{"version":"1.0.0","segments":[{"startTime":0.212,"endTime":2.795,"body":"(air whooshing)"},{"startTime":4.737,"endTime":7.145,"body":"- Tonight we're going to be very sporty."},{"startTime":7.145,"endTime":8.839,"body":"You have to only take"},{"startTime":7.145,"endTime":8.839,"body":"one look at me to realize"},{"startTime":8.839,"endTime":10.758,"body":"that I am not very sporty at all."},{"startTime":10.758,"endTime":14.593,"body":"But lots of people get very"},{"startTime":10.758,"endTime":14.593,"body":"excited about competitive sport"},{"startTime":14.593,"endTime":15.659,"body":"and for very good reasons."},{"startTime":15.659,"endTime":17.949,"body":"And I have to say, I am"},{"startTime":15.659,"endTime":17.949,"body":"one of those people who,"},{"startTime":17.949,"endTime":20.149,"body":"despite being completely unsporty,"},{"startTime":20.149,"endTime":22.43,"body":"I look at these sporting endeavors on TV"},{"startTime":22.43,"endTime":24.298,"body":"and think, wow, that's amazing."},{"startTime":24.298,"endTime":27.521,"body":"But my mission tonight really"},{"startTime":24.298,"endTime":27.521,"body":"is to convince you of the fact"},{"startTime":27.521,"endTime":30.937,"body":"that actually as a species,"},{"startTime":27.521,"endTime":30.937,"body":"we are truly pathetic."},{"startTime":30.937,"endTime":33.59,"body":"And anything you see in"},{"startTime":30.937,"endTime":33.59,"body":"the Commonwealth Games"},{"startTime":33.59,"endTime":37.199,"body":"or the Olympics is absolutely"},{"startTime":33.59,"endTime":37.199,"body":"trivial in comparison"},{"startTime":37.199,"endTime":40.82,"body":"to some of the amazing"},{"startTime":37.199,"endTime":40.82,"body":"achievements of microbes."},{"startTime":40.82,"endTime":42.234,"body":"So we're going to talk a little bit about"},{"startTime":42.234,"endTime":44.661,"body":"all the spectacular achievements"},{"startTime":44.661,"endTime":47.51,"body":"that various microbial species make"},{"startTime":47.51,"endTime":50.602,"body":"and how they might"},{"startTime":47.51,"endTime":50.602,"body":"compare to human athletes"},{"startTime":50.602,"endTime":52.393,"body":"in the modern day."},{"startTime":52.393,"endTime":55.397,"body":"And we are going to start"},{"startTime":52.393,"endTime":55.397,"body":"in a time-honored fashion"},{"startTime":55.397,"endTime":59.748,"body":"just like that most famous"},{"startTime":55.397,"endTime":59.748,"body":"of competitive organizations,"},{"startTime":59.748,"endTime":62.347,"body":"the Olympics, okay,"},{"startTime":59.748,"endTime":62.347,"body":"with our trial of speed."},{"startTime":62.347,"endTime":64.679,"body":"So you might know that"},{"startTime":62.347,"endTime":64.679,"body":"the original Olympics"},{"startTime":64.679,"endTime":67.677,"body":"in ancient Greece started"},{"startTime":64.679,"endTime":67.677,"body":"out as a speed race,"},{"startTime":67.677,"endTime":69.042,"body":"as a running race."},{"startTime":69.042,"endTime":71.001,"body":"And I love this particular picture,"},{"startTime":71.001,"endTime":72.533,"body":"which is obviously not"},{"startTime":71.001,"endTime":72.533,"body":"the original Olympics."},{"startTime":72.533,"endTime":75.207,"body":"This is the 1896 Olympics."},{"startTime":75.207,"endTime":76.911,"body":"And this is the running race."},{"startTime":76.911,"endTime":79.136,"body":"And I particularly like"},{"startTime":76.911,"endTime":79.136,"body":"the state of the arts,"},{"startTime":79.136,"endTime":81.824,"body":"sports clothing being"},{"startTime":79.136,"endTime":81.824,"body":"worn by the athletes."},{"startTime":81.824,"endTime":84.688,"body":"And even more so the"},{"startTime":81.824,"endTime":84.688,"body":"state-of-the-art clothing being worn"},{"startTime":84.688,"endTime":85.916,"body":"by the race officials here."},{"startTime":85.916,"endTime":88.229,"body":"I'm not sure that the bowler"},{"startTime":85.916,"endTime":88.229,"body":"hat was strictly necessary,"},{"startTime":88.229,"endTime":89.562,"body":"but clearly was."},{"startTime":90.957,"endTime":93.819,"body":"So speed is still a big"},{"startTime":90.957,"endTime":93.819,"body":"thing in competitive sport."},{"startTime":93.819,"endTime":96.739,"body":"And we talk a lot about"},{"startTime":93.819,"endTime":96.739,"body":"competitive speed running,"},{"startTime":96.739,"endTime":98.188,"body":"particularly sprint running."},{"startTime":98.188,"endTime":100.739,"body":"And I'm sure everyone"},{"startTime":98.188,"endTime":100.739,"body":"listening to this knows"},{"startTime":100.739,"endTime":103.026,"body":"that the current"},{"startTime":100.739,"endTime":103.026,"body":"hundred-meter sprint champion"},{"startTime":103.026,"endTime":106.741,"body":"is, of course, Usain Bolt,"},{"startTime":103.026,"endTime":106.741,"body":"who runs the hundred meters"},{"startTime":106.741,"endTime":109.722,"body":"in under 10 seconds, which it"},{"startTime":106.741,"endTime":109.722,"body":"takes me more than 10 seconds"},{"startTime":109.722,"endTime":111.762,"body":"to think about whether"},{"startTime":109.722,"endTime":111.762,"body":"I want a cup of coffee."},{"startTime":111.762,"endTime":116.762,"body":"So, that is deeply impressive,"},{"startTime":111.762,"endTime":116.762,"body":"but is nowhere near as fast"},{"startTime":117.051,"endTime":120.09,"body":"as some microbes when"},{"startTime":117.051,"endTime":120.09,"body":"you can scale them up."},{"startTime":120.09,"endTime":123.091,"body":"So, and the triumphant, I guess, winners"},{"startTime":123.091,"endTime":125.791,"body":"of the microbial race are the bacteria"},{"startTime":125.791,"endTime":128.472,"body":"and in particular the"},{"startTime":125.791,"endTime":128.472,"body":"flagellated bacteria."},{"startTime":128.472,"endTime":129.697,"body":"And those of you who might have listened"},{"startTime":129.697,"endTime":132.01,"body":"to one of the earlier"},{"startTime":129.697,"endTime":132.01,"body":"lectures in this series,"},{"startTime":132.01,"endTime":134.643,"body":"you might remember that some bacteria,"},{"startTime":134.643,"endTime":136.234,"body":"lots of bacteria actually,"},{"startTime":136.234,"endTime":138.074,"body":"have these things called flagella,"},{"startTime":138.074,"endTime":142.031,"body":"which are these long stringy"},{"startTime":138.074,"endTime":142.031,"body":"appendages coming out of them."},{"startTime":142.031,"endTime":143.67,"body":"Lots and lots of bacteria have these,"},{"startTime":143.67,"endTime":147.917,"body":"and these are a device that"},{"startTime":143.67,"endTime":147.917,"body":"allow bacteria to swim,"},{"startTime":147.917,"endTime":150.308,"body":"to swim in your bodies if"},{"startTime":147.917,"endTime":150.308,"body":"they're an infectious bacteria,"},{"startTime":150.308,"endTime":152.117,"body":"or to swim out in the environment"},{"startTime":152.117,"endTime":155.511,"body":"if they are an environmental bacterium."},{"startTime":155.511,"endTime":158.395,"body":"And you may recall that"},{"startTime":155.511,"endTime":158.395,"body":"the way the flagellum works"},{"startTime":158.395,"endTime":162.507,"body":"is by spinning like a corkscrew"},{"startTime":158.395,"endTime":162.507,"body":"and pushing the bacterium"},{"startTime":162.507,"endTime":163.798,"body":"through the water."},{"startTime":163.798,"endTime":165.502,"body":"And as I said, lots of"},{"startTime":163.798,"endTime":165.502,"body":"bacteria have these,"},{"startTime":165.502,"endTime":168.783,"body":"this is a graphical image"},{"startTime":165.502,"endTime":168.783,"body":"of E.coli, Escherichia coli."},{"startTime":168.783,"endTime":170.59,"body":"we'll come back to that one in a second."},{"startTime":170.59,"endTime":173.301,"body":"This rather beautiful"},{"startTime":170.59,"endTime":173.301,"body":"movie is a Rhodobacter."},{"startTime":173.301,"endTime":174.754,"body":"And you can see Rhodobacter here swimming."},{"startTime":174.754,"endTime":177.129,"body":"You can see it's flagella spinning away"},{"startTime":177.129,"endTime":179.809,"body":"and driving it through this fluid."},{"startTime":179.809,"endTime":182.507,"body":"But what we fail to appreciate"},{"startTime":179.809,"endTime":182.507,"body":"sometimes on this scale"},{"startTime":182.507,"endTime":184.649,"body":"is that this is a microscopic scale."},{"startTime":184.649,"endTime":187.938,"body":"These bacteria are maybe"},{"startTime":184.649,"endTime":187.938,"body":"one or two microns long."},{"startTime":187.938,"endTime":190.617,"body":"So one or two thousands"},{"startTime":187.938,"endTime":190.617,"body":"of a millimeter long,"},{"startTime":190.617,"endTime":192.547,"body":"far below the resolution that we can see."},{"startTime":192.547,"endTime":196.015,"body":"So this is all microscope"},{"startTime":192.547,"endTime":196.015,"body":"imaging and at this resolution,"},{"startTime":196.015,"endTime":198.879,"body":"lots of interesting things"},{"startTime":196.015,"endTime":198.879,"body":"happen in terms of physics."},{"startTime":198.879,"endTime":201.239,"body":"I'm going to ask straightaway"},{"startTime":198.879,"endTime":201.239,"body":"for a volunteer to come"},{"startTime":201.239,"endTime":203.031,"body":"and assist me with this bit of physics."},{"startTime":203.031,"endTime":204.292,"body":"Preferably someone in the front row,"},{"startTime":204.292,"endTime":205.473,"body":"would one of you mind volunteering?"},{"startTime":205.473,"endTime":206.306,"body":"Just come up."},{"startTime":206.306,"endTime":207.215,"body":"Excellent, well done."},{"startTime":207.215,"endTime":208.048,"body":"Bravo."},{"startTime":208.048,"endTime":208.881,"body":"I think you should give him"},{"startTime":208.881,"endTime":210.184,"body":"a round of applause straightaway."},{"startTime":210.184,"endTime":211.46,"body":"Come and take center stage."},{"startTime":211.46,"endTime":212.393,"body":"(audience applauding)"},{"startTime":212.393,"endTime":213.838,"body":"What's your name brave volunteer?"},{"startTime":213.838,"endTime":214.671,"body":"- Oliver."},{"startTime":214.671,"endTime":215.504,"body":"- Oliver."},{"startTime":215.504,"endTime":216.337,"body":"Fantastic, Oliver."},{"startTime":216.337,"endTime":219.357,"body":"A hugely dangerous experiment"},{"startTime":216.337,"endTime":219.357,"body":"is about to be undertaken."},{"startTime":219.357,"endTime":221.93,"body":"Hold on, you're going to"},{"startTime":219.357,"endTime":221.93,"body":"need a spoon for starters."},{"startTime":221.93,"endTime":222.763,"body":"There we go."},{"startTime":222.763,"endTime":223.596,"body":"Don't eat it."},{"startTime":223.596,"endTime":227.335,"body":"So at the microscopic scale,"},{"startTime":223.596,"endTime":227.335,"body":"bacteria swim for example,"},{"startTime":227.335,"endTime":230.226,"body":"in water or in urine if you are feeling"},{"startTime":230.226,"endTime":233.224,"body":"particularly unpleasant and"},{"startTime":230.226,"endTime":233.224,"body":"we think of those fluids"},{"startTime":233.224,"endTime":235.456,"body":"as being very, very free-flowing."},{"startTime":235.456,"endTime":237.983,"body":"But you might remember"},{"startTime":235.456,"endTime":237.983,"body":"from your physics lessons"},{"startTime":237.983,"endTime":239.676,"body":"and chemistry lessons that water"},{"startTime":239.676,"endTime":241.165,"body":"actually sticks together quite well."},{"startTime":241.165,"endTime":243.134,"body":"You get this surface tension."},{"startTime":243.134,"endTime":245.473,"body":"Anyone remember that from"},{"startTime":243.134,"endTime":245.473,"body":"school where you looked"},{"startTime":245.473,"endTime":246.835,"body":"at a measuring cylinder"},{"startTime":246.835,"endTime":248.402,"body":"and the water is not completely flat,"},{"startTime":248.402,"endTime":250.544,"body":"it's curved 'cause it's"},{"startTime":248.402,"endTime":250.544,"body":"sticking to each other."},{"startTime":250.544,"endTime":252.538,"body":"Or if you drop a droplet"},{"startTime":250.544,"endTime":252.538,"body":"of water on the ground,"},{"startTime":252.538,"endTime":256.007,"body":"it doesn't go, it forms a"},{"startTime":252.538,"endTime":256.007,"body":"drop because it's sticky."},{"startTime":256.007,"endTime":259.336,"body":"For us, that makes no difference"},{"startTime":256.007,"endTime":259.336,"body":"to the experience of water."},{"startTime":259.336,"endTime":263.261,"body":"But for a bacterium that is"},{"startTime":259.336,"endTime":263.261,"body":"on the same level of scale"},{"startTime":263.261,"endTime":265.95,"body":"as that water, it means"},{"startTime":263.261,"endTime":265.95,"body":"that water is not felt"},{"startTime":265.95,"endTime":266.823,"body":"in the same way that we do."},{"startTime":266.823,"endTime":269.589,"body":"In fact, it's quite viscous"},{"startTime":266.823,"endTime":269.589,"body":"and it's approximately"},{"startTime":269.589,"endTime":271.861,"body":"a same viscosity as Treacle."},{"startTime":271.861,"endTime":273.4,"body":"I should point out, no branding here."},{"startTime":273.4,"endTime":275.52,"body":"Other brands of treacle are available."},{"startTime":275.52,"endTime":278.178,"body":"So, Oliver, what I'm going"},{"startTime":275.52,"endTime":278.178,"body":"to get you to I'm afraid"},{"startTime":278.178,"endTime":279.164,"body":"is this is your bacteria."},{"startTime":279.164,"endTime":279.997,"body":"Could you hold your spoon?"},{"startTime":279.997,"endTime":283.085,"body":"This is your bacterial flagellum."},{"startTime":283.085,"endTime":286.334,"body":"A real-scale flagellum"},{"startTime":283.085,"endTime":286.334,"body":"would actually be longer"},{"startTime":286.334,"endTime":287.745,"body":"than this room, which would"},{"startTime":286.334,"endTime":287.745,"body":"be a bit of a challenge."},{"startTime":287.745,"endTime":289.103,"body":"So we've got this very small scale."},{"startTime":289.103,"endTime":290.926,"body":"So I'm going to get you to, hopefully,"},{"startTime":290.926,"endTime":292.098,"body":"without smearing this all over"},{"startTime":292.098,"endTime":295.044,"body":"this beautiful listed building."},{"startTime":295.044,"endTime":297.017,"body":"Hold your treacle, stick your spoon in"},{"startTime":297.017,"endTime":301.483,"body":"and start stirring, come on,"},{"startTime":297.017,"endTime":301.483,"body":"put you back into it, man."},{"startTime":301.483,"endTime":302.938,"body":"(audience giggling)"},{"startTime":302.938,"endTime":303.955,"body":"Marvelous."},{"startTime":303.955,"endTime":306.954,"body":"So it's only going to take"},{"startTime":303.955,"endTime":306.954,"body":"about an hour, don't worry."