"body":"or of the deity who gave birth to humans."},{"startTime":1692.21,"endTime":1696.35,"body":"They were often given"},{"startTime":1692.21,"endTime":1696.35,"body":"adult weapons and jewelry"},{"startTime":1696.35,"endTime":1698.18,"body":"as if you expected your kids"},{"startTime":1698.18,"endTime":1701.63,"body":"to keep on growing in the next world,"},{"startTime":1701.63,"endTime":1706.55,"body":"which if so, suggests again"},{"startTime":1701.63,"endTime":1706.55,"body":"a really optimistic sense"},{"startTime":1706.55,"endTime":1708.77,"body":"of what's waiting when you go out,"},{"startTime":1708.77,"endTime":1712.31,"body":"contradicting flatly Coifi's story"},{"startTime":1712.31,"endTime":1716.963,"body":"about the howling winter night"},{"startTime":1712.31,"endTime":1716.963,"body":"waiting at the end of life."},{"startTime":1719.09,"endTime":1723.47,"body":"Adults were buried fully"},{"startTime":1719.09,"endTime":1723.47,"body":"clothed on their backs"},{"startTime":1723.47,"endTime":1727.19,"body":"and with their heads pointing to the east,"},{"startTime":1727.19,"endTime":1731.66,"body":"the direction from which dawn"},{"startTime":1727.19,"endTime":1731.66,"body":"new light, new life comes,"},{"startTime":1731.66,"endTime":1733.91,"body":"as if it would raise them up again"},{"startTime":1733.91,"endTime":1736.85,"body":"to head off into the next life."},{"startTime":1736.85,"endTime":1738.17,"body":"I'm being imaginative here,"},{"startTime":1738.17,"endTime":1742.013,"body":"but the material is so rich,"},{"startTime":1738.17,"endTime":1742.013,"body":"I think that we can do this."},{"startTime":1742.91,"endTime":1746.39,"body":"Almost all men had belts and knives,"},{"startTime":1746.39,"endTime":1748.55,"body":"and this is not because"},{"startTime":1748.55,"endTime":1751.61,"body":"they expect to have knife"},{"startTime":1748.55,"endTime":1751.61,"body":"fights on the far side."},{"startTime":1751.61,"endTime":1755.24,"body":"It is because the knife is"},{"startTime":1751.61,"endTime":1755.24,"body":"the only eating utensil."},{"startTime":1755.24,"endTime":1757.01,"body":"Forks don't arrive"},{"startTime":1757.01,"endTime":1760.25,"body":"until the Italian"},{"startTime":1757.01,"endTime":1760.25,"body":"Renaissance invents them,"},{"startTime":1760.25,"endTime":1764.183,"body":"so the knife is your"},{"startTime":1760.25,"endTime":1764.183,"body":"staple kitchen utensil."},{"startTime":1765.02,"endTime":1769.82,"body":"And again, they're expected to"},{"startTime":1765.02,"endTime":1769.82,"body":"go on eating in the afterlife"},{"startTime":1769.82,"endTime":1771.863,"body":"and clearly to enjoy themselves."},{"startTime":1773.87,"endTime":1776.54,"body":"Some had tools or weapons,"},{"startTime":1776.54,"endTime":1780.623,"body":"and many were given food or drink vessels."},{"startTime":1781.64,"endTime":1784.82,"body":"All this points to a genuine"},{"startTime":1784.82,"endTime":1789.82,"body":"if not necessarily standard"},{"startTime":1784.82,"endTime":1789.82,"body":"concept of an afterlife."},{"startTime":1790.01,"endTime":1792.38,"body":"But there's also a huge range of items."},{"startTime":1792.38,"endTime":1794.33,"body":"I've gone over the most common,"},{"startTime":1794.33,"endTime":1796.1,"body":"but there are lots of ornaments,"},{"startTime":1796.1,"endTime":1798.17,"body":"which goes with looking great,"},{"startTime":1798.17,"endTime":1802.94,"body":"but also maybe magical"},{"startTime":1798.17,"endTime":1802.94,"body":"objects like crystal balls"},{"startTime":1802.94,"endTime":1806.72,"body":"and amulets to be hung around"},{"startTime":1802.94,"endTime":1806.72,"body":"the neck to keep you lucky."},{"startTime":1806.72,"endTime":1811.72,"body":"So again, people are fitted"},{"startTime":1806.72,"endTime":1811.72,"body":"out with practically every need"},{"startTime":1811.82,"endTime":1815.873,"body":"for what's expected to"},{"startTime":1811.82,"endTime":1815.873,"body":"be a big new adventure."},{"startTime":1818.03,"endTime":1820.913,"body":"Now the bath news, the sinister stuff."},{"startTime":1822.472,"endTime":1825.323,"body":"There's quite a bit of this."},{"startTime":1826.94,"endTime":1831.47,"body":"A quarter of all"},{"startTime":1826.94,"endTime":1831.47,"body":"inhumations, that's a lot,"},{"startTime":1831.47,"endTime":1834.653,"body":"were buried with one body"},{"startTime":1831.47,"endTime":1834.653,"body":"lying on top of another."},{"startTime":1837.38,"endTime":1841.76,"body":"Now, in many cases, this is fine."},{"startTime":1841.76,"endTime":1845.87,"body":"It may have been to indicate"},{"startTime":1841.76,"endTime":1845.87,"body":"a family relationship,"},{"startTime":1845.87,"endTime":1849.83,"body":"reuniting people intimately in the grave,"},{"startTime":1849.83,"endTime":1852.83,"body":"but in nine well scattered cases,"},{"startTime":1852.83,"endTime":1857.83,"body":"high status burials, rich"},{"startTime":1852.83,"endTime":1857.83,"body":"people, female or male"},{"startTime":1859.1,"endTime":1862.58,"body":"were accompanied by a lower status person,"},{"startTime":1862.58,"endTime":1866.93,"body":"put unceremoniously over or under them."},{"startTime":1866.93,"endTime":1867.763,"body":"In other words,"},{"startTime":1867.763,"endTime":1870.74,"body":"the rich person was laid"},{"startTime":1867.763,"endTime":1870.74,"body":"out really carefully"},{"startTime":1870.74,"endTime":1872.27,"body":"and had the goods,"},{"startTime":1872.27,"endTime":1877.27,"body":"and then some unfortunate"},{"startTime":1872.27,"endTime":1877.27,"body":"was thrown in either on top"},{"startTime":1877.58,"endTime":1881.213,"body":"or thrown in and then the"},{"startTime":1877.58,"endTime":1881.213,"body":"body laid out over them."},{"startTime":1882.05,"endTime":1885.26,"body":"At Welbeck Hill in Lincolnshire,"},{"startTime":1885.26,"endTime":1887.69,"body":"a woman had been beheaded"},{"startTime":1887.69,"endTime":1891.86,"body":"and buried over a man who"},{"startTime":1887.69,"endTime":1891.86,"body":"had prestigious grave goods."},{"startTime":1891.86,"endTime":1893.99,"body":"At Portway in Hampshire,"},{"startTime":1893.99,"endTime":1898.22,"body":"a man had been laid over a woman"},{"startTime":1898.22,"endTime":1901.43,"body":"who had apparently been put into the grave"},{"startTime":1901.43,"endTime":1903.83,"body":"with bound wrists."},{"startTime":1903.83,"endTime":1907.22,"body":"In four cases, this is where"},{"startTime":1903.83,"endTime":1907.22,"body":"it gets really dreadful,"},{"startTime":1907.22,"endTime":1910.61,"body":"it was actually suspected by archeologists"},{"startTime":1910.61,"endTime":1912.47,"body":"that people had been buried alive."},{"startTime":1912.47,"endTime":1917.06,"body":"But don't worry, this is now disputed,"},{"startTime":1917.06,"endTime":1920.66,"body":"as the bones were in all"},{"startTime":1917.06,"endTime":1920.66,"body":"cases badly deranged,"},{"startTime":1920.66,"endTime":1922.973,"body":"so analysis is difficult."},{"startTime":1923.81,"endTime":1926.84,"body":"So you can believe the creepy"},{"startTime":1923.81,"endTime":1926.84,"body":"interpretation if you like,"},{"startTime":1926.84,"endTime":1928.403,"body":"but you don't have to."},{"startTime":1929.27,"endTime":1932.39,"body":"At Worthy Park in Hampshire,"},{"startTime":1932.39,"endTime":1934.67,"body":"a girl was thrown into a grave"},{"startTime":1934.67,"endTime":1939.67,"body":"with both her wrists and her"},{"startTime":1934.67,"endTime":1939.67,"body":"heels apparently tied together."},{"startTime":1940.28,"endTime":1944.99,"body":"So she could have been a human sacrifice"},{"startTime":1944.99,"endTime":1947.303,"body":"or an executed criminal."