},{"startTime":306.954,"endTime":309.555,"body":"So this live demonstration"},{"startTime":306.954,"endTime":309.555,"body":"of a bacterial flagella"},{"startTime":309.555,"endTime":312.291,"body":"rotating really very slowly"},{"startTime":312.291,"endTime":315.354,"body":"is not going to push"},{"startTime":312.291,"endTime":315.354,"body":"Oliver very far at all."},{"startTime":315.354,"endTime":318.088,"body":"And in fact, most"},{"startTime":315.354,"endTime":318.088,"body":"bacteria spin, keep going,"},{"startTime":318.088,"endTime":321.338,"body":"spin their flagella at about 125 hertz."},{"startTime":322.848,"endTime":325.031,"body":"So about 125 cycles a second."},{"startTime":325.031,"endTime":327.5,"body":"So if you could match that, please,"},{"startTime":327.5,"endTime":329.676,"body":"that would be very impressive."},{"startTime":329.676,"endTime":330.648,"body":"Okay, thank you very much."},{"startTime":330.648,"endTime":331.641,"body":"That was a very good demonstration."},{"startTime":331.641,"endTime":332.492,"body":"Bravo."},{"startTime":332.492,"endTime":335.183,"body":"(audience applauding)"},{"startTime":335.183,"endTime":337.63,"body":"So, these bacteria are not"},{"startTime":335.183,"endTime":337.63,"body":"just swimming in something"},{"startTime":337.63,"endTime":339.841,"body":"that's very easy, they're"},{"startTime":337.63,"endTime":339.841,"body":"swimming in thick treacle,"},{"startTime":339.841,"endTime":341.371,"body":"essentially, they're"},{"startTime":339.841,"endTime":341.371,"body":"spinning their flagella"},{"startTime":341.371,"endTime":343.078,"body":"125 times a second."},{"startTime":343.078,"endTime":345.076,"body":"For those of you who love motor vehicles,"},{"startTime":345.076,"endTime":348.067,"body":"that's about seven and"},{"startTime":345.076,"endTime":348.067,"body":"a half thousand rpm."},{"startTime":348.067,"endTime":349.916,"body":"So they're going really, really fast"},{"startTime":349.916,"endTime":352.105,"body":"and they're doing it"},{"startTime":349.916,"endTime":352.105,"body":"essentially without pause."},{"startTime":352.105,"endTime":355.906,"body":"As long as they have enough"},{"startTime":352.105,"endTime":355.906,"body":"energy, they will keep going."},{"startTime":355.906,"endTime":357.877,"body":"And that means, that"},{"startTime":355.906,"endTime":357.877,"body":"if we were to scale up"},{"startTime":357.877,"endTime":358.788,"body":"on those bacteria."},{"startTime":358.788,"endTime":363.634,"body":"So this is a typical E.coli,"},{"startTime":358.788,"endTime":363.634,"body":"this is E.coli actually 0157,"},{"startTime":363.634,"endTime":365.21,"body":"which is one of the E.coli strains"},{"startTime":365.21,"endTime":367.306,"body":"that causes food poisoning."},{"startTime":367.306,"endTime":369.004,"body":"But you can see again these flagella"},{"startTime":369.004,"endTime":371.025,"body":"and the rate at which"},{"startTime":369.004,"endTime":371.025,"body":"it spins its flagella"},{"startTime":371.025,"endTime":374.473,"body":"move this E.coli at a speed"},{"startTime":371.025,"endTime":374.473,"body":"that if it was scaled up"},{"startTime":374.473,"endTime":377.124,"body":"to be the size of Usain"},{"startTime":374.473,"endTime":377.124,"body":"Bolt would mean they do"},{"startTime":377.124,"endTime":379.845,"body":"the hundred meters in under two seconds."},{"startTime":379.845,"endTime":382.483,"body":"Isn't by no means the"},{"startTime":379.845,"endTime":382.483,"body":"fastest bacterium though"},{"startTime":382.483,"endTime":384.954,"body":"there's a whole group of"},{"startTime":382.483,"endTime":384.954,"body":"bacteria, the vibrios,"},{"startTime":384.954,"endTime":387.273,"body":"which include organisms"},{"startTime":384.954,"endTime":387.273,"body":"like Vibrio cholera"},{"startTime":387.273,"endTime":389.77,"body":"that causes, you've guessed it, cholera."},{"startTime":389.77,"endTime":393.368,"body":"These are even faster, about"},{"startTime":389.77,"endTime":393.368,"body":"two to three times faster."},{"startTime":393.368,"endTime":395.699,"body":"So a vibrio, like this one here,"},{"startTime":395.699,"endTime":397.87,"body":"will complete the a"},{"startTime":395.699,"endTime":397.87,"body":"hundred meters at scale"},{"startTime":397.87,"endTime":399.519,"body":"in less than one second."},{"startTime":399.519,"endTime":401.527,"body":"Or if you want to really scale that up"},{"startTime":401.527,"endTime":404.418,"body":"because, of course, they're"},{"startTime":401.527,"endTime":404.418,"body":"doing this the entire time."},{"startTime":404.418,"endTime":406.085,"body":"If you want to scale that up, that Vibrio"},{"startTime":406.085,"endTime":407.779,"body":"would complete the London marathon"},{"startTime":407.779,"endTime":410.551,"body":"in just over seven minutes start to end,"},{"startTime":410.551,"endTime":411.949,"body":"which I think is quite impressive"},{"startTime":411.949,"endTime":414.836,"body":"and I'm afraid far more"},{"startTime":411.949,"endTime":414.836,"body":"deserving of those gold medals"},{"startTime":414.836,"endTime":418.179,"body":"than anyone who's done this"},{"startTime":414.836,"endTime":418.179,"body":"at the Commonwealth Games."},{"startTime":418.179,"endTime":421.876,"body":"In treacle, I would point out, in treacle."},{"startTime":421.876,"endTime":425.241,"body":"Okay, so speed is the first of my medals"},{"startTime":425.241,"endTime":427.535,"body":"to be awarded tonight to the microbes."},{"startTime":427.535,"endTime":430.963,"body":"But it's by no means the only"},{"startTime":427.535,"endTime":430.963,"body":"major achievement, of course,"},{"startTime":430.963,"endTime":433.877,"body":"in terms of medal-winning activities."},{"startTime":433.877,"endTime":436.726,"body":"And so my next one that I"},{"startTime":433.877,"endTime":436.726,"body":"want to turn to is this one."},{"startTime":436.726,"endTime":437.647,"body":"This is the one that actually makes,"},{"startTime":437.647,"endTime":440.337,"body":"I can't watch weightlifting"},{"startTime":437.647,"endTime":440.337,"body":"'cause it kind of makes me go,"},{"startTime":440.337,"endTime":441.17,"body":"that's quite scary."},{"startTime":441.17,"endTime":442.733,"body":"This weightlifter you might know,"},{"startTime":442.733,"endTime":446.598,"body":"the current men's prize"},{"startTime":442.733,"endTime":446.598,"body":"gold medal for weightlifting"},{"startTime":446.598,"endTime":449.765,"body":"is to lift a dead weight of 267 kilos,"},{"startTime":451.389,"endTime":453.751,"body":"which is about three of me actually."},{"startTime":453.751,"endTime":456.088,"body":"So that's quite a"},{"startTime":453.751,"endTime":456.088,"body":"substantial amount of weight"},{"startTime":456.088,"endTime":459.874,"body":"that someone, a human has"},{"startTime":456.088,"endTime":459.874,"body":"lifted above their head."},{"startTime":459.874,"endTime":462.262,"body":"But once again, relative to microbes,"},{"startTime":462.262,"endTime":463.63,"body":"this achievement in terms of weightlifting"},{"startTime":463.63,"endTime":465.618,"body":"is actually fairly pathetic."},{"startTime":465.618,"endTime":470.04,"body":"So if you are lifting 267"},{"startTime":465.618,"endTime":470.04,"body":"kilos above your head,"},{"startTime":470.04,"endTime":471.363,"body":"which it doesn't even"},{"startTime":470.04,"endTime":471.363,"body":"matter thinking about it,"},{"startTime":471.363,"endTime":473.241,"body":"but if you are lifting that weight,"},{"startTime":473.241,"endTime":475.14,"body":"the pressure on each of your feet"},{"startTime":475.14,"endTime":477.331,"body":"is about a hundred kilo pascals,"},{"startTime":477.331,"endTime":480.756,"body":"about half the pressure"},{"startTime":477.331,"endTime":480.756,"body":"of an inflated car tire."},{"startTime":480.756,"endTime":481.589,"body":"Okay?"},{"startTime":481.589,"endTime":482.422,"body":"So if that kind of makes sense."},{"startTime":482.422,"endTime":484.242,"body":"So that's why, for example,"},{"startTime":482.422,"endTime":484.242,"body":"you might kick the tires"},{"startTime":484.242,"endTime":486.134,"body":"in your car but you can't push"},{"startTime":484.242,"endTime":486.134,"body":"your foot right through them"},{"startTime":486.134,"endTime":489.503,"body":"'cause you can't exert"},{"startTime":486.134,"endTime":489.503,"body":"that kind of pressure."},{"startTime":489.503,"endTime":491.065,"body":"So when you're carrying"},{"startTime":489.503,"endTime":491.065,"body":"a weight like this,"},{"startTime":491.065,"endTime":494.137,"body":"you've got about half a car"},{"startTime":491.065,"endTime":494.137,"body":"tire's pressure on your feet"},{"startTime":494.137,"endTime":496.804,"body":"or about a hundred kilo pascals."},{"startTime":498.17,"endTime":499.812,"body":"But to look in the microbial world,"},{"startTime":499.812,"endTime":502.062,"body":"we can find examples which exceed this"},{"startTime":502.062,"endTime":504.024,"body":"by many orders of magnitude."},{"startTime":504.024,"endTime":505.971,"body":"And this is the best"},{"startTime":504.024,"endTime":505.971,"body":"example I can come across."},{"startTime":505.971,"endTime":509.002,"body":"This is a picture of rice, okay?"},{"startTime":509.002,"endTime":511.129,"body":"Rice as in the rice you"},{"startTime":509.002,"endTime":511.129,"body":"eat, it's a rice field"},{"startTime":511.129,"endTime":513.582,"body":"and those of you who are"},{"startTime":511.129,"endTime":513.582,"body":"sharp-eyed will notice"},{"startTime":513.582,"endTime":515.643,"body":"that the middle of this rice field"},{"startTime":515.643,"endTime":517.168,"body":"is sort of yellow and brown."},{"startTime":517.168,"endTime":520.974,"body":"This rice field has a"},{"startTime":517.168,"endTime":520.974,"body":"disease called rice blast."},{"startTime":520.974,"endTime":524.217,"body":"And rice blast is a major,"},{"startTime":520.974,"endTime":524.217,"body":"globally, a major problem."},{"startTime":524.217,"endTime":528.565,"body":"It causes huge losses of rice"},{"startTime":524.217,"endTime":528.565,"body":"yields right around the world"},{"startTime":528.565,"endTime":533.047,"body":"and it's caused by a"},{"startTime":528.565,"endTime":533.047,"body":"fungus Magnaporthe grisea."},{"startTime":533.047,"endTime":536.677,"body":"That fungus lands on the leaf of the rice"},{"startTime":536.677,"endTime":538.799,"body":"and then penetrates into the leaf,"},{"startTime":538.799,"endTime":540.252,"body":"moves its way through the plant"},{"startTime":540.252,"endTime":543.381,"body":"and then starts to produce"},{"startTime":540.252,"endTime":543.381,"body":"spores slowly killing the plants"},{"startTime":543.381,"endTime":547.45,"body":"but also spreading itself"},{"startTime":543.381,"endTime":547.45,"body":"remarkably around the whole field"},{"startTime":547.45,"endTime":550.652,"body":"in a very, very short"},{"startTime":547.45,"endTime":550.652,"body":"period of time, actually."},{"startTime":550.652,"endTime":553.752,"body":"To do that, the fungus has"},{"startTime":550.652,"endTime":553.752,"body":"to penetrate through the leaf"},{"startTime":553.752,"endTime":555.124,"body":"and start growing inside it."},{"startTime":555.124,"endTime":557.379,"body":"And this rather lovely"},{"startTime":555.124,"endTime":557.379,"body":"video you can see here,"},{"startTime":557.379,"endTime":558.581,"body":"you can see that process happening."},{"startTime":558.581,"endTime":560.777,"body":"So you can see the fungus"},{"startTime":558.581,"endTime":560.777,"body":"coming into a plant"},{"startTime":560.777,"endTime":562.621,"body":"here at the top and what"},{"startTime":560.777,"endTime":562.621,"body":"you'll see is it grows,"},{"startTime":562.621,"endTime":565.169,"body":"every so often it hits a"},{"startTime":562.621,"endTime":565.169,"body":"plant cell wall, it pauses,"},{"startTime":565.169,"endTime":567.27,"body":"it builds up pressure"},{"startTime":565.169,"endTime":567.27,"body":"and then it pops through"},{"startTime":567.27,"endTime":568.47,"body":"into the next one."},{"startTime":568.47,"endTime":570.191,"body":"And over a period of several hours"},{"startTime":570.191,"endTime":572.22,"body":"you'll see that this living plant"},{"startTime":572.22,"endTime":576.045,"body":"is slowly being invaded by this fungus."},{"startTime":576.045,"endTime":580.386,"body":"To do that, the fungus has to"},{"startTime":576.045,"endTime":580.386,"body":"produce a very high-pressure"},{"startTime":580.386,"endTime":583.263,"body":"kind of point of penetration"},{"startTime":580.386,"endTime":583.263,"body":"to get into the plant"},{"startTime":583.263,"endTime":586.519,"body":"in the first place, something"},{"startTime":583.263,"endTime":586.519,"body":"called an appressorium."},{"startTime":586.519,"endTime":588.416,"body":"And this is what that process looks like"},{"startTime":588.416,"endTime":589.945,"body":"when you are on a leaf surface."},{"startTime":589.945,"endTime":592.914,"body":"So this is the spore of that fungus"},{"startTime":592.914,"endTime":595.855,"body":"landing on a leaf surface"},{"startTime":592.914,"endTime":595.855,"body":"and it's about to try"},{"startTime":595.855,"endTime":596.688,"body":"and penetrate it."},{"startTime":596.688,"endTime":599.359,"body":"And what you'll see in this"},{"startTime":596.688,"endTime":599.359,"body":"video is it extends out"},{"startTime":599.359,"endTime":602.125,"body":"a growing tip and then"},{"startTime":599.359,"endTime":602.125,"body":"it puts all of its effort"},{"startTime":602.125,"endTime":604.987,"body":"into forming this blob up"},{"startTime":602.125,"endTime":604.987,"body":"here, this appressorium."},{"startTime":604.987,"endTime":606.586,"body":"And this, you can think of"},{"startTime":606.586,"endTime":608.766,"body":"a little bit like that needle that you use"},{"startTime":608.766,"endTime":610.095,"body":"when you're inflating your car tire,"},{"startTime":610.095,"endTime":612.647,"body":"that high-pressure injection point."},{"startTime":612.647,"endTime":615.706,"body":"This is performing the same"},{"startTime":612.647,"endTime":615.706,"body":"function for the fungus,"},{"startTime":615.706,"endTime":617.207,"body":"but at a remarkable level."},{"startTime":617.207,"endTime":622.207,"body":"The pressure inside this point"},{"startTime":617.207,"endTime":622.207,"body":"here is eight megapascals."