},{"startTime":1948.5,"endTime":1952.07,"body":"Most of the bodies which"},{"startTime":1948.5,"endTime":1952.07,"body":"accompany other burials"},{"startTime":1952.07,"endTime":1956.69,"body":"in an apparently subservient relationship"},{"startTime":1956.69,"endTime":1959.48,"body":"are also face-down."},{"startTime":1959.48,"endTime":1962.03,"body":"And this is so rare in general,"},{"startTime":1962.03,"endTime":1966.26,"body":"it's one case in every 145 bodies,"},{"startTime":1966.26,"endTime":1968.75,"body":"that it must be deliberate."},{"startTime":1968.75,"endTime":1973.37,"body":"It may have been to keep"},{"startTime":1968.75,"endTime":1973.37,"body":"the person's corpse or ghost"},{"startTime":1973.37,"endTime":1976.735,"body":"from prowling and causing trouble."},{"startTime":1976.735,"endTime":1979.64,"body":"After all, if you've chucked"},{"startTime":1976.735,"endTime":1979.64,"body":"them in unceremoniously,"},{"startTime":1979.64,"endTime":1982.79,"body":"you don't want their ghost"},{"startTime":1979.64,"endTime":1982.79,"body":"tapping you on the shoulder later"},{"startTime":1982.79,"endTime":1986.6,"body":"and demanding an"},{"startTime":1982.79,"endTime":1986.6,"body":"explanation or restitution."},{"startTime":1986.6,"endTime":1988.16,"body":"Or it could have been"},{"startTime":1988.16,"endTime":1992.54,"body":"to keep the spirit of the"},{"startTime":1988.16,"endTime":1992.54,"body":"person in the grave to guard it"},{"startTime":1992.54,"endTime":1995.24,"body":"and prevent it from being desecrated."},{"startTime":1995.24,"endTime":1996.44,"body":"So you've kind of got a,"},{"startTime":1996.44,"endTime":1999.62,"body":"you're posting a sentinel there for good."},{"startTime":1999.62,"endTime":2000.67,"body":"Note, folks,"},{"startTime":2000.67,"endTime":2004.99,"body":"the modern East Anglian"},{"startTime":2000.67,"endTime":2004.99,"body":"ghost stories of M.R James"},{"startTime":2004.99,"endTime":2007.93,"body":"stand in a very long tradition here"},{"startTime":2007.93,"endTime":2012.93,"body":"of creepy guardian"},{"startTime":2007.93,"endTime":2012.93,"body":"sentinels for burial places."},{"startTime":2013.72,"endTime":2016.45,"body":"Some burials were beheaded,"},{"startTime":2016.45,"endTime":2019.09,"body":"where they're found in mass graves,"},{"startTime":2019.09,"endTime":2021.82,"body":"such as the 50 headless bodies"},{"startTime":2021.82,"endTime":2025.243,"body":"found in a pit near Thetford in Norfolk."},{"startTime":2027.1,"endTime":2031.03,"body":"They are probably battle victims"},{"startTime":2031.03,"endTime":2034.432,"body":"whose heads were taken as trophies."},{"startTime":2034.432,"endTime":2039.432,"body":"That leaves 29 scattered"},{"startTime":2034.432,"endTime":2039.432,"body":"around various cemeteries"},{"startTime":2039.7,"endTime":2042.16,"body":"who could have been victims of war"},{"startTime":2042.16,"endTime":2046.21,"body":"or execution or human sacrifice."},{"startTime":2046.21,"endTime":2049.09,"body":"I've used that phrase or human sacrifice"},{"startTime":2049.09,"endTime":2053.95,"body":"or possibly human sacrifice"},{"startTime":2049.09,"endTime":2053.95,"body":"a number of times now,"},{"startTime":2053.95,"endTime":2056.53,"body":"and that's all that I can do."},{"startTime":2056.53,"endTime":2060.85,"body":"There's no more definite proof"},{"startTime":2056.53,"endTime":2060.85,"body":"of it among the pagan English"},{"startTime":2060.85,"endTime":2063.13,"body":"than among the Iron Age British."},{"startTime":2063.13,"endTime":2066.76,"body":"In both cases, the main evidence"},{"startTime":2066.76,"endTime":2071.68,"body":"consists of accusations"},{"startTime":2066.76,"endTime":2071.68,"body":"made by Roman enemies."},{"startTime":2071.68,"endTime":2074.44,"body":"The historian Tacitus"},{"startTime":2074.44,"endTime":2079.44,"body":"held the German tribes were"},{"startTime":2074.44,"endTime":2079.44,"body":"very fond of human sacrifice,"},{"startTime":2080.26,"endTime":2084.58,"body":"but then that's a charge"},{"startTime":2080.26,"endTime":2084.58,"body":"which Romans tended to make"},{"startTime":2084.58,"endTime":2087.91,"body":"against peoples of whom"},{"startTime":2084.58,"endTime":2087.91,"body":"they weren't very fond."},{"startTime":2087.91,"endTime":2090.46,"body":"And since the pagan Germans"},{"startTime":2090.46,"endTime":2094.54,"body":"had had the extraordinary"},{"startTime":2090.46,"endTime":2094.54,"body":"misjudgment and bad taste,"},{"startTime":2094.54,"endTime":2096.22,"body":"according to the Romans,"},{"startTime":2096.22,"endTime":2099.1,"body":"of refusing to be conquered by Rome,"},{"startTime":2099.1,"endTime":2100.69,"body":"any kind of opprobrium"},{"startTime":2100.69,"endTime":2103.63,"body":"that could be heaped"},{"startTime":2100.69,"endTime":2103.63,"body":"upon them in this regard"},{"startTime":2103.63,"endTime":2104.773,"body":"could be welcome."},{"startTime":2106.06,"endTime":2107.95,"body":"But Tacitus did say"},{"startTime":2107.95,"endTime":2112.95,"body":"that the Germans were especially"},{"startTime":2107.95,"endTime":2112.95,"body":"fond of sacrificing people"},{"startTime":2113.68,"endTime":2118.68,"body":"to a god he compared to Mercury,"},{"startTime":2113.68,"endTime":2118.68,"body":"and that was perhaps Woden."},{"startTime":2120.16,"endTime":2122.74,"body":"A later Roman writer, Sidonius,"},{"startTime":2122.74,"endTime":2125.02,"body":"claimed the heathen Anglo-Saxons"},{"startTime":2125.02,"endTime":2129.67,"body":"drowned or crucified a slave chosen by lot"},{"startTime":2129.67,"endTime":2133.393,"body":"before going on each raiding"},{"startTime":2129.67,"endTime":2133.393,"body":"expedition against the Romans."},{"startTime":2134.35,"endTime":2137.113,"body":"Objective ethnographic observation?"},{"startTime":2138.61,"endTime":2140.83,"body":"Enemy propaganda?"},{"startTime":2140.83,"endTime":2144.288,"body":"We can't tell which at this remove,"},{"startTime":2144.288,"endTime":2149.11,"body":"but we can talk about the way"},{"startTime":2144.288,"endTime":2149.11,"body":"in which graves were marked"},{"startTime":2149.11,"endTime":2151.84,"body":"with a bit more objectivity."},{"startTime":2151.84,"endTime":2154.72,"body":"Most graves are not marked at all,"},{"startTime":2154.72,"endTime":2158.32,"body":"but they could have had wooden memorials"},{"startTime":2158.32,"endTime":2161.11,"body":"which would have rotted away completely."},{"startTime":2161.11,"endTime":2164.32,"body":"Burial mounds, barrows"},{"startTime":2164.32,"endTime":2168.31,"body":"were known in the"},{"startTime":2164.32,"endTime":2168.31,"body":"Anglo-Saxons' German homeland,"},{"startTime":2168.31,"endTime":2171.07,"body":"but for the first century in England,"},{"startTime":2171.07,"endTime":2174.31,"body":"their graves all seem to have been flat."},{"startTime":2174.31,"endTime":2177.82,"body":"Then round mounds start to appear there"},{"startTime":2177.82,"endTime":2179.203,"body":"in the sixth century."},{"startTime":2180.04,"endTime":2184.66,"body":"They may have been copied from"},{"startTime":2180.04,"endTime":2184.66,"body":"prehistoric British barrows,"},{"startTime":2184.66,"endTime":2189.01,"body":"which the English indeed often"},{"startTime":2184.66,"endTime":2189.01,"body":"reused for their own dead,"},{"startTime":2189.01,"endTime":2192.1,"body":"and putting your own dead"},{"startTime":2189.01,"endTime":2192.1,"body":"people into an ancient mound"},{"startTime":2192.1,"endTime":2194.14,"body":"that has been there for centuries"},{"startTime":2194.14,"endTime":2198.223,"body":"is not a bad way of claiming"},{"startTime":2194.14,"endTime":2198.223,"body":"the land for yourself."},{"startTime":2199.553,"endTime":2202.36,"body":"Whether you have a mound or not over you"},{"startTime":2202.36,"endTime":2205.75,"body":"remains a matter of individual choice."},{"startTime":2205.75,"endTime":2208.93,"body":"They're not a prestige item, particularly."},{"startTime":2208.93,"endTime":2210.1,"body":"In other words,"},{"startTime":2210.1,"endTime":2214.45,"body":"the richest graves don't always"},{"startTime":2210.1,"endTime":2214.45,"body":"have mounds covering them,"},{"startTime":2214.45,"endTime":2217.45,"body":"and some quite poor"},{"startTime":2214.45,"endTime":2217.45,"body":"graves have got mounds."},{"startTime":2217.45,"endTime":2219.73,"body":"So again, there's no rubric."},{"startTime":2219.73,"endTime":2223.54,"body":"It's a matter of pick and"},{"startTime":2219.73,"endTime":2223.54,"body":"mix, individual taste,"},{"startTime":2223.54,"endTime":2226.36,"body":"from a palette of possibilities"},{"startTime":2226.36,"endTime":2229.663,"body":"that appeal in different"},{"startTime":2226.36,"endTime":2229.663,"body":"ways to different people."},{"startTime":2231.37,"endTime":2233.05,"body":"And it's worth making the point"},{"startTime":2233.05,"endTime":2236.32,"body":"in connection with all this diversity"},{"startTime":2236.32,"endTime":2240.52,"body":"that the sixth and seventh-century English"},{"startTime":2240.52,"endTime":2244.87,"body":"were a very adaptable"},{"startTime":2240.52,"endTime":2244.87,"body":"people with wide horizons,"},{"startTime":2244.87,"endTime":2247.0,"body":"taking ideas and images"},{"startTime":2247.0,"endTime":2252.0,"body":"from all over the Scandinavian"},{"startTime":2247.0,"endTime":2252.0,"body":"and the German world"},{"startTime":2252.01,"endTime":2253.93,"body":"and the Mediterranean one,"},{"startTime":2253.93,"endTime":2256.15,"body":"as well as from the native British"},{"startTime":2256.15,"endTime":2259.45,"body":"and from British prehistoric monuments."},{"startTime":2259.45,"endTime":2263.68,"body":"The huge cemetery at Spong Hill in Norfolk"},{"startTime":2263.68,"endTime":2265.54,"body":"shows goods and designs"},{"startTime":2265.54,"endTime":2270.54,"body":"from Norway, Denmark, Sweden, and Germany,"},{"startTime":2271.03,"endTime":2274.12,"body":"and these are all distinctive styles."},{"startTime":2274.12,"endTime":2277.96,"body":"So the way in which you kit"},{"startTime":2274.12,"endTime":2277.96,"body":"yourself out as an Anglo-Saxon"},{"startTime":2277.96,"endTime":2279.85,"body":"and the way in which you buried"},{"startTime":2279.85,"endTime":2282.01,"body":"is almost as cosmopolitan"},{"startTime":2282.01,"endTime":2285.13,"body":"as a modern person"},{"startTime":2282.01,"endTime":2285.13,"body":"deciding where to eat out,"},{"startTime":2285.13,"endTime":2289.483,"body":"you know, which ethnicity of"},{"startTime":2285.13,"endTime":2289.483,"body":"cuisine you're going to choose."},{"startTime":2290.38,"endTime":2291.55,"body":"And it does show"},{"startTime":2291.55,"endTime":2296.113,"body":"a remarkable open-mindedness"},{"startTime":2291.55,"endTime":2296.113,"body":"and versatility."},{"startTime":2297.61,"endTime":2300.82,"body":"There's a tendency for funerals and graves"},{"startTime":2300.82,"endTime":2303.25,"body":"to get more and more ornate"},{"startTime":2303.25,"endTime":2305.768,"body":"towards the end of the pagan period"},{"startTime":2305.768,"endTime":2310.768,"body":"as Anglo-Saxon society"},{"startTime":2305.768,"endTime":2310.768,"body":"grew more sophisticated,"},{"startTime":2311.11,"endTime":2315.13,"body":"and also as it began to be infiltrated by"},{"startTime":2315.13,"endTime":2317.56,"body":"and challenged by Christianity."},{"startTime":2317.56,"endTime":2320.71,"body":"There's a sense that the"},{"startTime":2317.56,"endTime":2320.71,"body":"last Anglo-Saxon pagans"},{"startTime":2320.71,"endTime":2322.84,"body":"are seeing their game being raised"},{"startTime":2322.84,"endTime":2325.63,"body":"by these characters with stone churches"},{"startTime":2325.63,"endTime":2330.63,"body":"and formal priests and ornate"},{"startTime":2325.63,"endTime":2330.63,"body":"burial liturgy and mausolea,"},{"startTime":2332.77,"endTime":2335.17,"body":"and are trying to do something pagan"},{"startTime":2335.17,"endTime":2337.69,"body":"that will be equally impressive."},{"startTime":2337.69,"endTime":2342.55,"body":"The greatest of all its pagan cemeteries"},{"startTime":2342.55,"endTime":2345.27,"body":"were those of the kings of East Anglia"},{"startTime":2345.27,"endTime":2348.82,"body":"in the late sixth and"},{"startTime":2345.27,"endTime":2348.82,"body":"early seventh centuries"},{"startTime":2348.82,"endTime":2353.82,"body":"at Snape and of course"},{"startTime":2348.82,"endTime":2353.82,"body":"Sutton Hoo in Suffolk."},{"startTime":2354.13,"endTime":2356.02,"body":"Both of these cemeteries began"},{"startTime":2356.02,"endTime":2360.97,"body":"with simple inhumations in"},{"startTime":2356.02,"endTime":2360.97,"body":"coffins and cremations in urns."},{"startTime":2360.97,"endTime":2364.18,"body":"So flat graves, business as usual."},{"startTime":2364.18,"endTime":2366.73,"body":"Then came wooden chambers,"},{"startTime":2366.73,"endTime":2369.58,"body":"and finally, the great ship burials,"},{"startTime":2369.58,"endTime":2372.13,"body":"like the really celebrated one,"},{"startTime":2372.13,"endTime":2377.13,"body":"the one that's made the"},{"startTime":2372.13,"endTime":2377.13,"body":"movies and DVD in Sutton Hoo"},{"startTime":2377.74,"endTime":2381.193,"body":"right in the screen there, reconstructed."},{"startTime":2382.9,"endTime":2386.26,"body":"Even there, however, there's"},{"startTime":2382.9,"endTime":2386.26,"body":"nothing standard about them."},{"startTime":2386.26,"endTime":2388.75,"body":"Of the ships at Snape,"},{"startTime":2388.75,"endTime":2393.4,"body":"one was 50 feet in length"},{"startTime":2388.75,"endTime":2393.4,"body":"and the other was a dinghy."},{"startTime":2393.4,"endTime":2395.53,"body":"In fact, it could actually"},{"startTime":2393.4,"endTime":2395.53,"body":"have been the dinghy"},{"startTime":2395.53,"endTime":2397.45,"body":"of the 50-foot ship,"},{"startTime":2397.45,"endTime":2400.9,"body":"but they had prestige burials in each,"},{"startTime":2400.9,"endTime":2402.67,"body":"so it looks as if somebody"},{"startTime":2402.67,"endTime":2407.32,"body":"wanted a kind of maisonette for a grave"},{"startTime":2407.32,"endTime":2410.56,"body":"and somebody else wanted a palace."},{"startTime":2410.56,"endTime":2414.97,"body":"At Sutton Hoo, one ship measured 65 feet"},{"startTime":2414.97,"endTime":2416.5,"body":"and the other 90 feet,"},{"startTime":2416.5,"endTime":2419.86,"body":"and that's the one on"},{"startTime":2416.5,"endTime":2419.86,"body":"the screen reconstructed"},{"startTime":2419.86,"endTime":2424.81,"body":"containing the famous"},{"startTime":2419.86,"endTime":2424.81,"body":"treasure found in 1939,"},{"startTime":2424.81,"endTime":2427.54,"body":"the Sutton Hoo treasure"},{"startTime":2424.81,"endTime":2427.54,"body":"in the British Museum"},{"startTime":2427.54,"endTime":2431.05,"body":"which has provided most"},{"startTime":2427.54,"endTime":2431.05,"body":"of the iconic objects"},{"startTime":2431.05,"endTime":2435.43,"body":"for our knowledge not just"},{"startTime":2431.05,"endTime":2435.43,"body":"of Anglo-Saxon England,"},{"startTime":2435.43,"endTime":2437.593,"body":"but for early medieval Britain."