},{"startTime":622.298,"endTime":626.535,"body":"So 40 times more than the"},{"startTime":622.298,"endTime":626.535,"body":"pressure on that person's foot"},{"startTime":626.535,"endTime":631.196,"body":"when they're lifting those"},{"startTime":626.535,"endTime":631.196,"body":"267 kilos above their head."},{"startTime":631.196,"endTime":634.067,"body":"And in fact, if you were to scale this up,"},{"startTime":634.067,"endTime":636.627,"body":"this fungus as a weight"},{"startTime":634.067,"endTime":636.627,"body":"weightlifter would be lifting"},{"startTime":636.627,"endTime":640.691,"body":"in the region of around"},{"startTime":636.627,"endTime":640.691,"body":"27 tons above their head"},{"startTime":640.691,"endTime":643.611,"body":"or the weight of a Chinook helicopter,"},{"startTime":643.611,"endTime":645.699,"body":"which is I think far more impressive"},{"startTime":645.699,"endTime":647.78,"body":"even than those kind of scary dumbbells"},{"startTime":647.78,"endTime":649.46,"body":"that people lift up above their heads"},{"startTime":649.46,"endTime":652.377,"body":"on a regular basis at the Olympics."},{"startTime":653.32,"endTime":655.035,"body":"These turns out to be hugely"},{"startTime":653.32,"endTime":655.035,"body":"interesting, of course,"},{"startTime":655.035,"endTime":658.684,"body":"not just because tackling"},{"startTime":655.035,"endTime":658.684,"body":"this plant invasion is the key"},{"startTime":658.684,"endTime":661.592,"body":"to stopping this terrible"},{"startTime":658.684,"endTime":661.592,"body":"disease decimating crops."},{"startTime":661.592,"endTime":664.02,"body":"But also because there's"},{"startTime":661.592,"endTime":664.02,"body":"lots of interesting chemistry"},{"startTime":664.02,"endTime":667.187,"body":"and physics here about how"},{"startTime":664.02,"endTime":667.187,"body":"does a tiny fungal spore"},{"startTime":667.187,"endTime":668.899,"body":"generate such a massive pressure?"},{"startTime":668.899,"endTime":670.264,"body":"How does it stick onto the leaf"},{"startTime":670.264,"endTime":671.979,"body":"to get into there in the first place?"},{"startTime":671.979,"endTime":674.047,"body":"And how does it recognize"},{"startTime":671.979,"endTime":674.047,"body":"the right surface?"},{"startTime":674.047,"endTime":676.158,"body":"It doesn't do this"},{"startTime":674.047,"endTime":676.158,"body":"everywhere, fortunately,"},{"startTime":676.158,"endTime":677.226,"body":"'cause, of course, if"},{"startTime":676.158,"endTime":677.226,"body":"he did it everywhere,"},{"startTime":677.226,"endTime":679.827,"body":"you might come out one morning"},{"startTime":677.226,"endTime":679.827,"body":"and discover your car tires"},{"startTime":679.827,"endTime":682.082,"body":"are all flat 'cause it's"},{"startTime":679.827,"endTime":682.082,"body":"blown holes in all of them."},{"startTime":682.082,"endTime":682.915,"body":"But it doesn't do that."},{"startTime":682.915,"endTime":684.779,"body":"It only does this on its host plant"},{"startTime":684.779,"endTime":687.827,"body":"and so there's lots of"},{"startTime":684.779,"endTime":687.827,"body":"interesting molecular biology"},{"startTime":687.827,"endTime":690.91,"body":"understanding how this process works."},{"startTime":692.688,"endTime":693.521,"body":"Okay,"},{"startTime":693.521,"endTime":696.878,"body":"so we've covered speed, and"},{"startTime":693.521,"endTime":696.878,"body":"we've covered weightlifting,"},{"startTime":696.878,"endTime":698.282,"body":"and that weightlifting model,"},{"startTime":698.282,"endTime":699.471,"body":"we are talking about pressures, right?"},{"startTime":699.471,"endTime":701.443,"body":"We're talking about lifting"},{"startTime":699.471,"endTime":701.443,"body":"something above your head"},{"startTime":701.443,"endTime":704.784,"body":"and exerting a huge pressure"},{"startTime":701.443,"endTime":704.784,"body":"on your hands or on your feet."},{"startTime":704.784,"endTime":706.574,"body":"But there are different sorts of pressure,"},{"startTime":706.574,"endTime":709.683,"body":"that's one kind of pressure"},{"startTime":706.574,"endTime":709.683,"body":"lifting something up."},{"startTime":709.683,"endTime":711.683,"body":"But as these are rather"},{"startTime":709.683,"endTime":711.683,"body":"excellent people noticed"},{"startTime":711.683,"endTime":713.308,"body":"many years ago, there's"},{"startTime":711.683,"endTime":713.308,"body":"lots of different ways"},{"startTime":713.308,"endTime":714.863,"body":"of being under pressure"},{"startTime":714.863,"endTime":717.7,"body":"and lifting something above"},{"startTime":714.863,"endTime":717.7,"body":"your head is one of them."},{"startTime":717.7,"endTime":720.191,"body":"But having an even"},{"startTime":717.7,"endTime":720.191,"body":"pressure from the outside"},{"startTime":720.191,"endTime":723.299,"body":"is another sort of pressure stress."},{"startTime":723.299,"endTime":725.261,"body":"And if anyone's been diving in the past,"},{"startTime":725.261,"endTime":727.598,"body":"you will know about"},{"startTime":725.261,"endTime":727.598,"body":"this feeling of pressure"},{"startTime":727.598,"endTime":728.781,"body":"because when you enter the water,"},{"startTime":728.781,"endTime":730.459,"body":"obviously, water is denser than air"},{"startTime":730.459,"endTime":732.638,"body":"and you get a pressure around your body"},{"startTime":732.638,"endTime":736.164,"body":"and the deeper you go the"},{"startTime":732.638,"endTime":736.164,"body":"more that pressure applies."},{"startTime":736.164,"endTime":739.945,"body":"And roughly speaking about every"},{"startTime":736.164,"endTime":739.945,"body":"10 meters that you go down,"},{"startTime":739.945,"endTime":741.985,"body":"you get one more atmosphere of pressure."},{"startTime":741.985,"endTime":744.958,"body":"So the first 10 meters, your"},{"startTime":741.985,"endTime":744.958,"body":"normal atmospheric pressure"},{"startTime":744.958,"endTime":749.058,"body":"is doubled and so on and"},{"startTime":744.958,"endTime":749.058,"body":"so forth as you go deeper."},{"startTime":749.058,"endTime":751.295,"body":"And that means that for humans,"},{"startTime":751.295,"endTime":754.169,"body":"which are basically"},{"startTime":751.295,"endTime":754.169,"body":"quite squishy organisms,"},{"startTime":754.169,"endTime":758.439,"body":"there is a fundamental block"},{"startTime":754.169,"endTime":758.439,"body":"ongoing very deep at all."},{"startTime":758.439,"endTime":759.567,"body":"And in fact what you see"},{"startTime":758.439,"endTime":759.567,"body":"here is this is someone"},{"startTime":759.567,"endTime":761.344,"body":"who's doing free diving."},{"startTime":761.344,"endTime":766.177,"body":"And so free divers typically"},{"startTime":761.344,"endTime":766.177,"body":"go down maybe 30 or 40 meters"},{"startTime":767.645,"endTime":768.978,"body":"but no deeper."},{"startTime":768.978,"endTime":771.715,"body":"And the current world"},{"startTime":768.978,"endTime":771.715,"body":"record for free diving"},{"startTime":771.715,"endTime":774.846,"body":"is actually an absolutely"},{"startTime":771.715,"endTime":774.846,"body":"amazing 200-plus meters,"},{"startTime":774.846,"endTime":779.377,"body":"211 meters, I think, which"},{"startTime":774.846,"endTime":779.377,"body":"is really, really deep."},{"startTime":779.377,"endTime":782.355,"body":"But exerts an enormous"},{"startTime":779.377,"endTime":782.355,"body":"pressure about 21 atmospheres"},{"startTime":782.355,"endTime":785.434,"body":"of pressure on that free"},{"startTime":782.355,"endTime":785.434,"body":"diver when they're that deep."},{"startTime":785.434,"endTime":787.178,"body":"So they can't stay down"},{"startTime":785.434,"endTime":787.178,"body":"there very long at all."},{"startTime":787.178,"endTime":789.301,"body":"They go down, they come back up very fast"},{"startTime":789.301,"endTime":793.57,"body":"and they have to do it under"},{"startTime":789.301,"endTime":793.57,"body":"massively trained conditions"},{"startTime":793.57,"endTime":796.429,"body":"because the risk in doing"},{"startTime":793.57,"endTime":796.429,"body":"that is absolutely huge."},{"startTime":796.429,"endTime":798.525,"body":"Humans are not good at dealing"},{"startTime":798.525,"endTime":801.59,"body":"with external pressure at all."},{"startTime":801.59,"endTime":805.462,"body":"200 meters of ocean depth"},{"startTime":801.59,"endTime":805.462,"body":"feels like quite a lot of depth"},{"startTime":805.462,"endTime":808.181,"body":"to me, particularly 'cause"},{"startTime":805.462,"endTime":808.181,"body":"I'm not a very good swimmer."},{"startTime":808.181,"endTime":810.251,"body":"But, actually, on the"},{"startTime":808.181,"endTime":810.251,"body":"scale of the world's oceans"},{"startTime":810.251,"endTime":813.24,"body":"that's barely skimming the"},{"startTime":810.251,"endTime":813.24,"body":"surface, most oceans are far,"},{"startTime":813.24,"endTime":817.147,"body":"far deeper than that and some"},{"startTime":813.24,"endTime":817.147,"body":"are really very deep indeed."},{"startTime":817.147,"endTime":820.74,"body":"And this is of course the"},{"startTime":817.147,"endTime":820.74,"body":"deepest one in the world."},{"startTime":820.74,"endTime":823.469,"body":"This is the bottom of the Mariana Trench,"},{"startTime":823.469,"endTime":825.855,"body":"the deepest part of the ocean,"},{"startTime":825.855,"endTime":828.931,"body":"and it's over 10 kilometers"},{"startTime":825.855,"endTime":828.931,"body":"from the sea surface."},{"startTime":828.931,"endTime":831.679,"body":"And here, this is a photograph"},{"startTime":828.931,"endTime":831.679,"body":"taken from the submersible"},{"startTime":831.679,"endTime":835.29,"body":"that went to the bottom"},{"startTime":831.679,"endTime":835.29,"body":"of the Mariana Trench."},{"startTime":835.29,"endTime":838.956,"body":"When you look at a picture"},{"startTime":835.29,"endTime":838.956,"body":"like this, 10 kilometers down,"},{"startTime":838.956,"endTime":841.345,"body":"you might think, and it"},{"startTime":838.956,"endTime":841.345,"body":"would be very reasonable"},{"startTime":841.345,"endTime":845.67,"body":"to suppose that this is a"},{"startTime":841.345,"endTime":845.67,"body":"completely lifeless environment,"},{"startTime":845.67,"endTime":846.856,"body":"but that is not true."},{"startTime":846.856,"endTime":849.364,"body":"And in fact, samples"},{"startTime":846.856,"endTime":849.364,"body":"recovered from the bottom"},{"startTime":849.364,"endTime":852.535,"body":"of the Mariana Trench"},{"startTime":849.364,"endTime":852.535,"body":"demonstrate just how well"},{"startTime":852.535,"endTime":855.793,"body":"microbes can cope with"},{"startTime":852.535,"endTime":855.793,"body":"these extreme conditions"},{"startTime":855.793,"endTime":857.976,"body":"because in one of the samples recovered"},{"startTime":857.976,"endTime":862.094,"body":"from that trench fairly"},{"startTime":857.976,"endTime":862.094,"body":"recently we found this."},{"startTime":862.094,"endTime":865.134,"body":"So this scanning electron micrograph"},{"startTime":865.134,"endTime":866.391,"body":"shows you little lumps here,"},{"startTime":866.391,"endTime":868.196,"body":"which might look a bit unappealing,"},{"startTime":868.196,"endTime":871.231,"body":"but these are in fact individual bacteria."},{"startTime":871.231,"endTime":875.16,"body":"This is a species called"},{"startTime":871.231,"endTime":875.16,"body":"Colwellia marinimaniae,"},{"startTime":875.16,"endTime":876.999,"body":"which is a bit of a mouthful,"},{"startTime":876.999,"endTime":878.754,"body":"recently identified living at the bottom"},{"startTime":878.754,"endTime":882.125,"body":"of the Mariana Trench, under a pressure"},{"startTime":882.125,"endTime":884.766,"body":"that is about a thousand times more"},{"startTime":884.766,"endTime":886.894,"body":"than atmospheric pressure."},{"startTime":886.894,"endTime":887.765,"body":"It's absolutely extraordinary."},{"startTime":887.765,"endTime":889.718,"body":"So this is many, many,"},{"startTime":887.765,"endTime":889.718,"body":"many hundreds of times"},{"startTime":889.718,"endTime":891.879,"body":"more than humans can cope with."},{"startTime":891.879,"endTime":894.857,"body":"It's more than most"},{"startTime":891.879,"endTime":894.857,"body":"submarines can cope with."},{"startTime":894.857,"endTime":897.138,"body":"It's more than most human-built"},{"startTime":894.857,"endTime":897.138,"body":"things can cope with"},{"startTime":897.138,"endTime":898.422,"body":"in any condition."},{"startTime":898.422,"endTime":901.174,"body":"And yet this bacteria"},{"startTime":898.422,"endTime":901.174,"body":"is apparently thriving,"},{"startTime":901.174,"endTime":903.943,"body":"growing quite happily in that environment."},{"startTime":903.943,"endTime":906.613,"body":"We know very little about this bacterium,"},{"startTime":906.613,"endTime":909.997,"body":"not least because it's quite"},{"startTime":906.613,"endTime":909.997,"body":"hard to work with an organism"},{"startTime":909.997,"endTime":912.767,"body":"that grows under a thousand"},{"startTime":909.997,"endTime":912.767,"body":"atmospheres of pressure"},{"startTime":912.767,"endTime":914.013,"body":"because as soon as you bring it back"},{"startTime":914.013,"endTime":916.575,"body":"to normal room conditions,"},{"startTime":914.013,"endTime":916.575,"body":"the thing explodes"},{"startTime":916.575,"endTime":917.733,"body":"and you can't study it."},{"startTime":917.733,"endTime":920.853,"body":"So to study this organism,"},{"startTime":917.733,"endTime":920.853,"body":"you need to recapitulate"},{"startTime":920.853,"endTime":922.412,"body":"those unique conditions from the bottom"},{"startTime":922.412,"endTime":923.88,"body":"of the Mariana trench"},{"startTime":923.88,"endTime":925.914,"body":"and try and grow it"},{"startTime":923.88,"endTime":925.914,"body":"under massive pressure."},{"startTime":925.914,"endTime":927.897,"body":"And that is not something"},{"startTime":925.914,"endTime":927.897,"body":"that most laboratories"},{"startTime":927.897,"endTime":928.73,"body":"are able to do."},{"startTime":928.73,"endTime":931.475,"body":"But nonetheless, I think"},{"startTime":928.73,"endTime":931.475,"body":"there are fantastic lessons"},{"startTime":931.475,"endTime":935.754,"body":"to be learned from this organism"},{"startTime":931.475,"endTime":935.754,"body":"and other organisms like it"},{"startTime":935.754,"endTime":938.811,"body":"because it is doing something"},{"startTime":935.754,"endTime":938.811,"body":"that we don't understand"},{"startTime":938.811,"endTime":939.823,"body":"how it's feasible."},{"startTime":939.823,"endTime":942.646,"body":"We don't understand how a"},{"startTime":939.823,"endTime":942.646,"body":"biological squishy entity"},{"startTime":942.646,"endTime":945.585,"body":"like ourselves can live under the pressure"},{"startTime":945.585,"endTime":947.426,"body":"of a thousand atmospheres."},{"startTime":947.426,"endTime":950.955,"body":"And I think understanding"},{"startTime":947.426,"endTime":950.955,"body":"how that process might happen"},{"startTime":950.955,"endTime":953.219,"body":"is the key to understanding"},{"startTime":950.955,"endTime":953.219,"body":"lots of interesting things."},{"startTime":953.219,"endTime":955.742,"body":"For example, how we might send probes"},{"startTime":955.742,"endTime":957.454,"body":"to parts of the universe"},{"startTime":955.742,"endTime":957.454,"body":"where we haven't been,"},{"startTime":957.454,"endTime":959.033,"body":"where pressures are very different,"},{"startTime":959.033,"endTime":961.117,"body":"how we might design new structures"},{"startTime":961.117,"endTime":964.418,"body":"to withstand very high-pressure"},{"startTime":961.117,"endTime":964.418,"body":"or indeed very low pressure"},{"startTime":964.418,"endTime":966.271,"body":"for human benefit."},{"startTime":966.271,"endTime":968.72,"body":"All these questions"},{"startTime":966.271,"endTime":968.72,"body":"potentially might be informed"},{"startTime":968.72,"endTime":972.201,"body":"by studying organisms like"},{"startTime":968.72,"endTime":972.201,"body":"Colwellia and other microbes"},{"startTime":972.201,"endTime":975.118,"body":"living in these extreme conditions."},{"startTime":978.013,"endTime":979.323,"body":"The interesting thing about"},{"startTime":979.323,"endTime":980.852,"body":"thinking about this particular organism"},{"startTime":980.852,"endTime":982.124,"body":"is if we scale it back up again"},{"startTime":982.124,"endTime":984.344,"body":"as we're doing for the whole"},{"startTime":982.124,"endTime":984.344,"body":"of this evening's lecture"},{"startTime":984.344,"endTime":985.543,"body":"into human terms."},{"startTime":985.543,"endTime":989.113,"body":"So here we have an organism"},{"startTime":985.543,"endTime":989.113,"body":"living 10 kilometers down"},{"startTime":989.113,"endTime":991.18,"body":"at a thousand atmospheres of pressure."},{"startTime":991.18,"endTime":993.513,"body":"And so the pressure on this bacterium"},{"startTime":993.513,"endTime":996.912,"body":"is about the equivalent"},{"startTime":993.513,"endTime":996.912,"body":"of one of us balancing,"},{"startTime":996.912,"endTime":1000.801,"body":"not one African elephant but"},{"startTime":996.912,"endTime":1000.801,"body":"a hundred African elephants"},{"startTime":1000.801,"endTime":1002.43,"body":"on the end of our nose."},{"startTime":1002.43,"endTime":1005.521,"body":"So if anyone else is trying"},{"startTime":1002.43,"endTime":1005.521,"body":"that later, feel free."},{"startTime":1005.521,"endTime":1009.83,"body":"But I think this perception"},{"startTime":1005.521,"endTime":1009.83,"body":"of pressure is really beyond"},{"startTime":1009.83,"endTime":1013.997,"body":"anything that we can easily"},{"startTime":1009.83,"endTime":1013.997,"body":"rationalize as humans."},{"startTime":1015.992,"endTime":1017.592,"body":"Okay, so we've talked a"},{"startTime":1015.992,"endTime":1017.592,"body":"little bit about pressure"},{"startTime":1017.592,"endTime":1019.594,"body":"on the outside, pressure on the inside"},{"startTime":1019.594,"endTime":1022.83,"body":"and I want to change now and"},{"startTime":1019.594,"endTime":1022.83,"body":"think a little bit about time"},{"startTime":1022.83,"endTime":1024.419,"body":"and about speed."},{"startTime":1024.419,"endTime":1026.22,"body":"And one of the things that"},{"startTime":1024.419,"endTime":1026.22,"body":"is not in the Olympics,"},{"startTime":1026.22,"endTime":1028.91,"body":"obviously, but it's a record"},{"startTime":1026.22,"endTime":1028.91,"body":"that we often talk about"},{"startTime":1028.91,"endTime":1030.05,"body":"is around lifespan."},{"startTime":1030.05,"endTime":1031.536,"body":"I saw, I dunno if anyone"},{"startTime":1030.05,"endTime":1031.536,"body":"else saw us last week,"},{"startTime":1031.536,"endTime":1033.918,"body":"the world's oldest dog, I"},{"startTime":1031.536,"endTime":1033.918,"body":"was very excited by that"},{"startTime":1033.918,"endTime":1036.417,"body":"31-year-old dog in Spain or Portugal,"},{"startTime":1036.417,"endTime":1038.167,"body":"I can't remember which."},{"startTime":1038.167,"endTime":1040.613,"body":"These news stories crop up again and again"},{"startTime":1040.613,"endTime":1045.012,"body":"in the news world, world's"},{"startTime":1040.613,"endTime":1045.012,"body":"oldest tree, world's oldest dog,"},{"startTime":1045.012,"endTime":1046.786,"body":"I saw world's oldest pancake once,"},{"startTime":1046.786,"endTime":1048.898,"body":"I'm not sure how you validate"},{"startTime":1046.786,"endTime":1048.898,"body":"world's oldest pancake."},{"startTime":1048.898,"endTime":1050.506,"body":"But anyway, we're obsessed"},{"startTime":1048.898,"endTime":1050.506,"body":"with things that live"},{"startTime":1050.506,"endTime":1052.159,"body":"for a long time or things that live"},{"startTime":1052.159,"endTime":1054.118,"body":"for a very short period of time."},{"startTime":1054.118,"endTime":1056.902,"body":"And of course, as humans,"},{"startTime":1054.118,"endTime":1056.902,"body":"we are also quite obsessed"},{"startTime":1056.902,"endTime":1059.72,"body":"about our own lifespan, extending it,"},{"startTime":1059.72,"endTime":1061.078,"body":"preferably extending it well."},{"startTime":1061.078,"endTime":1064.027,"body":"So you live healthier as well as longer."},{"startTime":1064.027,"endTime":1065.96,"body":"And so there's a lot of"},{"startTime":1064.027,"endTime":1065.96,"body":"interest in understanding"},{"startTime":1065.96,"endTime":1069.08,"body":"how other organisms'"},{"startTime":1065.96,"endTime":1069.08,"body":"lifespan is controlled."},{"startTime":1069.08,"endTime":1071.758,"body":"And within the microbes,"},{"startTime":1069.08,"endTime":1071.758,"body":"you have both extremes,"},{"startTime":1071.758,"endTime":1076.662,"body":"both kinds of medal, the"},{"startTime":1071.758,"endTime":1076.662,"body":"fastest and the slowest."},{"startTime":1076.662,"endTime":1079.329,"body":"So if we think about the"},{"startTime":1076.662,"endTime":1079.329,"body":"fastest, for example,"},{"startTime":1079.329,"endTime":1083.206,"body":"the fastest that we know of are"},{"startTime":1079.329,"endTime":1083.206,"body":"bacteria, and in particular,"},{"startTime":1083.206,"endTime":1086.125,"body":"the same bacteria I mentioned"},{"startTime":1083.206,"endTime":1086.125,"body":"at the beginning, E.coli,"},{"startTime":1086.125,"endTime":1087.796,"body":"Escherichia coli."},{"startTime":1087.796,"endTime":1090.645,"body":"E.coli is, if you like,"},{"startTime":1087.796,"endTime":1090.645,"body":"the laboratory mouse"},{"startTime":1090.645,"endTime":1091.544,"body":"of microbiologists."},{"startTime":1091.544,"endTime":1094.724,"body":"We have studied this"},{"startTime":1091.544,"endTime":1094.724,"body":"bacteria for a hundred years,"},{"startTime":1094.724,"endTime":1097.007,"body":"we know all the genes in that bacteria,"},{"startTime":1097.007,"endTime":1098.978,"body":"we know how it builds its cell wall,"},{"startTime":1098.978,"endTime":1101.082,"body":"all sorts of interesting things about it."},{"startTime":1101.082,"endTime":1103.567,"body":"And we have a variety of lab strains"},{"startTime":1103.567,"endTime":1106.021,"body":"that have been essentially"},{"startTime":1103.567,"endTime":1106.021,"body":"optimized to grow"},{"startTime":1106.021,"endTime":1109.636,"body":"as fast as they can and"},{"startTime":1106.021,"endTime":1109.636,"body":"the fastest of those"},{"startTime":1109.636,"endTime":1112.777,"body":"will divide about every 17 minutes."},{"startTime":1112.777,"endTime":1113.61,"body":"Okay?"},{"startTime":1113.61,"endTime":1114.443,"body":"So in the time I've been talking,"},{"startTime":1114.443,"endTime":1117.247,"body":"we've already had more"},{"startTime":1114.443,"endTime":1117.247,"body":"than one division of E.coli"},{"startTime":1117.247,"endTime":1118.525,"body":"and there'll be another"},{"startTime":1117.247,"endTime":1118.525,"body":"one before I finish,"},{"startTime":1118.525,"endTime":1120.725,"body":"you'll be disappointed to hear."},{"startTime":1120.725,"endTime":1122.275,"body":"They go incredibly fast."},{"startTime":1122.275,"endTime":1125.825,"body":"And that is because most"},{"startTime":1122.275,"endTime":1125.825,"body":"bacteria, including E.coli,"},{"startTime":1125.825,"endTime":1129.035,"body":"divide by this process of binary fission."},{"startTime":1129.035,"endTime":1132.771,"body":"So one cell elongates"},{"startTime":1129.035,"endTime":1132.771,"body":"divides and forms two."},{"startTime":1132.771,"endTime":1134.053,"body":"And you can see that in this movie here."},{"startTime":1134.053,"endTime":1135.908,"body":"So you see it, bacteria here elongating"},{"startTime":1135.908,"endTime":1137.374,"body":"and dividing into two,"},{"startTime":1137.374,"endTime":1141.03,"body":"elongating and dividing into two again."},{"startTime":1141.03,"endTime":1142.97,"body":"This process, when you look at it,"},{"startTime":1142.97,"endTime":1145.81,"body":"it's actually quite beautiful"},{"startTime":1142.97,"endTime":1145.81,"body":"but also feels very,"},{"startTime":1145.81,"endTime":1147.41,"body":"I dunno, like a ballet, isn't it?"},{"startTime":1147.41,"endTime":1148.827,"body":"It's very gentle."},{"startTime":1150.138,"endTime":1153.23,"body":"But the scale at which this can impact"},{"startTime":1153.23,"endTime":1156.377,"body":"on the things we understand"},{"startTime":1153.23,"endTime":1156.377,"body":"is quite remarkable."},{"startTime":1156.377,"endTime":1159.352,"body":"Dividing every 17 minutes"},{"startTime":1156.377,"endTime":1159.352,"body":"doesn't sound too crazy"},{"startTime":1159.352,"endTime":1161.33,"body":"but actually has a really big impact."},{"startTime":1161.33,"endTime":1164.311,"body":"And let me demonstrate that"},{"startTime":1161.33,"endTime":1164.311,"body":"by a bit of an analogy."},{"startTime":1164.311,"endTime":1166.958,"body":"I'm going to need some more"},{"startTime":1164.311,"endTime":1166.958,"body":"volunteers for this I'm afraid"},{"startTime":1166.958,"endTime":1170.418,"body":"and my very high-tech equipment here."},{"startTime":1170.418,"endTime":1172.967,"body":"So, I pre-counted this."},{"startTime":1172.967,"endTime":1174.438,"body":"So we're going to do a little"},{"startTime":1172.967,"endTime":1174.438,"body":"bit of audience participation."},{"startTime":1174.438,"endTime":1175.76,"body":"I have pre-counted where I'm going to go"},{"startTime":1175.76,"endTime":1177.76,"body":"and I was going to"},{"startTime":1175.76,"endTime":1177.76,"body":"start, I have to remember"},{"startTime":1177.76,"endTime":1181.184,"body":"with this gentleman over here,"},{"startTime":1177.76,"endTime":1181.184,"body":"could you stand up, please?"},{"startTime":1181.184,"endTime":1184.367,"body":"And you can wave at the camera now."},{"startTime":1184.367,"endTime":1185.882,"body":"So sorry, what was your name?"},{"startTime":1185.882,"endTime":1186.715,"body":"- [John] John."},{"startTime":1186.715,"endTime":1187.548,"body":"- John."},{"startTime":1187.548,"endTime":1190.466,"body":"John is our E.coli and he"},{"startTime":1187.548,"endTime":1190.466,"body":"gets the really exciting prize"},{"startTime":1190.466,"endTime":1192.536,"body":"of a single grain of rice."},{"startTime":1192.536,"endTime":1193.369,"body":"There you go."},{"startTime":1193.369,"endTime":1194.202,"body":"Don't say you don't get anything"},{"startTime":1194.202,"endTime":1195.355,"body":"when you come to Gresham lecture."},{"startTime":1195.355,"endTime":1196.305,"body":"There we go."},{"startTime":1196.305,"endTime":1200.204,"body":"And that grain of rice"},{"startTime":1196.305,"endTime":1200.204,"body":"demonstrates our one E.coli."},{"startTime":1200.204,"endTime":1204.235,"body":"Now every 17 minutes that grain"},{"startTime":1200.204,"endTime":1204.235,"body":"of rice is going to double,"},{"startTime":1204.235,"endTime":1207.046,"body":"okay, to another one,"},{"startTime":1204.235,"endTime":1207.046,"body":"this is growing optimally."},{"startTime":1207.046,"endTime":1208.033,"body":"Okay."},{"startTime":1208.033,"endTime":1211.193,"body":"So we're going to go now"},{"startTime":1208.033,"endTime":1211.193,"body":"about three and a hours over."},{"startTime":1211.193,"endTime":1213.254,"body":"So that's about 10 people."},{"startTime":1213.254,"endTime":1215.103,"body":"I'm going to go over to"},{"startTime":1213.254,"endTime":1215.103,"body":"this gentleman over here."},{"startTime":1215.103,"endTime":1216.514,"body":"Can you stand up?"},{"startTime":1216.514,"endTime":1217.347,"body":"What was your name?"},{"startTime":1217.347,"endTime":1218.18,"body":"- Alex."},{"startTime":1218.18,"endTime":1219.013,"body":"- Alex."},{"startTime":1219.013,"endTime":1219.846,"body":"Brilliant, Alex."},{"startTime":1219.846,"endTime":1222.074,"body":"So now you are going to"},{"startTime":1219.846,"endTime":1222.074,"body":"get the big prize, okay,"},{"startTime":1222.074,"endTime":1223.464,"body":"you're going to get some"},{"startTime":1222.074,"endTime":1223.464,"body":"of these, there we are,"},{"startTime":1223.464,"endTime":1224.398,"body":"a few grains of rice,"},{"startTime":1224.398,"endTime":1227.228,"body":"So we're into, sorry, just"},{"startTime":1224.398,"endTime":1227.228,"body":"scattered rice all over you here,"},{"startTime":1227.228,"endTime":1230.566,"body":"there we go, we are in"},{"startTime":1227.228,"endTime":1230.566,"body":"now 10 generations on."},{"startTime":1230.566,"endTime":1231.399,"body":"Okay?"},{"startTime":1231.399,"endTime":1232.696,"body":"And actually by the time we get there,"},{"startTime":1232.696,"endTime":1235.962,"body":"that one grain of rice, you"},{"startTime":1232.696,"endTime":1235.962,"body":"get a really big prize, Alex,"},{"startTime":1235.962,"endTime":1239.424,"body":"to take home with you"},{"startTime":1235.962,"endTime":1239.424,"body":"is a whole kilo of rice."},{"startTime":1239.424,"endTime":1240.508,"body":"Okay?"},{"startTime":1240.508,"endTime":1241.845,"body":"So that doesn't feel that much."},{"startTime":1241.845,"endTime":1243.113,"body":"10 generations, okay?"