},{"startTime":2438.67,"endTime":2442.48,"body":"Practically anybody in"},{"startTime":2438.67,"endTime":2442.48,"body":"the late 20th century"},{"startTime":2442.48,"endTime":2446.62,"body":"who wrote a novel about Dark"},{"startTime":2442.48,"endTime":2446.62,"body":"Age or early medieval Britain"},{"startTime":2446.62,"endTime":2447.94,"body":"was at least tempted"},{"startTime":2447.94,"endTime":2451.48,"body":"to stick the Sutton Hoo"},{"startTime":2447.94,"endTime":2451.48,"body":"helmet on the front of it,"},{"startTime":2451.48,"endTime":2453.88,"body":"and most of the other"},{"startTime":2451.48,"endTime":2453.88,"body":"objects have turned up"},{"startTime":2453.88,"endTime":2458.02,"body":"as our standard illustrations ever since."},{"startTime":2458.02,"endTime":2462.07,"body":"For me, the most emotive of the objects"},{"startTime":2462.07,"endTime":2464.98,"body":"is what had been a leather bag"},{"startTime":2464.98,"endTime":2469.98,"body":"containing 37 coins and three gold pieces."},{"startTime":2470.53,"endTime":2472.87,"body":"Now, why is this interesting"},{"startTime":2472.87,"endTime":2477.87,"body":"when it's surrounded by"},{"startTime":2472.87,"endTime":2477.87,"body":"treasure of much greater beauty"},{"startTime":2478.33,"endTime":2481.09,"body":"and of many different kinds?"},{"startTime":2481.09,"endTime":2485.56,"body":"Well, the answer is that"},{"startTime":2481.09,"endTime":2485.56,"body":"the 90-foot ship needed,"},{"startTime":2485.56,"endTime":2488.98,"body":"and you can actually in"},{"startTime":2485.56,"endTime":2488.98,"body":"the impression in the sand,"},{"startTime":2488.98,"endTime":2492.73,"body":"see the berths, 40 rowers."},{"startTime":2492.73,"endTime":2496.48,"body":"So what what we have there"},{"startTime":2492.73,"endTime":2496.48,"body":"is payment for 40 oarsmen"},{"startTime":2496.48,"endTime":2499.243,"body":"to keep on rowing into the afterlife."},{"startTime":2502.33,"endTime":2505.24,"body":"It's a further sobering sign"},{"startTime":2505.24,"endTime":2508.51,"body":"of how little we actually know, still,"},{"startTime":2508.51,"endTime":2511.21,"body":"even about something as famous"},{"startTime":2511.21,"endTime":2514.69,"body":"and well recorded as Sutton Hoo"},{"startTime":2514.69,"endTime":2516.01,"body":"that the identity"},{"startTime":2516.01,"endTime":2519.97,"body":"of the king who is"},{"startTime":2516.01,"endTime":2519.97,"body":"buried there is disputed."},{"startTime":2519.97,"endTime":2523.57,"body":"There are about three"},{"startTime":2519.97,"endTime":2523.57,"body":"different candidates."},{"startTime":2523.57,"endTime":2525.97,"body":"And so is the significance of the mixture"},{"startTime":2525.97,"endTime":2529.39,"body":"of pagan and Christian"},{"startTime":2525.97,"endTime":2529.39,"body":"objects in the treasure."},{"startTime":2529.39,"endTime":2532.93,"body":"The armor, the weaponry"},{"startTime":2529.39,"endTime":2532.93,"body":"looks really pagan,"},{"startTime":2532.93,"endTime":2535.27,"body":"but it also contains,"},{"startTime":2535.27,"endTime":2539.17,"body":"the treasure contains"},{"startTime":2535.27,"endTime":2539.17,"body":"Christian baptismal spoons"},{"startTime":2539.17,"endTime":2541.319,"body":"and hanging bowls."},{"startTime":2541.319,"endTime":2545.14,"body":"And it shows you again how little we know"},{"startTime":2545.14,"endTime":2548.98,"body":"that you can head off in"},{"startTime":2545.14,"endTime":2548.98,"body":"totally different directions."},{"startTime":2548.98,"endTime":2553.98,"body":"If you want the savage view"},{"startTime":2548.98,"endTime":2553.98,"body":"of the pagan Anglo-Saxons,"},{"startTime":2554.05,"endTime":2558.82,"body":"then the prone burials tossed"},{"startTime":2554.05,"endTime":2558.82,"body":"in over higher status people"},{"startTime":2558.82,"endTime":2562.21,"body":"are human sacrifices,"},{"startTime":2562.21,"endTime":2565.09,"body":"and the Christian objects"},{"startTime":2565.09,"endTime":2567.79,"body":"were looted from Christian churches"},{"startTime":2567.79,"endTime":2570.94,"body":"by the forebears of the"},{"startTime":2567.79,"endTime":2570.94,"body":"king, whoever he was,"},{"startTime":2570.94,"endTime":2572.53,"body":"buried in the ship."},{"startTime":2572.53,"endTime":2575.56,"body":"But if you want the"},{"startTime":2572.53,"endTime":2575.56,"body":"fluffy and friendly view"},{"startTime":2575.56,"endTime":2577.9,"body":"of pagan Anglo-Saxon society,"},{"startTime":2577.9,"endTime":2582.61,"body":"which is equally valid and"},{"startTime":2577.9,"endTime":2582.61,"body":"suits the evidence equally well,"},{"startTime":2582.61,"endTime":2584.47,"body":"then the people put in the graves"},{"startTime":2584.47,"endTime":2586.36,"body":"with the higher status people"},{"startTime":2586.36,"endTime":2588.28,"body":"were not sacrificed at at all."},{"startTime":2588.28,"endTime":2590.2,"body":"They were faithful retainers"},{"startTime":2590.2,"endTime":2592.45,"body":"who had died around the same time"},{"startTime":2592.45,"endTime":2597.01,"body":"and wanted to accompany"},{"startTime":2592.45,"endTime":2597.01,"body":"their master or mistress"},{"startTime":2597.01,"endTime":2598.51,"body":"into the afterlife."},{"startTime":2598.51,"endTime":2603.19,"body":"So in this view, the mixture"},{"startTime":2598.51,"endTime":2603.19,"body":"of pagan and Christian objects"},{"startTime":2603.19,"endTime":2608.19,"body":"indicates a friendly,"},{"startTime":2603.19,"endTime":2608.19,"body":"happy, open-minded society"},{"startTime":2608.47,"endTime":2611.92,"body":"in which pagans and Christians"},{"startTime":2608.47,"endTime":2611.92,"body":"practice side by side"},{"startTime":2611.92,"endTime":2615.76,"body":"and their objects end up with"},{"startTime":2611.92,"endTime":2615.76,"body":"the king who ruled over both."},{"startTime":2615.76,"endTime":2617.143,"body":"You take your choice."},{"startTime":2619.72,"endTime":2624.72,"body":"Within 50 or 60 years of"},{"startTime":2619.72,"endTime":2624.72,"body":"the burial at Sutton Hoo,"},{"startTime":2625.6,"endTime":2628.72,"body":"pagan England was already gone."},{"startTime":2628.72,"endTime":2633.047,"body":"It had been swept away in one"},{"startTime":2628.72,"endTime":2633.047,"body":"long lifetime between 597,"},{"startTime":2634.69,"endTime":2636.76,"body":"when the first Christian mission"},{"startTime":2636.76,"endTime":2638.92,"body":"was sent to England from Rome,"},{"startTime":2638.92,"endTime":2643.92,"body":"and 665, when the last pagan"},{"startTime":2638.92,"endTime":2643.92,"body":"kingdom formally converted."},{"startTime":2647.05,"endTime":2650.74,"body":"This was a stop-start process"},{"startTime":2650.74,"endTime":2652.36,"body":"because individual kingdoms"},{"startTime":2652.36,"endTime":2655.9,"body":"often go back to paganism for a while"},{"startTime":2655.9,"endTime":2659.65,"body":"if rulers and circumstances changed,"},{"startTime":2659.65,"endTime":2661.48,"body":"but in the end, and the end came,"},{"startTime":2661.48,"endTime":2663.91,"body":"as I've said, quite quickly."},{"startTime":2663.91,"endTime":2665.68,"body":"It was inexorable."},{"startTime":2665.68,"endTime":2669.13,"body":"The Christian effort was utterly sustained"},{"startTime":2669.13,"endTime":2671.98,"body":"and utterly determined."},{"startTime":2671.98,"endTime":2674.29,"body":"If a kingdom relapsed to paganism,"},{"startTime":2674.29,"endTime":2676.72,"body":"fresh missionaries were just sent in"},{"startTime":2676.72,"endTime":2680.89,"body":"and pressure applied from"},{"startTime":2676.72,"endTime":2680.89,"body":"neighboring Christian kings."