},{"startTime":1243.113,"endTime":1246.373,"body":"We've gone from one grain of"},{"startTime":1243.113,"endTime":1246.373,"body":"rice to a kilo of rice, but,"},{"startTime":1246.373,"endTime":1248.816,"body":"and that's in about three"},{"startTime":1246.373,"endTime":1248.816,"body":"to three and a half hours,"},{"startTime":1248.816,"endTime":1249.845,"body":"something like that."},{"startTime":1249.845,"endTime":1252.345,"body":"We roll the clock on now and"},{"startTime":1249.845,"endTime":1252.345,"body":"imagine this is an infection,"},{"startTime":1252.345,"endTime":1254.415,"body":"right, in your bloodstream, for example,"},{"startTime":1254.415,"endTime":1256.423,"body":"a kilo of bacteria would"},{"startTime":1254.415,"endTime":1256.423,"body":"be pretty scary, actually."},{"startTime":1256.423,"endTime":1258.308,"body":"But nonetheless, it's"},{"startTime":1256.423,"endTime":1258.308,"body":"not a huge difference."},{"startTime":1258.308,"endTime":1260.222,"body":"But if it keeps going unchecked,"},{"startTime":1260.222,"endTime":1262.292,"body":"by the time we hit to 12 hours,"},{"startTime":1262.292,"endTime":1264.863,"body":"which was over here somewhere"},{"startTime":1262.292,"endTime":1264.863,"body":"with this lady I think,"},{"startTime":1264.863,"endTime":1266.244,"body":"can you stand up?"},{"startTime":1266.244,"endTime":1267.077,"body":"What was your name?"},{"startTime":1267.077,"endTime":1267.91,"body":"- Samantha."},{"startTime":1267.91,"endTime":1268.743,"body":"- Samantha, fantastic."},{"startTime":1268.743,"endTime":1270.412,"body":"Samantha, you get the"},{"startTime":1268.743,"endTime":1270.412,"body":"really big bonus prize"},{"startTime":1270.412,"endTime":1272.243,"body":"which you will be pleased"},{"startTime":1270.412,"endTime":1272.243,"body":"that I have not brought,"},{"startTime":1272.243,"endTime":1275.813,"body":"so at 12 hours in, okay, which is you,"},{"startTime":1275.813,"endTime":1279.882,"body":"that single grain of rice is"},{"startTime":1275.813,"endTime":1279.882,"body":"now about 10 tons of rice,"},{"startTime":1279.882,"endTime":1281.563,"body":"which would easily fill"},{"startTime":1279.882,"endTime":1281.563,"body":"this room, in fact,"},{"startTime":1281.563,"endTime":1283.554,"body":"and feed about 10 million people,"},{"startTime":1283.554,"endTime":1286.064,"body":"a decent rice to go with"},{"startTime":1283.554,"endTime":1286.064,"body":"their curry tonight."},{"startTime":1286.064,"endTime":1287.983,"body":"So in the period of 12 hours"},{"startTime":1287.983,"endTime":1289.533,"body":"we've gone from something"},{"startTime":1287.983,"endTime":1289.533,"body":"that's almost invisible"},{"startTime":1289.533,"endTime":1291.23,"body":"to something that would"},{"startTime":1289.533,"endTime":1291.23,"body":"fill this entire room."},{"startTime":1291.23,"endTime":1292.063,"body":"Thank you, volunteers."},{"startTime":1292.063,"endTime":1295.171,"body":"You can sit down and take your"},{"startTime":1292.063,"endTime":1295.171,"body":"one grain of rice or kilo."},{"startTime":1295.171,"endTime":1297.299,"body":"(audience applauding)"},{"startTime":1297.299,"endTime":1299.637,"body":"We have got, so this power"},{"startTime":1297.299,"endTime":1299.637,"body":"of exponential growth"},{"startTime":1299.637,"endTime":1301.941,"body":"has taken a single"},{"startTime":1299.637,"endTime":1301.941,"body":"bacterium that you can't see"},{"startTime":1301.941,"endTime":1303.01,"body":"to filling an entire room."},{"startTime":1303.01,"endTime":1304.461,"body":"And, in fact, you can scale that out."},{"startTime":1304.461,"endTime":1306.599,"body":"And if you think about that in the context"},{"startTime":1306.599,"endTime":1309.902,"body":"of something like sepsis, this"},{"startTime":1306.599,"endTime":1309.902,"body":"is why sepsis in a patient"},{"startTime":1309.902,"endTime":1312.509,"body":"is so incredibly dangerous"},{"startTime":1309.902,"endTime":1312.509,"body":"because if you miss it"},{"startTime":1312.509,"endTime":1316.16,"body":"for a few hours, what is"},{"startTime":1312.509,"endTime":1316.16,"body":"an initial few bacteria"},{"startTime":1316.16,"endTime":1317.812,"body":"becomes an overwhelming infection."},{"startTime":1317.812,"endTime":1319.901,"body":"And it's the same reason why"},{"startTime":1319.901,"endTime":1322.891,"body":"something like that rice"},{"startTime":1319.901,"endTime":1322.891,"body":"blast infection on a field"},{"startTime":1322.891,"endTime":1325.37,"body":"you have to catch very"},{"startTime":1322.891,"endTime":1325.37,"body":"early because if you miss it"},{"startTime":1325.37,"endTime":1327.549,"body":"and it's doubling every couple of hours,"},{"startTime":1327.549,"endTime":1329.01,"body":"it's far too late to intervene"},{"startTime":1329.01,"endTime":1330.751,"body":"when it's progressed and established."},{"startTime":1330.751,"endTime":1333.851,"body":"So that pace of growth"},{"startTime":1330.751,"endTime":1333.851,"body":"is truly astronomical"},{"startTime":1333.851,"endTime":1335.421,"body":"and, of course, far faster"},{"startTime":1335.421,"endTime":1337.26,"body":"than any other organisms we know about."},{"startTime":1337.26,"endTime":1340.362,"body":"The only exception I think in"},{"startTime":1337.26,"endTime":1340.362,"body":"the microbial world is that,"},{"startTime":1340.362,"endTime":1343.682,"body":"of course, these bacteria"},{"startTime":1340.362,"endTime":1343.682,"body":"are the fastest growing"},{"startTime":1343.682,"endTime":1348.599,"body":"free-living cells, but all"},{"startTime":1343.682,"endTime":1348.599,"body":"organisms have parasitic viruses"},{"startTime":1349.59,"endTime":1352.357,"body":"that live within them and"},{"startTime":1349.59,"endTime":1352.357,"body":"bacteria are no exception."},{"startTime":1352.357,"endTime":1355.551,"body":"There are lots of viruses"},{"startTime":1352.357,"endTime":1355.551,"body":"that live in bacteria"},{"startTime":1355.551,"endTime":1358.717,"body":"and those viruses when"},{"startTime":1355.551,"endTime":1358.717,"body":"they're in their host"},{"startTime":1358.717,"endTime":1361.322,"body":"can be replicating much, much faster."},{"startTime":1361.322,"endTime":1363.373,"body":"And when many of us in this"},{"startTime":1361.322,"endTime":1363.373,"body":"room will have experienced that"},{"startTime":1363.373,"endTime":1365.621,"body":"in the last few years when"},{"startTime":1363.373,"endTime":1365.621,"body":"you've had your own virus"},{"startTime":1365.621,"endTime":1368.583,"body":"and realize just how fast"},{"startTime":1365.621,"endTime":1368.583,"body":"these things replicate."},{"startTime":1368.583,"endTime":1372.429,"body":"So although an E.coli might"},{"startTime":1368.583,"endTime":1372.429,"body":"replicate every 17 minutes"},{"startTime":1372.429,"endTime":1376.294,"body":"inside an infected E.coli,"},{"startTime":1372.429,"endTime":1376.294,"body":"you might have a single virus"},{"startTime":1376.294,"endTime":1379.456,"body":"turning into a hundred or even"},{"startTime":1376.294,"endTime":1379.456,"body":"a thousand virus particles"},{"startTime":1379.456,"endTime":1380.895,"body":"in the same period of time."},{"startTime":1380.895,"endTime":1384.794,"body":"So actually the real fastest"},{"startTime":1380.895,"endTime":1384.794,"body":"growers in the universe"},{"startTime":1384.794,"endTime":1386.695,"body":"that we know of are those viruses,"},{"startTime":1386.695,"endTime":1389.365,"body":"but they, of course, cannot"},{"startTime":1386.695,"endTime":1389.365,"body":"replicate without a host."},{"startTime":1389.365,"endTime":1392.256,"body":"So their speed is still"},{"startTime":1389.365,"endTime":1392.256,"body":"determined by something else."},{"startTime":1392.256,"endTime":1394.833,"body":"So I still think if I was"},{"startTime":1392.256,"endTime":1394.833,"body":"to award the gold medal"},{"startTime":1394.833,"endTime":1398.032,"body":"for speed of replication,"},{"startTime":1394.833,"endTime":1398.032,"body":"it would go to E.coli"},{"startTime":1398.032,"endTime":1399.615,"body":"for its 17 minutes."},{"startTime":1400.921,"endTime":1403.943,"body":"So that's a prize for speed"},{"startTime":1400.921,"endTime":1403.943,"body":"for going really, really fast."},{"startTime":1403.943,"endTime":1405.248,"body":"But what about the alternative?"},{"startTime":1405.248,"endTime":1407.8,"body":"What about going really, really slowly?"},{"startTime":1407.8,"endTime":1411.01,"body":"You might anticipate that"},{"startTime":1407.8,"endTime":1411.01,"body":"in the microbial world,"},{"startTime":1411.01,"endTime":1413.66,"body":"slow is bad and often that is true."},{"startTime":1413.66,"endTime":1416.301,"body":"Certainly, if you are going"},{"startTime":1413.66,"endTime":1416.301,"body":"to be a pathogen spreading"},{"startTime":1416.301,"endTime":1420.719,"body":"on a field of crops, being a"},{"startTime":1416.301,"endTime":1420.719,"body":"slow grower is a very bad idea."},{"startTime":1420.719,"endTime":1423.2,"body":"If you want to cause an infection,"},{"startTime":1420.719,"endTime":1423.2,"body":"a urine retract infection"},{"startTime":1423.2,"endTime":1425.078,"body":"and you take six weeks to do it,"},{"startTime":1425.078,"endTime":1428.251,"body":"you're never going to be a"},{"startTime":1425.078,"endTime":1428.251,"body":"very successful pathogen."},{"startTime":1428.251,"endTime":1431.049,"body":"But there are environments"},{"startTime":1428.251,"endTime":1431.049,"body":"where being a slow grower"},{"startTime":1431.049,"endTime":1432.549,"body":"can be beneficial."},{"startTime":1433.929,"endTime":1436.621,"body":"And in particular, those"},{"startTime":1433.929,"endTime":1436.621,"body":"are the environments"},{"startTime":1436.621,"endTime":1438.39,"body":"where life is really tough."},{"startTime":1438.39,"endTime":1441.582,"body":"In fact, where you might"},{"startTime":1438.39,"endTime":1441.582,"body":"imagine that life is impossible,"},{"startTime":1441.582,"endTime":1445.341,"body":"but if by growing very,"},{"startTime":1441.582,"endTime":1445.341,"body":"very slowly you can contend"},{"startTime":1445.341,"endTime":1448.02,"body":"with those challenges that"},{"startTime":1445.341,"endTime":1448.02,"body":"the environment throws at you,"},{"startTime":1448.02,"endTime":1451.369,"body":"you can deal with a lot of the"},{"startTime":1448.02,"endTime":1451.369,"body":"problems that other organisms"},{"startTime":1451.369,"endTime":1452.931,"body":"might not be able to tackle."},{"startTime":1452.931,"endTime":1456.99,"body":"And you can survive and you"},{"startTime":1452.931,"endTime":1456.99,"body":"can grow albeit very slowly."},{"startTime":1456.99,"endTime":1459.308,"body":"And so it's in those extreme environments"},{"startTime":1459.308,"endTime":1462.45,"body":"that we find some of the"},{"startTime":1459.308,"endTime":1462.45,"body":"slowest-growing microbes"},{"startTime":1462.45,"endTime":1463.461,"body":"that we know of."},{"startTime":1463.461,"endTime":1467.054,"body":"And actually, I think personally"},{"startTime":1463.461,"endTime":1467.054,"body":"those extreme environments"},{"startTime":1467.054,"endTime":1469.782,"body":"are one of the places where we"},{"startTime":1467.054,"endTime":1469.782,"body":"need to do a lot more hunting"},{"startTime":1469.782,"endTime":1472.342,"body":"because there's a lot of really"},{"startTime":1469.782,"endTime":1472.342,"body":"interesting biology there"},{"startTime":1472.342,"endTime":1475.702,"body":"that we still know very little about."},{"startTime":1475.702,"endTime":1478.858,"body":"And here, just to demonstrate"},{"startTime":1475.702,"endTime":1478.858,"body":"that, is an example"},{"startTime":1478.858,"endTime":1481.468,"body":"of one of those microbes"},{"startTime":1478.858,"endTime":1481.468,"body":"that is truly, truly slow."},{"startTime":1481.468,"endTime":1483.97,"body":"In fact, it's kind of"},{"startTime":1481.468,"endTime":1483.97,"body":"ironic that it's so slow,"},{"startTime":1483.97,"endTime":1485.778,"body":"it hasn't actually got a name yet."},{"startTime":1485.778,"endTime":1489.259,"body":"So, this slightly blurry"},{"startTime":1485.778,"endTime":1489.259,"body":"image you see in front of you"},{"startTime":1489.259,"endTime":1491.499,"body":"shows you and you're going"},{"startTime":1489.259,"endTime":1491.499,"body":"to have to believe me here,"},{"startTime":1491.499,"endTime":1494.776,"body":"some bacteria, these little"},{"startTime":1491.499,"endTime":1494.776,"body":"blobs, the round blobs,"},{"startTime":1494.776,"endTime":1496.711,"body":"they look totally bland, right?"},{"startTime":1496.711,"endTime":1499.058,"body":"I'm not sure that anyone"},{"startTime":1496.711,"endTime":1499.058,"body":"would be convinced by this"},{"startTime":1499.058,"endTime":1500.569,"body":"if I said this is definitely a bacteria."},{"startTime":1500.569,"endTime":1502.389,"body":"You'd probably think"},{"startTime":1500.569,"endTime":1502.389,"body":"really that looks like a,"},{"startTime":1502.389,"endTime":1505.487,"body":"I don't know, someone sneezed"},{"startTime":1502.389,"endTime":1505.487,"body":"on the camera, but it is."},{"startTime":1505.487,"endTime":1508.809,"body":"And we know that because in these slices"},{"startTime":1508.809,"endTime":1510.769,"body":"we can provide, for example,"},{"startTime":1510.769,"endTime":1513.401,"body":"chemicals that the bacteria need to grow"},{"startTime":1513.401,"endTime":1515.199,"body":"and we can look to see if those chemicals"},{"startTime":1515.199,"endTime":1517.111,"body":"become incorporated into cells."},{"startTime":1517.111,"endTime":1519.229,"body":"And if they do, then you know that this"},{"startTime":1519.229,"endTime":1523.396,"body":"apparently bland blob is"},{"startTime":1519.229,"endTime":1523.396,"body":"indeed a live a bacteria."},{"startTime":1524.422,"endTime":1526.82,"body":"So this sample here with these bacteria in"},{"startTime":1526.82,"endTime":1530.021,"body":"is one of the oldest,"},{"startTime":1526.82,"endTime":1530.021,"body":"slowest types of bacteria"},{"startTime":1530.021,"endTime":1532.932,"body":"we know of because this"},{"startTime":1530.021,"endTime":1532.932,"body":"sample came from here,"},{"startTime":1532.932,"endTime":1536.064,"body":"this is Beacon Valley in Antarctica,"},{"startTime":1536.064,"endTime":1539.355,"body":"and as you can see it's"},{"startTime":1536.064,"endTime":1539.355,"body":"a pretty desolate place"},{"startTime":1539.355,"endTime":1542.268,"body":"with a longstanding glassier here"},{"startTime":1542.268,"endTime":1545.523,"body":"from within which an ice core was taken."},{"startTime":1545.523,"endTime":1550.523,"body":"And in that ice core this so"},{"startTime":1545.523,"endTime":1550.523,"body":"far unnamed bacteria was found."},{"startTime":1551.541,"endTime":1554.762,"body":"We can do isotopic"},{"startTime":1551.541,"endTime":1554.762,"body":"analysis of that glacier,"},{"startTime":1554.762,"endTime":1557.963,"body":"essentially, looking at"},{"startTime":1554.762,"endTime":1557.963,"body":"the water that composes it."},{"startTime":1557.963,"endTime":1560.912,"body":"And because the ratio"},{"startTime":1557.963,"endTime":1560.912,"body":"of different isotopes"},{"startTime":1560.912,"endTime":1563.942,"body":"in the atmosphere has changed"},{"startTime":1560.912,"endTime":1563.942,"body":"over time in a way we know,"},{"startTime":1563.942,"endTime":1566.011,"body":"you can date, essentially, the ice."},{"startTime":1566.011,"endTime":1568.094,"body":"You can say when did this ice form"},{"startTime":1568.094,"endTime":1569.968,"body":"and it hasn't melted since."},{"startTime":1569.968,"endTime":1572.229,"body":"And when we do that for Beacon Valley,"},{"startTime":1572.229,"endTime":1575.088,"body":"the age you get is about"},{"startTime":1572.229,"endTime":1575.088,"body":"eight million years."},{"startTime":1575.088,"endTime":1576.969,"body":"So this bacteria and its friends"},{"startTime":1576.969,"endTime":1580.037,"body":"have certainly been isolated"},{"startTime":1576.969,"endTime":1580.037,"body":"from the rest of the world"},{"startTime":1580.037,"endTime":1584.701,"body":"for the last 8 million years,"},{"startTime":1580.037,"endTime":1584.701,"body":"living inside this ice tomb,"},{"startTime":1584.701,"endTime":1585.701,"body":"if you like."},{"startTime":1586.59,"endTime":1589.377,"body":"We don't know how fast it's been growing"},{"startTime":1589.377,"endTime":1590.221,"body":"in that period of time."},{"startTime":1590.221,"endTime":1593.19,"body":"We know it's astronomically"},{"startTime":1590.221,"endTime":1593.19,"body":"slow, we don't know how fast."},{"startTime":1593.19,"endTime":1595.69,"body":"But by a little bit of jiggery pokery"},{"startTime":1595.69,"endTime":1598.462,"body":"and looking at the same"},{"startTime":1595.69,"endTime":1598.462,"body":"incorporation of isotopes"},{"startTime":1598.462,"endTime":1600.951,"body":"into those cells, you"},{"startTime":1598.462,"endTime":1600.951,"body":"can get a rough estimate."},{"startTime":1600.951,"endTime":1603.38,"body":"And the rough estimate"},{"startTime":1600.951,"endTime":1603.38,"body":"is that this bacteria"},{"startTime":1603.38,"endTime":1607.21,"body":"divides about once every"},{"startTime":1603.38,"endTime":1607.21,"body":"10,000 years, okay?"},{"startTime":1607.21,"endTime":1610.289,"body":"Which means that the ones that"},{"startTime":1607.21,"endTime":1610.289,"body":"you see here in this picture"},{"startTime":1610.289,"endTime":1614.424,"body":"were born, if you like, at"},{"startTime":1610.289,"endTime":1614.424,"body":"a time when sabertooth cats"},{"startTime":1614.424,"endTime":1616.15,"body":"were roaming the world,"},{"startTime":1614.424,"endTime":1616.15,"body":"where wooly mammoths"},{"startTime":1616.15,"endTime":1620.355,"body":"were where we are now, at a"},{"startTime":1616.15,"endTime":1620.355,"body":"time which when civilization"},{"startTime":1620.355,"endTime":1622.486,"body":"as we know did not exist."},{"startTime":1622.486,"endTime":1624.519,"body":"And in fact, if you roll the clock back"},{"startTime":1624.519,"endTime":1627.84,"body":"a few more generations,"},{"startTime":1624.519,"endTime":1627.84,"body":"those generations we just saw"},{"startTime":1627.84,"endTime":1630.588,"body":"in a 12-hour period for E.coli,"},{"startTime":1630.588,"endTime":1633.308,"body":"if you do the same"},{"startTime":1630.588,"endTime":1633.308,"body":"experiment for this bacteria,"},{"startTime":1633.308,"endTime":1634.898,"body":"it would take about half a million years"},{"startTime":1634.898,"endTime":1637.279,"body":"to go back the same distance."},{"startTime":1637.279,"endTime":1639.955,"body":"So you have two bacteria, two microbes"},{"startTime":1639.955,"endTime":1643.74,"body":"that look rather similar,"},{"startTime":1639.955,"endTime":1643.74,"body":"this nameless one, and E.coli"},{"startTime":1643.74,"endTime":1646.639,"body":"who's different in speed, one"},{"startTime":1643.74,"endTime":1646.639,"body":"dividing every 17 minutes,"},{"startTime":1646.639,"endTime":1648.091,"body":"one every 10,000 years."},{"startTime":1648.091,"endTime":1650.731,"body":"I think that's quite impressive,"},{"startTime":1650.731,"endTime":1653.331,"body":"even more impressive is very recent data"},{"startTime":1653.331,"endTime":1657.116,"body":"suggesting that this is not"},{"startTime":1653.331,"endTime":1657.116,"body":"even the oldest, the slowest."},{"startTime":1657.116,"endTime":1658.96,"body":"An even more exciting core."},{"startTime":1658.96,"endTime":1660.623,"body":"And this is perhaps a slightly easier"},{"startTime":1660.623,"endTime":1663.47,"body":"to see bacteria here in these images."},{"startTime":1663.47,"endTime":1666.733,"body":"This is a slice not of ice but of rock."},{"startTime":1666.733,"endTime":1670.41,"body":"And this slice of rock is"},{"startTime":1666.733,"endTime":1670.41,"body":"taken from about 60 meters"},{"startTime":1670.41,"endTime":1673.17,"body":"under the seabed at a point in the sea"},{"startTime":1673.17,"endTime":1674.651,"body":"in the Pacific Ocean where there's already"},{"startTime":1674.651,"endTime":1676.948,"body":"about two miles of sea above you."},{"startTime":1676.948,"endTime":1678.461,"body":"So this is a very deep section"},{"startTime":1678.461,"endTime":1682.211,"body":"under a huge amount of"},{"startTime":1678.461,"endTime":1682.211,"body":"pressure and it's actual rock."},{"startTime":1682.211,"endTime":1683.941,"body":"So this is not sort of loose sediments"},{"startTime":1683.941,"endTime":1686.42,"body":"where you can find mud, this"},{"startTime":1683.941,"endTime":1686.42,"body":"is a solid piece of rock"},{"startTime":1686.42,"endTime":1689.331,"body":"that has been sliced and inside that rock"},{"startTime":1689.331,"endTime":1691.331,"body":"we can find bacteria."},{"startTime":1691.331,"endTime":1692.623,"body":"Again, no name as yet."},{"startTime":1692.623,"endTime":1694.303,"body":"In fact maybe we should add a competition"},{"startTime":1694.303,"endTime":1697.429,"body":"to suggest names for this"},{"startTime":1694.303,"endTime":1697.429,"body":"new species but this species"},{"startTime":1697.429,"endTime":1699.6,"body":"and you can do some very"},{"startTime":1697.429,"endTime":1699.6,"body":"nice chemistry here also"},{"startTime":1699.6,"endTime":1701.55,"body":"and demonstrate that these are alive"},{"startTime":1701.55,"endTime":1703.182,"body":"and they are living inside"},{"startTime":1703.182,"endTime":1706.029,"body":"this high-pressure rock environment."},{"startTime":1706.029,"endTime":1709.382,"body":"And by the same process"},{"startTime":1706.029,"endTime":1709.382,"body":"of isotopic analysis,"},{"startTime":1709.382,"endTime":1711.881,"body":"you can work out that that"},{"startTime":1709.382,"endTime":1711.881,"body":"rock has not seen daylight"},{"startTime":1711.881,"endTime":1716.142,"body":"or has not been open for"},{"startTime":1711.881,"endTime":1716.142,"body":"about 101 million years."},{"startTime":1716.142,"endTime":1718.423,"body":"We have no idea still"},{"startTime":1716.142,"endTime":1718.423,"body":"how fast this reproduces."},{"startTime":1718.423,"endTime":1719.384,"body":"We know it's very slow."},{"startTime":1719.384,"endTime":1721.069,"body":"Maybe it's 10,000 years"},{"startTime":1719.384,"endTime":1721.069,"body":"like the other one."},{"startTime":1721.069,"endTime":1723.584,"body":"But, certainly, this"},{"startTime":1721.069,"endTime":1723.584,"body":"population of bacteria"},{"startTime":1723.584,"endTime":1728.184,"body":"has been in that rock since"},{"startTime":1723.584,"endTime":1728.184,"body":"well back into the time"},{"startTime":1728.184,"endTime":1731.878,"body":"of the dinosaurs and before,"},{"startTime":1728.184,"endTime":1731.878,"body":"and possibly only dividing"},{"startTime":1731.878,"endTime":1733.628,"body":"maybe every a hundred thousand years,"},{"startTime":1733.628,"endTime":1737.461,"body":"perhaps every million"},{"startTime":1733.628,"endTime":1737.461,"body":"years incredibly slowly."},{"startTime":1738.327,"endTime":1740.284,"body":"This aside from being an"},{"startTime":1738.327,"endTime":1740.284,"body":"interesting piece of trivia"},{"startTime":1740.284,"endTime":1741.439,"body":"to share with you on evening like this,"},{"startTime":1741.439,"endTime":1744.466,"body":"I think is a really key and"},{"startTime":1741.439,"endTime":1744.466,"body":"important piece of biology"},{"startTime":1744.466,"endTime":1747.717,"body":"because although growing"},{"startTime":1744.466,"endTime":1747.717,"body":"really, really slowly"},{"startTime":1747.717,"endTime":1749.748,"body":"is a way to deal with"},{"startTime":1747.717,"endTime":1749.748,"body":"these extreme environments,"},{"startTime":1749.748,"endTime":1751.846,"body":"you still have to deal with the challenges"},{"startTime":1751.846,"endTime":1753.147,"body":"that we all have to deal with."},{"startTime":1753.147,"endTime":1754.758,"body":"For example, the chemistry challenges."},{"startTime":1754.758,"endTime":1757.325,"body":"Over these enormous periods of time,"},{"startTime":1757.325,"endTime":1760.308,"body":"a lot of molecules degrades spontaneously."},{"startTime":1760.308,"endTime":1763.358,"body":"A lot of things that are"},{"startTime":1760.308,"endTime":1763.358,"body":"harmless on a day-to-day basis,"},{"startTime":1763.358,"endTime":1765.007,"body":"like sunshine, for example,"},{"startTime":1765.007,"endTime":1767.126,"body":"are not harmless over millions of years."},{"startTime":1767.126,"endTime":1772.126,"body":"You get huge amounts of UV"},{"startTime":1767.126,"endTime":1772.126,"body":"damage, things like cosmic rays,"},{"startTime":1772.449,"endTime":1776.015,"body":"which occasionally shoot through the earth"},{"startTime":1776.015,"endTime":1777.266,"body":"but very, very infrequently."},{"startTime":1777.266,"endTime":1779.478,"body":"But if you're going to be"},{"startTime":1777.266,"endTime":1779.478,"body":"around for a million years,"},{"startTime":1779.478,"endTime":1781.135,"body":"very, very infrequently still starts"},{"startTime":1781.135,"endTime":1782.653,"body":"to be a bit of a problem."},{"startTime":1782.653,"endTime":1784.936,"body":"And so in a way that we don't understand,"},{"startTime":1784.936,"endTime":1787.478,"body":"these organisms must have an ability"},{"startTime":1787.478,"endTime":1790.456,"body":"to deal with this kind"},{"startTime":1787.478,"endTime":1790.456,"body":"of damage and repair it"},{"startTime":1790.456,"endTime":1793.034,"body":"on a very, very slow time scale."},{"startTime":1793.034,"endTime":1795.199,"body":"And learning how they"},{"startTime":1793.034,"endTime":1795.199,"body":"do that could, I think,"},{"startTime":1795.199,"endTime":1796.746,"body":"be very, very useful for us."},{"startTime":1796.746,"endTime":1799.947,"body":"Actually, in very, very"},{"startTime":1796.746,"endTime":1799.947,"body":"applied situations."},{"startTime":1799.947,"endTime":1802.045,"body":"For example, in cancer therapy."},{"startTime":1802.045,"endTime":1804.854,"body":"So when you do cancer, a"},{"startTime":1802.045,"endTime":1804.854,"body":"lot of cancer therapies"},{"startTime":1804.854,"endTime":1807.781,"body":"essentially rely on creating DNA damage"},{"startTime":1807.781,"endTime":1809.45,"body":"to try and destroy your tumor"},{"startTime":1809.45,"endTime":1812.529,"body":"but you don't want to create"},{"startTime":1809.45,"endTime":1812.529,"body":"DNA damage in your other cells."},{"startTime":1812.529,"endTime":1815.522,"body":"And so understanding about"},{"startTime":1812.529,"endTime":1815.522,"body":"how these organisms repair"},{"startTime":1815.522,"endTime":1818.54,"body":"that kind of DNA damage might"},{"startTime":1815.522,"endTime":1818.54,"body":"help us learn some tricks"},{"startTime":1818.54,"endTime":1821.957,"body":"for that very applied branch of medicine."},{"startTime":1823.581,"endTime":1827.23,"body":"Okay, so that's very fast and very slow."},{"startTime":1827.23,"endTime":1829.686,"body":"Let's go back for a moment to our sports"},{"startTime":1829.686,"endTime":1831.195,"body":"and let's think about some other sports"},{"startTime":1831.195,"endTime":1832.942,"body":"for which people get lots of medals."},{"startTime":1832.942,"endTime":1834.724,"body":"And this is one that I was so bad at."},{"startTime":1834.724,"endTime":1836.835,"body":"I remember at school, this is"},{"startTime":1834.724,"endTime":1836.835,"body":"the shot put, I was so bad at,"},{"startTime":1836.835,"endTime":1839.514,"body":"I had one go and my P.E."},{"startTime":1836.835,"endTime":1839.514,"body":"teacher, I remember saying,"},{"startTime":1839.514,"endTime":1840.654,"body":"\"Robin, I think it's probably time"},{"startTime":1840.654,"endTime":1842.846,"body":"you'd find a different sport.\""},{"startTime":1842.846,"endTime":1845.273,"body":"I think he was worried for"},{"startTime":1842.846,"endTime":1845.273,"body":"himself as well as for me."},{"startTime":1845.273,"endTime":1848.204,"body":"So shot put is obviously"},{"startTime":1845.273,"endTime":1848.204,"body":"where you take essentially"},{"startTime":1848.204,"endTime":1851.463,"body":"a mini cannibal and you"},{"startTime":1848.204,"endTime":1851.463,"body":"throw it a very long way."},{"startTime":1851.463,"endTime":1852.873,"body":"It's one of the interesting sports"},{"startTime":1852.873,"endTime":1855.384,"body":"which over the last hundred"},{"startTime":1852.873,"endTime":1855.384,"body":"years has been consistently"},{"startTime":1855.384,"endTime":1858.271,"body":"and fairly linearly getting"},{"startTime":1855.384,"endTime":1858.271,"body":"further and further and further."},{"startTime":1858.271,"endTime":1860.254,"body":"But still we are looking today at records"},{"startTime":1860.254,"endTime":1863.622,"body":"in the region of sort"},{"startTime":1860.254,"endTime":1863.622,"body":"of 20 to 30 meters max"},{"startTime":1863.622,"endTime":1866.372,"body":"for throwing this projectile out."},{"startTime":1867.337,"endTime":1870.457,"body":"Still very impressive but"},{"startTime":1867.337,"endTime":1870.457,"body":"nowhere near as good as microbes."