},{"startTime":2680.89,"endTime":2684.91,"body":"And pagan England was totally"},{"startTime":2680.89,"endTime":2684.91,"body":"surrounded by kingdoms"},{"startTime":2684.91,"endTime":2687.67,"body":"which had already"},{"startTime":2684.91,"endTime":2687.67,"body":"converted to Christianity,"},{"startTime":2687.67,"endTime":2689.728,"body":"Irish, Scottish,"},{"startTime":2689.728,"endTime":2693.1,"body":"and to the south and east"},{"startTime":2689.728,"endTime":2693.1,"body":"on the continent, Frankish,"},{"startTime":2693.1,"endTime":2695.17,"body":"who were all really keen"},{"startTime":2695.17,"endTime":2698.41,"body":"that England should have"},{"startTime":2695.17,"endTime":2698.41,"body":"their brand of Christianity"},{"startTime":2698.41,"endTime":2699.73,"body":"and ally with them"},{"startTime":2699.73,"endTime":2702.88,"body":"and would offer considerable political"},{"startTime":2702.88,"endTime":2707.02,"body":"and commercial advantages to the union."},{"startTime":2707.02,"endTime":2710.89,"body":"And there was nothing by"},{"startTime":2707.02,"endTime":2710.89,"body":"contrast in native paganism"},{"startTime":2710.89,"endTime":2714.67,"body":"that set it up as an"},{"startTime":2710.89,"endTime":2714.67,"body":"ideology of resistance"},{"startTime":2714.67,"endTime":2719.11,"body":"to an imperialist and"},{"startTime":2714.67,"endTime":2719.11,"body":"determined evangelical faith."},{"startTime":2719.11,"endTime":2723.22,"body":"It was too decentralized,"},{"startTime":2719.11,"endTime":2723.22,"body":"it was too organic,"},{"startTime":2723.22,"endTime":2725.47,"body":"it was too incoherent,"},{"startTime":2725.47,"endTime":2728.29,"body":"and it had too much choice, individually."},{"startTime":2728.29,"endTime":2731.77,"body":"There was no doctrine, there was no creed"},{"startTime":2731.77,"endTime":2735.073,"body":"that could bond people"},{"startTime":2731.77,"endTime":2735.073,"body":"together for a holy war."},{"startTime":2736.15,"endTime":2737.56,"body":"And in a way, that's good,"},{"startTime":2737.56,"endTime":2739.45,"body":"because the conversion was accomplished"},{"startTime":2739.45,"endTime":2741.55,"body":"with no wars of religion"},{"startTime":2741.55,"endTime":2746.47,"body":"and no martyrs clearly"},{"startTime":2741.55,"endTime":2746.47,"body":"proven on either side."},{"startTime":2746.47,"endTime":2749.68,"body":"The last great pagan king in England"},{"startTime":2749.68,"endTime":2752.23,"body":"was Penda the king of Mercia,"},{"startTime":2752.23,"endTime":2755.26,"body":"the kingdom that covered the Midlands,"},{"startTime":2755.26,"endTime":2758.71,"body":"and he was feared by Christian kings"},{"startTime":2758.71,"endTime":2761.32,"body":"because he really enjoyed killing them."},{"startTime":2761.32,"endTime":2763.12,"body":"He wiped out five of them"},{"startTime":2763.12,"endTime":2767.38,"body":"before he fell in battle"},{"startTime":2763.12,"endTime":2767.38,"body":"himself against a sixth."},{"startTime":2767.38,"endTime":2769.78,"body":"But he didn't enjoy killing them"},{"startTime":2769.78,"endTime":2771.28,"body":"because they were Christians."},{"startTime":2771.28,"endTime":2774.58,"body":"He enjoyed killing them"},{"startTime":2771.28,"endTime":2774.58,"body":"because they were rival kings,"},{"startTime":2774.58,"endTime":2778.81,"body":"and Penda disposed of those"},{"startTime":2774.58,"endTime":2778.81,"body":"with an extraordinary dexterity."},{"startTime":2778.81,"endTime":2782.56,"body":"He never at any point positioned himself"},{"startTime":2782.56,"endTime":2787.33,"body":"as a pagan warrior, as"},{"startTime":2782.56,"endTime":2787.33,"body":"such, a pagan crusader,"},{"startTime":2787.33,"endTime":2789.34,"body":"and although he died a pagan"},{"startTime":2789.34,"endTime":2793.09,"body":"and presumably set off"},{"startTime":2789.34,"endTime":2793.09,"body":"for the pagan afterlife"},{"startTime":2793.09,"endTime":2795.16,"body":"which I've been discussing,"},{"startTime":2795.16,"endTime":2798.34,"body":"he was apparently totally happy"},{"startTime":2798.34,"endTime":2801.55,"body":"that his own son and heir"},{"startTime":2798.34,"endTime":2801.55,"body":"converted to Christianity"},{"startTime":2801.55,"endTime":2803.233,"body":"before his father's death."},{"startTime":2804.28,"endTime":2806.05,"body":"Penda did not see his religion"},{"startTime":2806.05,"endTime":2808.15,"body":"as something worth fighting for."},{"startTime":2808.15,"endTime":2813.15,"body":"He saw things like glory, loot,"},{"startTime":2808.15,"endTime":2813.15,"body":"honor and expanded territory"},{"startTime":2814.12,"endTime":2818.623,"body":"as the staff for which to"},{"startTime":2814.12,"endTime":2818.623,"body":"fight, and did so superbly."},{"startTime":2819.52,"endTime":2822.97,"body":"In a way, therefore, the"},{"startTime":2819.52,"endTime":2822.97,"body":"famous burial at Sutton Hoo"},{"startTime":2822.97,"endTime":2827.08,"body":"sums up the enigma of Anglo-Saxon paganism"},{"startTime":2827.08,"endTime":2830.92,"body":"with its combination of"},{"startTime":2827.08,"endTime":2830.92,"body":"cultural richness and profusion"},{"startTime":2830.92,"endTime":2833.98,"body":"and abiding unanswered questions."},{"startTime":2833.98,"endTime":2837.61,"body":"Like the Sutton Hoo cemetery itself,"},{"startTime":2837.61,"endTime":2842.02,"body":"Anglo-Saxon paganism begins in obscurity"},{"startTime":2842.02,"endTime":2844.66,"body":"and ends in mystery,"},{"startTime":2844.66,"endTime":2848.35,"body":"and yet its remains"},{"startTime":2844.66,"endTime":2848.35,"body":"still have the capacity"},{"startTime":2848.35,"endTime":2852.67,"body":"to thrill the senses and"},{"startTime":2848.35,"endTime":2852.67,"body":"inspire the imagination."},{"startTime":2852.67,"endTime":2857.67,"body":"When Beowulf can end up being"},{"startTime":2852.67,"endTime":2857.67,"body":"played by Ray Winstone so far,"},{"startTime":2860.29,"endTime":2863.47,"body":"and Grendel's mother by Angelina Jolie,"},{"startTime":2863.47,"endTime":2864.303,"body":"which is the bit"},{"startTime":2864.303,"endTime":2866.44,"body":"that none of us expected,"},{"startTime":2864.303,"endTime":2866.44,"body":"(audience laughing)"},{"startTime":2866.44,"endTime":2868.51,"body":"and the dig at Sutton Hoo"},{"startTime":2868.51,"endTime":2873.51,"body":"can end up as a very successful movie"},{"startTime":2873.61,"endTime":2878.32,"body":"streaming now and with A-list stars,"},{"startTime":2878.32,"endTime":2882.7,"body":"the Anglo-Saxon pagans still"},{"startTime":2878.32,"endTime":2882.7,"body":"have a lot to say to us,"},{"startTime":2882.7,"endTime":2887.023,"body":"even if we can't always hear"},{"startTime":2882.7,"endTime":2887.023,"body":"exactly what they are saying."},{"startTime":2888.488,"endTime":2891.655,"body":"(audience applauding)"},{"startTime":2902.484,"endTime":2903.354,"body":"- Professor Hutton,"},{"startTime":2903.354,"endTime":2905.29,"body":"thank you very much for"},{"startTime":2903.354,"endTime":2905.29,"body":"another fascinating lecture."},{"startTime":2905.29,"endTime":2907.51,"body":"I have a lot of questions for you."},{"startTime":2907.51,"endTime":2909.4,"body":"Many of them have come from online,"},{"startTime":2909.4,"endTime":2910.57,"body":"but I'll take a couple from here"},{"startTime":2910.57,"endTime":2911.92,"body":"before I open up to the floor."},{"startTime":2911.92,"endTime":2915.07,"body":"So the first one for you."},{"startTime":2915.07,"endTime":2918.58,"body":"What visible or other remnants"},{"startTime":2915.07,"endTime":2918.58,"body":"of the Anglo-Saxon theology"},{"startTime":2918.58,"endTime":2919.933,"body":"can we see in London?"