},{"startTime":1870.457,"endTime":1873.046,"body":"And this is my front"},{"startTime":1870.457,"endTime":1873.046,"body":"runner for the gold medal"},{"startTime":1873.046,"endTime":1875.144,"body":"in the shot put for microbes."},{"startTime":1875.144,"endTime":1878.844,"body":"And this is the rather beautifully"},{"startTime":1875.144,"endTime":1878.844,"body":"named artillery fungus."},{"startTime":1878.844,"endTime":1880.873,"body":"I love that name, Sphaerobolus."},{"startTime":1880.873,"endTime":1882.964,"body":"And it looks fairly innocuous."},{"startTime":1882.964,"endTime":1885.534,"body":"You can see here growing"},{"startTime":1882.964,"endTime":1885.534,"body":"on a piece of rotting wood."},{"startTime":1885.534,"endTime":1886.909,"body":"This is quite zoomed in, this is actually"},{"startTime":1886.909,"endTime":1888.067,"body":"a very small fungus."},{"startTime":1888.067,"endTime":1889.683,"body":"If you walked past it in the woods,"},{"startTime":1889.683,"endTime":1891.013,"body":"I don't think you'd notice it."},{"startTime":1891.013,"endTime":1892.743,"body":"It's one of those many, many fungi"},{"startTime":1892.743,"endTime":1896.826,"body":"that decompose dead and"},{"startTime":1892.743,"endTime":1896.826,"body":"decaying wood in forests."},{"startTime":1898.365,"endTime":1901.453,"body":"It's tiny but like all"},{"startTime":1898.365,"endTime":1901.453,"body":"fungi it needs to spread"},{"startTime":1901.453,"endTime":1903.412,"body":"and he can't run around."},{"startTime":1903.412,"endTime":1905.937,"body":"It needs to get its spores"},{"startTime":1903.412,"endTime":1905.937,"body":"out into the environment"},{"startTime":1905.937,"endTime":1906.77,"body":"to spread around."},{"startTime":1906.77,"endTime":1908.749,"body":"And it does that as the name might suggest"},{"startTime":1908.749,"endTime":1910.209,"body":"by shooting them, okay?"},{"startTime":1910.209,"endTime":1912.728,"body":"And it shoots them really"},{"startTime":1910.209,"endTime":1912.728,"body":"in a most amazing way."},{"startTime":1912.728,"endTime":1916.838,"body":"So each of these, if you zoom"},{"startTime":1912.728,"endTime":1916.838,"body":"in forms this tiny star-like"},{"startTime":1916.838,"endTime":1920.235,"body":"or egg-cup-like structure"},{"startTime":1916.838,"endTime":1920.235,"body":"with a ball in the middle."},{"startTime":1920.235,"endTime":1923.833,"body":"This is your shot for your"},{"startTime":1920.235,"endTime":1923.833,"body":"shot put, inside of which"},{"startTime":1923.833,"endTime":1926.277,"body":"are lots and lots of fungal spores."},{"startTime":1926.277,"endTime":1928.746,"body":"And what the fungus wants to"},{"startTime":1926.277,"endTime":1928.746,"body":"do is to get this as far away"},{"startTime":1928.746,"endTime":1931.686,"body":"from all its competitive"},{"startTime":1928.746,"endTime":1931.686,"body":"fungi as it possibly can."},{"startTime":1931.686,"endTime":1933.746,"body":"And it does that by shooting it."},{"startTime":1933.746,"endTime":1935.946,"body":"And you can see that here,"},{"startTime":1933.746,"endTime":1935.946,"body":"sadly there's no sound"},{"startTime":1935.946,"endTime":1937.828,"body":"on this video 'cause you"},{"startTime":1935.946,"endTime":1937.828,"body":"can also hear it even,"},{"startTime":1937.828,"endTime":1939.851,"body":"you can hear it going, but"},{"startTime":1937.828,"endTime":1939.851,"body":"you have to imagine the"},{"startTime":1939.851,"endTime":1941.221,"body":"'cause there's no sound here."},{"startTime":1941.221,"endTime":1943.012,"body":"We have our fungus grown in this media"},{"startTime":1943.012,"endTime":1944.251,"body":"and what you'll see here is one of them"},{"startTime":1944.251,"endTime":1948.622,"body":"shooting it's little spore"},{"startTime":1944.251,"endTime":1948.622,"body":"a truly amazing distance."},{"startTime":1948.622,"endTime":1951.269,"body":"In fact, this is about scaling, right,"},{"startTime":1951.269,"endTime":1955.1,"body":"in real life these tiny, tiny spores leave"},{"startTime":1955.1,"endTime":1958.609,"body":"at about 20 miles per hour"},{"startTime":1955.1,"endTime":1958.609,"body":"and go about six meters."},{"startTime":1958.609,"endTime":1960.31,"body":"So this is for a fungus"},{"startTime":1958.609,"endTime":1960.31,"body":"that you can barely see"},{"startTime":1960.31,"endTime":1963.405,"body":"on the ground crossing"},{"startTime":1960.31,"endTime":1963.405,"body":"almost the width of this hall"},{"startTime":1963.405,"endTime":1964.738,"body":"with it's spore."},{"startTime":1965.639,"endTime":1969.339,"body":"And if we were to scale that"},{"startTime":1965.639,"endTime":1969.339,"body":"to our human shot putter"},{"startTime":1969.339,"endTime":1970.957,"body":"as we've been doing all evening,"},{"startTime":1970.957,"endTime":1973.638,"body":"then for those of you who are"},{"startTime":1970.957,"endTime":1973.638,"body":"here joining me in the hall,"},{"startTime":1973.638,"endTime":1977.258,"body":"the current world record for shot put"},{"startTime":1977.258,"endTime":1980.99,"body":"for a human would get your shot from here"},{"startTime":1980.99,"endTime":1982.935,"body":"to about the street you came here off."},{"startTime":1982.935,"endTime":1983.768,"body":"Okay?"},{"startTime":1983.768,"endTime":1984.601,"body":"Which is not for those"},{"startTime":1983.768,"endTime":1984.601,"body":"of you joining online,"},{"startTime":1984.601,"endTime":1985.535,"body":"that's not a very long walk."},{"startTime":1985.535,"endTime":1987.285,"body":"It's about 25 meters."},{"startTime":1988.201,"endTime":1990.534,"body":"This one, this fungus, if"},{"startTime":1988.201,"endTime":1990.534,"body":"it was here in the hall"},{"startTime":1990.534,"endTime":1992.758,"body":"doing the same thing,"},{"startTime":1990.534,"endTime":1992.758,"body":"would throw that shot"},{"startTime":1992.758,"endTime":1995.34,"body":"just over a kilometer and"},{"startTime":1992.758,"endTime":1995.34,"body":"would be breaking windows"},{"startTime":1995.34,"endTime":1998.471,"body":"in the British Museum over on Holborn."},{"startTime":1998.471,"endTime":2000.397,"body":"It's a really, really impressive feat."},{"startTime":2000.397,"endTime":2003.539,"body":"And once again, I would"},{"startTime":2000.397,"endTime":2003.539,"body":"remind you that at this scale"},{"startTime":2003.539,"endTime":2006.36,"body":"it is doing this not through"},{"startTime":2003.539,"endTime":2006.36,"body":"the normal environment"},{"startTime":2006.36,"endTime":2008.338,"body":"that we experience it too is experiencing"},{"startTime":2008.338,"endTime":2012.062,"body":"this very gloopy media that"},{"startTime":2008.338,"endTime":2012.062,"body":"it's a bit more like treacle"},{"startTime":2012.062,"endTime":2015.663,"body":"than it is like water and"},{"startTime":2012.062,"endTime":2015.663,"body":"yet still hurling its spores"},{"startTime":2015.663,"endTime":2018.359,"body":"these astronomical distances."},{"startTime":2018.359,"endTime":2020.388,"body":"So gold medal for me goes"},{"startTime":2018.359,"endTime":2020.388,"body":"to the artillery fungus"},{"startTime":2020.388,"endTime":2021.805,"body":"for the shot put."},{"startTime":2025.64,"endTime":2028.429,"body":"So for the last five or 10 minutes or so,"},{"startTime":2028.429,"endTime":2032.27,"body":"I'm going to turn my attention"},{"startTime":2028.429,"endTime":2032.27,"body":"away from some of these"},{"startTime":2032.27,"endTime":2035.428,"body":"more classical sports and"},{"startTime":2032.27,"endTime":2035.428,"body":"achievements we do to areas where,"},{"startTime":2035.428,"endTime":2039.556,"body":"fortunately perhaps, we do not"},{"startTime":2035.428,"endTime":2039.556,"body":"have human records to beat,"},{"startTime":2039.556,"endTime":2041.775,"body":"but to try and demonstrate"},{"startTime":2039.556,"endTime":2041.775,"body":"to you that microbes"},{"startTime":2041.775,"endTime":2043.945,"body":"have some other really amazing talents"},{"startTime":2043.945,"endTime":2046.313,"body":"that we should be thinking about."},{"startTime":2046.313,"endTime":2048.993,"body":"And in particular, these"},{"startTime":2046.313,"endTime":2048.993,"body":"talents, if you like,"},{"startTime":2048.993,"endTime":2052.632,"body":"have had a major impact"},{"startTime":2048.993,"endTime":2052.632,"body":"on human civilization."},{"startTime":2052.632,"endTime":2054.453,"body":"And I've classified"},{"startTime":2052.632,"endTime":2054.453,"body":"them into the two areas,"},{"startTime":2054.453,"endTime":2055.428,"body":"triumph, and disaster."},{"startTime":2055.428,"endTime":2059.542,"body":"The triumph is the ability of"},{"startTime":2055.428,"endTime":2059.542,"body":"microbes to endure conditions"},{"startTime":2059.542,"endTime":2062.401,"body":"that for most humans"},{"startTime":2059.542,"endTime":2062.401,"body":"are far beyond anything"},{"startTime":2062.401,"endTime":2064.608,"body":"we can possibly experience."},{"startTime":2064.608,"endTime":2067.894,"body":"And my winner of the medal"},{"startTime":2064.608,"endTime":2067.894,"body":"there is this little chap here,"},{"startTime":2067.894,"endTime":2070.848,"body":"this is Deinococcus"},{"startTime":2067.894,"endTime":2070.848,"body":"radiodurans, I love that name."},{"startTime":2070.848,"endTime":2074.087,"body":"It's another bacterium, excuse me,"},{"startTime":2074.087,"endTime":2076.133,"body":"which grows actually typically as a pair."},{"startTime":2076.133,"endTime":2077.28,"body":"So these are two cells stuck together."},{"startTime":2077.28,"endTime":2079.345,"body":"They usually grow like this."},{"startTime":2079.345,"endTime":2082.162,"body":"And there's other"},{"startTime":2079.345,"endTime":2082.162,"body":"beautiful story about this"},{"startTime":2082.162,"endTime":2085.583,"body":"because this bacteria"},{"startTime":2082.162,"endTime":2085.583,"body":"was discovered by chance,"},{"startTime":2085.583,"endTime":2089.937,"body":"but as a product, if you"},{"startTime":2085.583,"endTime":2089.937,"body":"like, of human innovation."},{"startTime":2089.937,"endTime":2091.198,"body":"For those of you who've listened"},{"startTime":2091.198,"endTime":2093.587,"body":"to one of the previous"},{"startTime":2091.198,"endTime":2093.587,"body":"lectures in this series,"},{"startTime":2093.587,"endTime":2095.314,"body":"you might recall that"},{"startTime":2093.587,"endTime":2095.314,"body":"we talked a little bit"},{"startTime":2095.314,"endTime":2098.987,"body":"about food poisoning and"},{"startTime":2095.314,"endTime":2098.987,"body":"we talked about canning,"},{"startTime":2098.987,"endTime":2103.185,"body":"and bottling, and a way to preserve foods."},{"startTime":2103.185,"endTime":2106.355,"body":"And we met this rather nice"},{"startTime":2103.185,"endTime":2106.355,"body":"lady here back in the 1920s"},{"startTime":2106.355,"endTime":2109.116,"body":"who is demonstrating just"},{"startTime":2106.355,"endTime":2109.116,"body":"how excited we can get"},{"startTime":2109.116,"endTime":2111.394,"body":"about bottling things as humans."},{"startTime":2111.394,"endTime":2113.588,"body":"And for those of you who weren't"},{"startTime":2111.394,"endTime":2113.588,"body":"there, let me just recap."},{"startTime":2113.588,"endTime":2116.172,"body":"The point about food obviously"},{"startTime":2113.588,"endTime":2116.172,"body":"is it spoils, most foods,"},{"startTime":2116.172,"endTime":2118.126,"body":"if you harvest, I dunno, beetroot"},{"startTime":2118.126,"endTime":2119.395,"body":"and you leave it on the side,"},{"startTime":2119.395,"endTime":2121.459,"body":"it will rot and it will go horrible."},{"startTime":2121.459,"endTime":2125.89,"body":"If however, you can keep it in"},{"startTime":2121.459,"endTime":2125.89,"body":"an environment away from air,"},{"startTime":2125.89,"endTime":2128.122,"body":"you will dramatically slow its rotting"},{"startTime":2128.122,"endTime":2130.223,"body":"because most microbes need air."},{"startTime":2130.223,"endTime":2133.362,"body":"And so you can keep it away"},{"startTime":2130.223,"endTime":2133.362,"body":"from air, it won't rot as fast."},{"startTime":2133.362,"endTime":2136.018,"body":"And that in essence is"},{"startTime":2133.362,"endTime":2136.018,"body":"how humans invented things"},{"startTime":2136.018,"endTime":2139.601,"body":"like bottling and"},{"startTime":2136.018,"endTime":2139.601,"body":"canning to keep air away."},{"startTime":2140.837,"endTime":2142.748,"body":"And we talked in the previous lecture"},{"startTime":2142.748,"endTime":2144.761,"body":"about the fact that that works"},{"startTime":2142.748,"endTime":2144.761,"body":"pretty well for most things."},{"startTime":2144.761,"endTime":2147.116,"body":"But there are some microbes in particular,"},{"startTime":2147.116,"endTime":2149.934,"body":"some of the most toxigenic"},{"startTime":2147.116,"endTime":2149.934,"body":"that create toxins"},{"startTime":2149.934,"endTime":2152.009,"body":"that actually quite like"},{"startTime":2149.934,"endTime":2152.009,"body":"being away from air."},{"startTime":2152.009,"endTime":2154.298,"body":"And so you can get these really unpleasant"},{"startTime":2154.298,"endTime":2157.548,"body":"toxin-based illnesses from canned food."},{"startTime":2158.77,"endTime":2162.151,"body":"Now, in the context of that,"},{"startTime":2158.77,"endTime":2162.151,"body":"so back in the 1930s and '40s"},{"startTime":2162.151,"endTime":2165.299,"body":"when canning and bottling"},{"startTime":2162.151,"endTime":2165.299,"body":"was really taking off,"},{"startTime":2165.299,"endTime":2168.827,"body":"there were serious issues"},{"startTime":2165.299,"endTime":2168.827,"body":"with people getting quite sick"},{"startTime":2168.827,"endTime":2170.952,"body":"from those foods because you might recall"},{"startTime":2170.952,"endTime":2172.281,"body":"that we talked in one"},{"startTime":2170.952,"endTime":2172.281,"body":"of the previous lectures"},{"startTime":2172.281,"endTime":2175.128,"body":"about Botulinum toxin,"},{"startTime":2172.281,"endTime":2175.128,"body":"this incredibly dangerous"},{"startTime":2175.128,"endTime":2178.966,"body":"bacterial toxin that is"},{"startTime":2175.128,"endTime":2178.966,"body":"associated with canned food."},{"startTime":2178.966,"endTime":2181.91,"body":"So lots of people were"},{"startTime":2178.966,"endTime":2181.91,"body":"aiming to try and find out"},{"startTime":2181.91,"endTime":2184.808,"body":"what is causing this toxin"},{"startTime":2181.91,"endTime":2184.808,"body":"and how can we prevent it"},{"startTime":2184.808,"endTime":2187.009,"body":"getting into our cans."