},{"startTime":2920.95,"endTime":2922.42,"body":"- Wonderful question."},{"startTime":2922.42,"endTime":2925.543,"body":"The answer is practically nothing,"},{"startTime":2927.04,"endTime":2931.15,"body":"and this is because the pagan Anglo-Saxons"},{"startTime":2931.15,"endTime":2932.353,"body":"didn't live in London."},{"startTime":2933.28,"endTime":2936.37,"body":"They had a look at all the"},{"startTime":2933.28,"endTime":2936.37,"body":"crumbling des res there"},{"startTime":2936.37,"endTime":2939.13,"body":"and decided probably it was too spooky."},{"startTime":2939.13,"endTime":2942.1,"body":"And so they built a new town,"},{"startTime":2942.1,"endTime":2945.632,"body":"the old port, Aldwych,"},{"startTime":2945.632,"endTime":2949.0,"body":"just to the west of the ruined Roman city,"},{"startTime":2949.0,"endTime":2952.66,"body":"and Aldwych, at least as a"},{"startTime":2949.0,"endTime":2952.66,"body":"name, is still there today."},{"startTime":2952.66,"endTime":2955.24,"body":"And they remained there"},{"startTime":2952.66,"endTime":2955.24,"body":"until Alfred the Great"},{"startTime":2955.24,"endTime":2958.12,"body":"stomped over from Wessex to the west"},{"startTime":2958.12,"endTime":2961.39,"body":"and insisted that Aldwych be destroyed"},{"startTime":2961.39,"endTime":2964.54,"body":"and the inhabitants"},{"startTime":2961.39,"endTime":2964.54,"body":"relocated in Roman London"},{"startTime":2964.54,"endTime":2968.74,"body":"as part of the re-Romanization"},{"startTime":2964.54,"endTime":2968.74,"body":"and rebuilding of England,"},{"startTime":2968.74,"endTime":2973.74,"body":"which Alfred, copying Rome at"},{"startTime":2968.74,"endTime":2973.74,"body":"every stage, was instituting."},{"startTime":2973.84,"endTime":2974.77,"body":"And that's why"},{"startTime":2974.77,"endTime":2978.91,"body":"the remains of Anglo-Saxon"},{"startTime":2974.77,"endTime":2978.91,"body":"London are invisible."},{"startTime":2978.91,"endTime":2982.27,"body":"They're underneath St."},{"startTime":2978.91,"endTime":2982.27,"body":"Clement Danes Church"},{"startTime":2982.27,"endTime":2984.07,"body":"and St. Mary in the Strand"},{"startTime":2984.07,"endTime":2988.483,"body":"and some rather expensive"},{"startTime":2984.07,"endTime":2988.483,"body":"restaurants on that corner."},{"startTime":2990.13,"endTime":2991.78,"body":"- I'll take another one."},{"startTime":2991.78,"endTime":2992.68,"body":"There are so many on here."},{"startTime":2992.68,"endTime":2993.88,"body":"Just give me one second."},{"startTime":2995.513,"endTime":2998.41,"body":"Were Anglo-Saxon women found with weapons"},{"startTime":2998.41,"endTime":3001.446,"body":"and would they suggest female warriors?"},{"startTime":3001.446,"endTime":3004.623,"body":"- They are sometimes found with weapons."},{"startTime":3005.52,"endTime":3008.523,"body":"They're found with weapons"},{"startTime":3005.52,"endTime":3008.523,"body":"a lot more rarely than men."},{"startTime":3009.51,"endTime":3012.39,"body":"They tend to have ornaments instead."},{"startTime":3012.39,"endTime":3015.09,"body":"But then there are quite"},{"startTime":3012.39,"endTime":3015.09,"body":"a few men without weapons."},{"startTime":3015.09,"endTime":3020.09,"body":"But on the whole, this is a"},{"startTime":3015.09,"endTime":3020.09,"body":"society in which a male kit"},{"startTime":3020.16,"endTime":3023.074,"body":"is supposed to consist of a weapon,"},{"startTime":3023.074,"endTime":3026.58,"body":"just as naturally as is a need to shave,"},{"startTime":3026.58,"endTime":3030.09,"body":"and so there is some gendering there,"},{"startTime":3030.09,"endTime":3033.12,"body":"but there's no other gendering visible."},{"startTime":3033.12,"endTime":3036.27,"body":"What we haven't had yet, as far as I know,"},{"startTime":3036.27,"endTime":3038.46,"body":"is a reclassification"},{"startTime":3038.46,"endTime":3041.34,"body":"of Anglo-Saxon pagan burials with weapons"},{"startTime":3041.34,"endTime":3045.15,"body":"from being thought to be male"},{"startTime":3041.34,"endTime":3045.15,"body":"to being thought to be female,"},{"startTime":3045.15,"endTime":3047.43,"body":"which is what's going on in Scandinavia"},{"startTime":3047.43,"endTime":3049.673,"body":"with Viking graves there,"},{"startTime":3049.673,"endTime":3052.277,"body":"but I wouldn't be surprised"},{"startTime":3049.673,"endTime":3052.277,"body":"if it began to happen."},{"startTime":3053.651,"endTime":3055.64,"body":"- [Audience Member 1]"},{"startTime":3053.651,"endTime":3055.64,"body":"Thank you very much indeed."},{"startTime":3055.64,"endTime":3058.17,"body":"If the Christians were so successful"},{"startTime":3058.17,"endTime":3060.87,"body":"at wiping out indigenous paganism,"},{"startTime":3060.87,"endTime":3063.75,"body":"how come is it that we still today"},{"startTime":3063.75,"endTime":3067.47,"body":"are using their pagan names"},{"startTime":3063.75,"endTime":3067.47,"body":"for the days of the week,"},{"startTime":3067.47,"endTime":3069.51,"body":"whereas, for example, in Portuguese,"},{"startTime":3069.51,"endTime":3072.78,"body":"they've renumbered them in a"},{"startTime":3069.51,"endTime":3072.78,"body":"entirely acceptable fashion"},{"startTime":3072.78,"endTime":3073.613,"body":"to the Christians,"},{"startTime":3073.613,"endTime":3075.9,"body":"but here clearly they survive."},{"startTime":3075.9,"endTime":3078.18,"body":"And secondary question to that,"},{"startTime":3078.18,"endTime":3079.53,"body":"might that not account,"},{"startTime":3079.53,"endTime":3082.26,"body":"if it was stronger than you've suggested,"},{"startTime":3082.26,"endTime":3085.14,"body":"for the huge success of pagan invaders"},{"startTime":3085.14,"endTime":3087.42,"body":"not very long afterwards?"},{"startTime":3087.42,"endTime":3090.15,"body":"- I'm with you on the first of those."},{"startTime":3090.15,"endTime":3093.84,"body":"The problem with the huge"},{"startTime":3090.15,"endTime":3093.84,"body":"success of the Vikings thereafter"},{"startTime":3093.84,"endTime":3097.11,"body":"was that it happened in all"},{"startTime":3093.84,"endTime":3097.11,"body":"too many cases, literally,"},{"startTime":3097.11,"endTime":3099.87,"body":"over the Anglo-Saxons' dead bodies."},{"startTime":3099.87,"endTime":3102.72,"body":"They did their best to"},{"startTime":3099.87,"endTime":3102.72,"body":"fight off the Vikings,"},{"startTime":3102.72,"endTime":3106.62,"body":"and in Wessex, did so very successfully,"},{"startTime":3106.62,"endTime":3108.99,"body":"and of course did force the frontier north"},{"startTime":3108.99,"endTime":3110.43,"body":"and create England."},{"startTime":3110.43,"endTime":3113.28,"body":"The reason why there are pagan names"},{"startTime":3113.28,"endTime":3115.2,"body":"for the days of the week,"},{"startTime":3115.2,"endTime":3116.76,"body":"I would love to think,"},{"startTime":3116.76,"endTime":3120.72,"body":"is because of the affection"},{"startTime":3116.76,"endTime":3120.72,"body":"that Anglo-Saxon Christianity"},{"startTime":3120.72,"endTime":3122.97,"body":"had Anglo-Saxon paganism."},{"startTime":3122.97,"endTime":3124.23,"body":"But it seems instead"},{"startTime":3124.23,"endTime":3129.23,"body":"to be part of the ongoing"},{"startTime":3124.23,"endTime":3129.23,"body":"post-Roman admiration for Rome."},{"startTime":3129.63,"endTime":3130.71,"body":"In other words,"},{"startTime":3130.71,"endTime":3135.71,"body":"that Christianized people"},{"startTime":3130.71,"endTime":3135.71,"body":"in other Roman territories"},{"startTime":3137.01,"endTime":3139.473,"body":"adopted the names"},{"startTime":3139.473,"endTime":3142.26,"body":"that the Romans had given"},{"startTime":3139.473,"endTime":3142.26,"body":"to the days of the week,"},{"startTime":3142.26,"endTime":3144.45,"body":"which were named after pagan gods,"},{"startTime":3144.45,"endTime":3149.45,"body":"and didn't want to change"},{"startTime":3144.45,"endTime":3149.45,"body":"that system by working out,"},{"startTime":3149.828,"endTime":3152.7,"body":"well, shall we give Monday to St. Peter"},{"startTime":3152.7,"endTime":3155.49,"body":"and Tuesday to St. Andrew, and so on."},{"startTime":3155.49,"endTime":3158.19,"body":"It never even seems to"},{"startTime":3155.49,"endTime":3158.19,"body":"have been discussed."},{"startTime":3158.19,"endTime":3160.8,"body":"There were Christians"},{"startTime":3158.19,"endTime":3160.8,"body":"who grumbled about it,"},{"startTime":3160.8,"endTime":3163.65,"body":"but no official attempt to review it."},{"startTime":3163.65,"endTime":3165.45,"body":"But what is really interesting"},{"startTime":3165.45,"endTime":3168.57,"body":"is there was enough of a local pride"},{"startTime":3168.57,"endTime":3172.14,"body":"in specifically English paganism"},{"startTime":3172.14,"endTime":3175.95,"body":"for the English to be most unusual"},{"startTime":3175.95,"endTime":3179.43,"body":"in peoples within the old Roman Empire"},{"startTime":3179.43,"endTime":3182.07,"body":"in not taking the Roman names."},{"startTime":3182.07,"endTime":3184.98,"body":"So the French, the Franks"},{"startTime":3182.07,"endTime":3184.98,"body":"were equally Germanic,"},{"startTime":3184.98,"endTime":3189.21,"body":"but their Wednesday is still"},{"startTime":3184.98,"endTime":3189.21,"body":"Mercredi after Mercury,"},{"startTime":3189.21,"endTime":3192.163,"body":"and here it's Woden's Day."},{"startTime":3193.265,"endTime":3194.55,"body":"- [Audience Member 2] My question"},{"startTime":3194.55,"endTime":3197.539,"body":"is about the grave goods, really."},{"startTime":3197.539,"endTime":3200.043,"body":"I mean, it does seem,"},{"startTime":3200.951,"endTime":3205.11,"body":"you described it at the beginning"},{"startTime":3200.951,"endTime":3205.11,"body":"as subsistence agriculture"},{"startTime":3205.11,"endTime":3208.393,"body":"and very sort of poor communities."},{"startTime":3211.38,"endTime":3214.05,"body":"So the grave goods are funny, aren't they?"},{"startTime":3214.05,"endTime":3217.591,"body":"Because why would you"},{"startTime":3214.05,"endTime":3217.591,"body":"give away your father's..."},{"startTime":3217.591,"endTime":3221.43,"body":"Why would you bury your"},{"startTime":3217.591,"endTime":3221.43,"body":"father's sword with him,"},{"startTime":3221.43,"endTime":3226.43,"body":"and not inherit it and use it yourself?"},{"startTime":3226.53,"endTime":3228.9,"body":"And I suppose the other thing is about,"},{"startTime":3228.9,"endTime":3232.29,"body":"and I maybe that's a sort"},{"startTime":3228.9,"endTime":3232.29,"body":"of evolution over time,"},{"startTime":3232.29,"endTime":3235.56,"body":"but for a subsistence agriculture"},{"startTime":3235.56,"endTime":3240.56,"body":"to get goods from Denmark"},{"startTime":3235.56,"endTime":3240.56,"body":"and Norway and other places"},{"startTime":3243.9,"endTime":3246.18,"body":"must have been quite difficult"},{"startTime":3246.18,"endTime":3251.18,"body":"and very limited in what"},{"startTime":3246.18,"endTime":3251.18,"body":"they were able to get."},{"startTime":3251.898,"endTime":3252.753,"body":"- It's a good point."},{"startTime":3252.753,"endTime":3254.28,"body":"They did have trade."},{"startTime":3254.28,"endTime":3259.28,"body":"Trade was very important, but"},{"startTime":3254.28,"endTime":3259.28,"body":"whereas in the Roman economy,"},{"startTime":3259.95,"endTime":3262.8,"body":"it's a cash economy big time,"},{"startTime":3262.8,"endTime":3266.91,"body":"and so you produce objects"},{"startTime":3262.8,"endTime":3266.91,"body":"often in factories,"},{"startTime":3266.91,"endTime":3271.86,"body":"and then you sell them for"},{"startTime":3266.91,"endTime":3271.86,"body":"cash and the cash circulates."},{"startTime":3271.86,"endTime":3274.41,"body":"In a subsistence society,"},{"startTime":3274.41,"endTime":3278.46,"body":"and this is the case right"},{"startTime":3274.41,"endTime":3278.46,"body":"across the planet, traditionally,"},{"startTime":3278.46,"endTime":3282.09,"body":"objects are exchanged in gift"},{"startTime":3282.09,"endTime":3284.67,"body":"and that bonds people together,"},{"startTime":3284.67,"endTime":3289.29,"body":"and also it creates a"},{"startTime":3284.67,"endTime":3289.29,"body":"trade system by extension,"},{"startTime":3289.29,"endTime":3291.54,"body":"which means you're able to get products"},{"startTime":3291.54,"endTime":3293.43,"body":"that you can't produce locally,"},{"startTime":3293.43,"endTime":3297.48,"body":"but might need, especially"},{"startTime":3293.43,"endTime":3297.48,"body":"quite high prestige products."},{"startTime":3297.48,"endTime":3302.48,"body":"And so an economy of honor"},{"startTime":3297.48,"endTime":3302.48,"body":"and of reciprocity is founded."},{"startTime":3303.99,"endTime":3306.57,"body":"When I talk about subsistence agriculture"},{"startTime":3306.57,"endTime":3310.74,"body":"and I talk about relative"},{"startTime":3306.57,"endTime":3310.74,"body":"impoverishment, it is relative."},{"startTime":3310.74,"endTime":3315.74,"body":"It's going from a place that"},{"startTime":3310.74,"endTime":3315.74,"body":"had towns and stone buildings"},{"startTime":3317.34,"endTime":3320.67,"body":"and reinforced concrete and literature"},{"startTime":3320.67,"endTime":3325.2,"body":"and enormous country houses"},{"startTime":3320.67,"endTime":3325.2,"body":"and big military installations"},{"startTime":3325.2,"endTime":3327.6,"body":"to a place that has none of these,"},{"startTime":3327.6,"endTime":3329.19,"body":"just small, really small,"},{"startTime":3329.19,"endTime":3334.19,"body":"relatively small wooden halls"},{"startTime":3329.19,"endTime":3334.19,"body":"and huts, and that's it,"},{"startTime":3334.86,"endTime":3336.57,"body":"nothing really approximating"},{"startTime":3336.57,"endTime":3340.05,"body":"to what the Romans would regard as a town."},{"startTime":3340.05,"endTime":3344.61,"body":"So it is quite a crash in terms of"},{"startTime":3344.61,"endTime":3346.41,"body":"they even forgot how to make pottery"},{"startTime":3347.88,"endTime":3350.13,"body":"because the factories are gone"},{"startTime":3350.13,"endTime":3354.09,"body":"and home potting had to"},{"startTime":3350.13,"endTime":3354.09,"body":"be revived painfully,"},{"startTime":3354.09,"endTime":3359.09,"body":"but they got there, but it"},{"startTime":3354.09,"endTime":3359.09,"body":"really is a dramatic change."},{"startTime":3360.626,"endTime":3363.42,"body":"- [Audience Member 3] Do"},{"startTime":3360.626,"endTime":3363.42,"body":"folklore customs and traditions"},{"startTime":3363.42,"endTime":3367.863,"body":"give us any knowledge of"},{"startTime":3363.42,"endTime":3367.863,"body":"Saxon beliefs and way of life?"},{"startTime":3368.97,"endTime":3373.97,"body":"- Yes, yes it does, but"},{"startTime":3368.97,"endTime":3373.97,"body":"it's very, very hazy."},{"startTime":3374.04,"endTime":3379.02,"body":"Place names are the great unmined resource"},{"startTime":3379.02,"endTime":3382.795,"body":"for news about folklore and local beliefs."},{"startTime":3382.795,"endTime":3386.52,"body":"One of our best current"},{"startTime":3382.795,"endTime":3386.52,"body":"folklorists, Jeremy Harte,"},{"startTime":3386.52,"endTime":3390.9,"body":"is preparing a new book"},{"startTime":3386.52,"endTime":3390.9,"body":"on medieval fairy lore"},{"startTime":3390.9,"endTime":3393.09,"body":"using the place name evidence,"},{"startTime":3393.09,"endTime":3397.35,"body":"which is I think going to"},{"startTime":3393.09,"endTime":3397.35,"body":"crack that one finally,"},{"startTime":3397.35,"endTime":3401.43,"body":"take the lid off a"},{"startTime":3397.35,"endTime":3401.43,"body":"wonderful body of sources."},{"startTime":3401.43,"endTime":3403.47,"body":"With what we've got so far,"},{"startTime":3403.47,"endTime":3408.47,"body":"we know that there's quite"},{"startTime":3403.47,"endTime":3408.47,"body":"a fear of spiritual beings."},{"startTime":3411.381,"endTime":3414.84,"body":"There's a distinct lack of glamour"},{"startTime":3414.84,"endTime":3419.84,"body":"in what we can recover of"},{"startTime":3414.84,"endTime":3419.84,"body":"Anglo-Saxon fairy lore."},{"startTime":3420.42,"endTime":3425.42,"body":"In other words, if you go"},{"startTime":3420.42,"endTime":3425.42,"body":"over to Wales and to Ireland,"},{"startTime":3425.7,"endTime":3429.96,"body":"you do have these immensely"},{"startTime":3425.7,"endTime":3429.96,"body":"charismatic, glamorous,"},{"startTime":3429.96,"endTime":3434.097,"body":"romantic non-human"},{"startTime":3429.96,"endTime":3434.097,"body":"beings, Tuatha De Danann,"},{"startTime":3434.097,"endTime":3438.15,"body":"the people of Annwn,"},{"startTime":3434.097,"endTime":3438.15,"body":"like Rhiannon in Wales,"},{"startTime":3438.15,"endTime":3442.62,"body":"and what you get in Anglo-Saxon folklore"},{"startTime":3442.62,"endTime":3445.653,"body":"is horrid giants, horrid trolls,"},{"startTime":3446.88,"endTime":3450.145,"body":"beastly things with names like Thurs,"},{"startTime":3450.145,"endTime":3453.66,"body":"which can translate as goblin."},{"startTime":3453.66,"endTime":3455.49,"body":"Even their elves are awful,"},{"startTime":3455.49,"endTime":3458.82,"body":"because say you only ever"},{"startTime":3455.49,"endTime":3458.82,"body":"hear about Anglo-Saxon elves"},{"startTime":3458.82,"endTime":3460.65,"body":"in medical textbooks"},{"startTime":3460.65,"endTime":3464.43,"body":"as blighting people with"},{"startTime":3460.65,"endTime":3464.43,"body":"disease or misfortune."},{"startTime":3464.43,"endTime":3466.86,"body":"Now, there are hints here and there"},{"startTime":3466.86,"endTime":3470.28,"body":"that Anglo-Saxon elves have a"},{"startTime":3466.86,"endTime":3470.28,"body":"more glamorous side to them,"},{"startTime":3470.28,"endTime":3475.02,"body":"but it's never explicit and I"},{"startTime":3470.28,"endTime":3475.02,"body":"can't really account for this,"},{"startTime":3475.02,"endTime":3477.72,"body":"but it's definitely a dark tone"},{"startTime":3477.72,"endTime":3480.6,"body":"that isn't quite there"},{"startTime":3477.72,"endTime":3480.6,"body":"in the other mythologies"},{"startTime":3480.6,"endTime":3484.173,"body":"of what we call in"},{"startTime":3480.6,"endTime":3484.173,"body":"Britain, the British Isles."},{"startTime":3485.97,"endTime":3488.7,"body":"- I've got another question"},{"startTime":3485.97,"endTime":3488.7,"body":"about the buried goods."},{"startTime":3488.7,"endTime":3489.615,"body":"- Yeah."},{"startTime":3489.615,"endTime":3491.1,"body":"- It seems to be quite a"},{"startTime":3489.615,"endTime":3491.1,"body":"popular topic in the questions."},{"startTime":3491.1,"endTime":3492.48,"body":"Do graves have artifacts"},{"startTime":3492.48,"endTime":3494.97,"body":"that could suggest an"},{"startTime":3492.48,"endTime":3494.97,"body":"occupant's profession"},{"startTime":3494.97,"endTime":3497.76,"body":"such as masons, blacksmiths, woodworkers?"},{"startTime":3497.76,"endTime":3499.92,"body":"- They don't seem to have had professions"},{"startTime":3499.92,"endTime":3503.01,"body":"in pagan Anglo-Saxon England."},{"startTime":3503.01,"endTime":3507.03,"body":"It's all the same farming society"},{"startTime":3507.03,"endTime":3509.73,"body":"with a lot of fighting, apparently,"},{"startTime":3509.73,"endTime":3514.552,"body":"and a lot of trading, apparently,"},{"startTime":3509.73,"endTime":3514.552,"body":"and that's kind of it."},{"startTime":3514.552,"endTime":3517.59,"body":"You get the occasional grave"},{"startTime":3517.59,"endTime":3521.01,"body":"that's really big on"},{"startTime":3517.59,"endTime":3521.01,"body":"crystal balls and amulets,"},{"startTime":3521.01,"endTime":3522.997,"body":"and we all get really"},{"startTime":3521.01,"endTime":3522.997,"body":"excited then and say,"},{"startTime":3522.997,"endTime":3526.895,"body":"\"Ah, can we use words"},{"startTime":3522.997,"endTime":3526.895,"body":"like shaman or shamaness"},{"startTime":3526.895,"endTime":3530.937,"body":"or wise person or cunning"},{"startTime":3526.895,"endTime":3530.937,"body":"person about these people?\""},{"startTime":3530.937,"endTime":3533.34,"body":"And the answer is probably yes,"},{"startTime":3533.34,"endTime":3536.61,"body":"but they're kind of"},{"startTime":3533.34,"endTime":3536.61,"body":"all-purpose folk magicians"},{"startTime":3536.61,"endTime":3539.493,"body":"rather than being specialized professions."},{"startTime":3541.307,"endTime":3544.62,"body":"- One more question from"},{"startTime":3541.307,"endTime":3544.62,"body":"the online audience."},{"startTime":3544.62,"endTime":3546.15,"body":"Prone burials in Eastern Europe"},{"startTime":3546.15,"endTime":3548.25,"body":"sometimes indicated"},{"startTime":3546.15,"endTime":3548.25,"body":"people thought the person"},{"startTime":3548.25,"endTime":3549.78,"body":"was one of the living dead."},{"startTime":3549.78,"endTime":3551.85,"body":"Any indication of vampiric beliefs"},{"startTime":3551.85,"endTime":3554.28,"body":"in Anglo-Saxon or Germanic people?"},{"startTime":3554.28,"endTime":3555.113,"body":"- Yeah."},{"startTime":3556.14,"endTime":3559.86,"body":"Trouble is that practically every people"},{"startTime":3559.86,"endTime":3562.38,"body":"in prehistoric and early historic Europe"},{"startTime":3562.38,"endTime":3564.3,"body":"seem to have been worried about their dead"},{"startTime":3564.3,"endTime":3566.46,"body":"or somebody else's dead,"},{"startTime":3566.46,"endTime":3568.71,"body":"because all over, you find evidence,"},{"startTime":3568.71,"endTime":3572.73,"body":"including Roman Britain"},{"startTime":3568.71,"endTime":3572.73,"body":"of corpses being staked"},{"startTime":3572.73,"endTime":3577.41,"body":"or decapitated and their heads"},{"startTime":3572.73,"endTime":3577.41,"body":"placed between their knees,"},{"startTime":3577.41,"endTime":3580.886,"body":"or waved down with heavy stones."},{"startTime":3580.886,"endTime":3584.61,"body":"There's definite anxiety"},{"startTime":3580.886,"endTime":3584.61,"body":"about certain dead people,"},{"startTime":3584.61,"endTime":3588.21,"body":"and this goes with a kind of worldwide"},{"startTime":3588.21,"endTime":3591.57,"body":"or at least very"},{"startTime":3588.21,"endTime":3591.57,"body":"widespread belief globally,"},{"startTime":3591.57,"endTime":3594.99,"body":"that bad people are inclined"},{"startTime":3591.57,"endTime":3594.99,"body":"to want to come back."},{"startTime":3594.99,"endTime":3597.54,"body":"(audience laughing)"},{"startTime":3597.54,"endTime":3599.4,"body":"- Sorry, I'm afraid that's all the time"},{"startTime":3599.4,"endTime":3601.35,"body":"we've got for this evening."},{"startTime":3601.35,"endTime":3603.48,"body":"Please join me in thanking"},{"startTime":3601.35,"endTime":3603.48,"body":"Professor Hutton one more time,"},{"startTime":3603.48,"endTime":3604.601,"body":"and we'll see you soon."},{"startTime":3604.601,"endTime":3607.768,"body":"(audience applauding)"}]}