},{"startTime":2187.009,"endTime":2189.266,"body":"Now back in the forties and fifties,"},{"startTime":2189.266,"endTime":2190.955,"body":"the other big thing that"},{"startTime":2189.266,"endTime":2190.955,"body":"was happening of course,"},{"startTime":2190.955,"endTime":2193.306,"body":"was the discovery of nuclear energy."},{"startTime":2193.306,"endTime":2194.139,"body":"Okay?"},{"startTime":2194.139,"endTime":2197.05,"body":"We had the nuclear program"},{"startTime":2194.139,"endTime":2197.05,"body":"in the United States"},{"startTime":2197.05,"endTime":2199.846,"body":"during the Second World War"},{"startTime":2197.05,"endTime":2199.846,"body":"and there was the start of,"},{"startTime":2199.846,"endTime":2201.432,"body":"I guess what was the nuclear revolution."},{"startTime":2201.432,"endTime":2204.709,"body":"So people were starting to"},{"startTime":2201.432,"endTime":2204.709,"body":"think about nuclear power"},{"startTime":2204.709,"endTime":2206.736,"body":"as a source of electricity."},{"startTime":2206.736,"endTime":2208.753,"body":"And there's, I dunno if"},{"startTime":2206.736,"endTime":2208.753,"body":"you go back to the 1950s,"},{"startTime":2208.753,"endTime":2210.979,"body":"there was some fantastic ideas there."},{"startTime":2210.979,"endTime":2213.753,"body":"I saw nuclear-powered backpacks for people"},{"startTime":2213.753,"endTime":2216.139,"body":"so you could carry your"},{"startTime":2213.753,"endTime":2216.139,"body":"office around with you."},{"startTime":2216.139,"endTime":2218.596,"body":"And my favorite one, which is"},{"startTime":2216.139,"endTime":2218.596,"body":"true, I discovered recently,"},{"startTime":2218.596,"endTime":2220.707,"body":"that apparently in the sixties"},{"startTime":2220.707,"endTime":2224.116,"body":"you could buy nuclear"},{"startTime":2220.707,"endTime":2224.116,"body":"peanuts, which were peanuts"},{"startTime":2224.116,"endTime":2225.795,"body":"that have been deliberately irradiated"},{"startTime":2225.795,"endTime":2228.038,"body":"and they were kind of"},{"startTime":2225.795,"endTime":2228.038,"body":"really cool, and swanky,"},{"startTime":2228.038,"endTime":2230.63,"body":"and exciting thing to"},{"startTime":2228.038,"endTime":2230.63,"body":"serve your cocktail party"},{"startTime":2230.63,"endTime":2231.853,"body":"was a nuclear peanut."},{"startTime":2231.853,"endTime":2234.064,"body":"I'm not sure it would"},{"startTime":2231.853,"endTime":2234.064,"body":"catch on today but anyway."},{"startTime":2234.064,"endTime":2236.007,"body":"This is a period of time when"},{"startTime":2234.064,"endTime":2236.007,"body":"people were really excited"},{"startTime":2236.007,"endTime":2237.892,"body":"about radiation and the potentials."},{"startTime":2237.892,"endTime":2241.681,"body":"They hadn't really appreciated"},{"startTime":2237.892,"endTime":2241.681,"body":"the dangers at that stage."},{"startTime":2241.681,"endTime":2243.898,"body":"And so one wise group decided, aha,"},{"startTime":2243.898,"endTime":2245.709,"body":"radiation penetrates things."},{"startTime":2245.709,"endTime":2246.692,"body":"That's the whole point, right?"},{"startTime":2246.692,"endTime":2248.965,"body":"You're not safe just stood"},{"startTime":2246.692,"endTime":2248.965,"body":"behind something thin"},{"startTime":2248.965,"endTime":2250.777,"body":"because radiation goes through,"},{"startTime":2250.777,"endTime":2254.615,"body":"why don't we use radiation"},{"startTime":2250.777,"endTime":2254.615,"body":"to sterilize our tins,"},{"startTime":2254.615,"endTime":2257.879,"body":"and we'll bottle our food,"},{"startTime":2254.615,"endTime":2257.879,"body":"and then we'll pass it"},{"startTime":2257.879,"endTime":2261.817,"body":"across a radiation source,"},{"startTime":2257.879,"endTime":2261.817,"body":"and we'll irradiate it,"},{"startTime":2261.817,"endTime":2264.839,"body":"and it will be sterilized,"},{"startTime":2261.817,"endTime":2264.839,"body":"and everything will be fine."},{"startTime":2264.839,"endTime":2267.767,"body":"So they tested that and were"},{"startTime":2264.839,"endTime":2267.767,"body":"very shocked to discover"},{"startTime":2267.767,"endTime":2271.177,"body":"that still they got cans that"},{"startTime":2267.767,"endTime":2271.177,"body":"would go off and would rot."},{"startTime":2271.177,"endTime":2274.392,"body":"And the reason for that"},{"startTime":2271.177,"endTime":2274.392,"body":"was because those cans"},{"startTime":2274.392,"endTime":2277.963,"body":"had this guy radiodurans"},{"startTime":2274.392,"endTime":2277.963,"body":"living inside them."},{"startTime":2277.963,"endTime":2280.25,"body":"And it turns out that this organism"},{"startTime":2280.25,"endTime":2284.879,"body":"is capable of withstanding"},{"startTime":2280.25,"endTime":2284.879,"body":"unbelievable levels of radiation."},{"startTime":2284.879,"endTime":2287.891,"body":"In fact, it will withstand"},{"startTime":2284.879,"endTime":2287.891,"body":"so much at radiation"},{"startTime":2287.891,"endTime":2291.013,"body":"that it withstand about a thousand times"},{"startTime":2291.013,"endTime":2293.05,"body":"the lethal dose of a human."},{"startTime":2293.05,"endTime":2293.883,"body":"Okay?"},{"startTime":2293.883,"endTime":2295.68,"body":"About 5,000 gray, we measure in grays."},{"startTime":2295.68,"endTime":2298.442,"body":"So about three to four"},{"startTime":2295.68,"endTime":2298.442,"body":"grays of radiation is enough"},{"startTime":2298.442,"endTime":2301.005,"body":"to kill a person within a few minutes."},{"startTime":2301.005,"endTime":2304.969,"body":"Radiodurans will happily take"},{"startTime":2301.005,"endTime":2304.969,"body":"a thousand times that dose,"},{"startTime":2304.969,"endTime":2306.662,"body":"which is the equivalent actually"},{"startTime":2306.662,"endTime":2310.446,"body":"of it essentially surviving"},{"startTime":2306.662,"endTime":2310.446,"body":"unharmed ground zero"},{"startTime":2310.446,"endTime":2313.564,"body":"underneath the Hiroshima atomic"},{"startTime":2310.446,"endTime":2313.564,"body":"bomb and just carrying on"},{"startTime":2313.564,"endTime":2315.111,"body":"as if nothing particularly happened."},{"startTime":2315.111,"endTime":2317.754,"body":"It is amazingly good at withstanding"},{"startTime":2317.754,"endTime":2320.559,"body":"these intense radiation sources."},{"startTime":2320.559,"endTime":2322.135,"body":"That on its own right is very interesting."},{"startTime":2322.135,"endTime":2324.45,"body":"But it's also extremely important"},{"startTime":2324.45,"endTime":2327.572,"body":"because as you will be aware,"},{"startTime":2324.45,"endTime":2327.572,"body":"radiation is essentially"},{"startTime":2327.572,"endTime":2330.805,"body":"one of the major limitations"},{"startTime":2327.572,"endTime":2330.805,"body":"for space exploration."},{"startTime":2330.805,"endTime":2333.305,"body":"At present, we can't think of a way"},{"startTime":2333.305,"endTime":2335.98,"body":"to get people to Mars safely"},{"startTime":2335.98,"endTime":2338.237,"body":"because there is too much radiation dose"},{"startTime":2338.237,"endTime":2339.506,"body":"that those people would experience,"},{"startTime":2339.506,"endTime":2342.054,"body":"those astronauts would"},{"startTime":2339.506,"endTime":2342.054,"body":"experience, on the way to Mars."},{"startTime":2342.054,"endTime":2344.331,"body":"We need to find a way to"},{"startTime":2342.054,"endTime":2344.331,"body":"either shield them from it"},{"startTime":2344.331,"endTime":2347.162,"body":"or to make that damage less dramatic."},{"startTime":2347.162,"endTime":2350.754,"body":"This bacterium has found a way to repair"},{"startTime":2350.754,"endTime":2352.563,"body":"and to protect itself"},{"startTime":2350.754,"endTime":2352.563,"body":"from radiation damage"},{"startTime":2352.563,"endTime":2356.021,"body":"on a scale far beyond anything"},{"startTime":2352.563,"endTime":2356.021,"body":"that's out there in space."},{"startTime":2356.021,"endTime":2357.989,"body":"And so maybe by learning more about that,"},{"startTime":2357.989,"endTime":2360.326,"body":"we will have a clue as"},{"startTime":2357.989,"endTime":2360.326,"body":"to how we might be able"},{"startTime":2360.326,"endTime":2364.192,"body":"to better improve our own"},{"startTime":2360.326,"endTime":2364.192,"body":"tolerance of radiation,"},{"startTime":2364.192,"endTime":2366.01,"body":"for example, for space flight or indeed,"},{"startTime":2366.01,"endTime":2370.677,"body":"much more prosaically in"},{"startTime":2366.01,"endTime":2370.677,"body":"things like x-rays or CT scans."},{"startTime":2372.353,"endTime":2376.45,"body":"So let me finish with"},{"startTime":2372.353,"endTime":2376.45,"body":"possibly the most grim,"},{"startTime":2376.45,"endTime":2377.964,"body":"but also from my perspective,"},{"startTime":2377.964,"endTime":2379.442,"body":"as an infectious disease person,"},{"startTime":2379.442,"endTime":2383.314,"body":"the most interesting medal-winning"},{"startTime":2379.442,"endTime":2383.314,"body":"part of microbiology,"},{"startTime":2383.314,"endTime":2386.843,"body":"which is those microbes that"},{"startTime":2383.314,"endTime":2386.843,"body":"have won the infamous medals"},{"startTime":2386.843,"endTime":2390.84,"body":"for being the most destructive"},{"startTime":2386.843,"endTime":2390.84,"body":"in the history of humanity."},{"startTime":2390.84,"endTime":2392.725,"body":"There is no one in the"},{"startTime":2390.84,"endTime":2392.725,"body":"world today I suspect,"},{"startTime":2392.725,"endTime":2395.386,"body":"who hasn't witnessed firsthand"},{"startTime":2392.725,"endTime":2395.386,"body":"the destructive power"},{"startTime":2395.386,"endTime":2398.817,"body":"of microbial pandemics"},{"startTime":2395.386,"endTime":2398.817,"body":"over the last few years."},{"startTime":2398.817,"endTime":2401.231,"body":"And I think it's sometimes"},{"startTime":2398.817,"endTime":2401.231,"body":"very salutary to learn"},{"startTime":2401.231,"endTime":2405.382,"body":"that the appalling burden"},{"startTime":2401.231,"endTime":2405.382,"body":"of COVID-19 is still nothing"},{"startTime":2405.382,"endTime":2407.109,"body":"as compared to some of the pandemics"},{"startTime":2407.109,"endTime":2408.672,"body":"that have happened in the past."},{"startTime":2408.672,"endTime":2412.352,"body":"And so it is very hard to"},{"startTime":2408.672,"endTime":2412.352,"body":"work out just how dramatic"},{"startTime":2412.352,"endTime":2414.514,"body":"many of those historic"},{"startTime":2412.352,"endTime":2414.514,"body":"pandemics have been."},{"startTime":2414.514,"endTime":2417.455,"body":"But here, for what it's"},{"startTime":2414.514,"endTime":2417.455,"body":"worth, are my top three"},{"startTime":2417.455,"endTime":2418.872,"body":"in reverse order."},{"startTime":2419.711,"endTime":2422.267,"body":"So our bronze medal here"},{"startTime":2419.711,"endTime":2422.267,"body":"goes, I actually thought"},{"startTime":2422.267,"endTime":2423.754,"body":"when I was doing my homework for this,"},{"startTime":2423.754,"endTime":2425.421,"body":"I thought this would win, but I was wrong."},{"startTime":2425.421,"endTime":2429.456,"body":"So this is the influenza virus"},{"startTime":2425.421,"endTime":2429.456,"body":"and I suspect many of you,"},{"startTime":2429.456,"endTime":2432.49,"body":"like me will have been"},{"startTime":2429.456,"endTime":2432.49,"body":"reading recently comparisons"},{"startTime":2432.49,"endTime":2435.527,"body":"between coronavirus and"},{"startTime":2432.49,"endTime":2435.527,"body":"influenza and in particular"},{"startTime":2435.527,"endTime":2440.194,"body":"the 1918 pandemic flu, sometimes"},{"startTime":2435.527,"endTime":2440.194,"body":"called the Spanish flu."},{"startTime":2441.287,"endTime":2445.454,"body":"So in 1918, 1919, a new"},{"startTime":2441.287,"endTime":2445.454,"body":"strain of influenza arose,"},{"startTime":2446.554,"endTime":2448.571,"body":"spread very rapidly around the world,"},{"startTime":2448.571,"endTime":2451.233,"body":"particularly on the back"},{"startTime":2448.571,"endTime":2451.233,"body":"of all the human movements"},{"startTime":2451.233,"endTime":2453.144,"body":"that were happening at the"},{"startTime":2451.233,"endTime":2453.144,"body":"end of the First World War."},{"startTime":2453.144,"endTime":2454.774,"body":"People were returning to their countries"},{"startTime":2454.774,"endTime":2458.157,"body":"from all over the world"},{"startTime":2454.774,"endTime":2458.157,"body":"spreading with them"},{"startTime":2458.157,"endTime":2460.953,"body":"this new pandemic flu variant."},{"startTime":2460.953,"endTime":2465.599,"body":"This was an extremely"},{"startTime":2460.953,"endTime":2465.599,"body":"violent, virulent form of flu"},{"startTime":2465.599,"endTime":2467.891,"body":"that had a very high mortality rate."},{"startTime":2467.891,"endTime":2470.664,"body":"People argue, so the flu"},{"startTime":2467.891,"endTime":2470.664,"body":"itself was very virulent,"},{"startTime":2470.664,"endTime":2472.321,"body":"undoubtedly, but also of course,"},{"startTime":2472.321,"endTime":2474.068,"body":"the population was vulnerable."},{"startTime":2474.068,"endTime":2476.292,"body":"We'd had this terrible war for four years"},{"startTime":2476.292,"endTime":2477.755,"body":"and people were malnourished,"},{"startTime":2477.755,"endTime":2479.963,"body":"often living in difficult conditions."},{"startTime":2479.963,"endTime":2482.161,"body":"So there was a double vulnerability there."},{"startTime":2482.161,"endTime":2486.01,"body":"And in that about 18 months"},{"startTime":2482.161,"endTime":2486.01,"body":"of that pandemic raged,"},{"startTime":2486.01,"endTime":2488.721,"body":"we estimated about 40 million people died."},{"startTime":2488.721,"endTime":2491.52,"body":"And at the time in 1918, that's about 2%"},{"startTime":2491.52,"endTime":2492.79,"body":"of the human population."},{"startTime":2492.79,"endTime":2496.438,"body":"So that's a really big number globally."},{"startTime":2496.438,"endTime":2497.271,"body":"But still not."},{"startTime":2497.271,"endTime":2499.2,"body":"That's only enough to get you"},{"startTime":2497.271,"endTime":2499.2,"body":"into the bronze medal position"},{"startTime":2499.2,"endTime":2501.837,"body":"in this rather grim final slide here."},{"startTime":2501.837,"endTime":2505.226,"body":"This silver prize winner"},{"startTime":2501.837,"endTime":2505.226,"body":"is another virus though."},{"startTime":2505.226,"endTime":2507.972,"body":"This one is one that hopefully"},{"startTime":2505.226,"endTime":2507.972,"body":"most of us in this room"},{"startTime":2507.972,"endTime":2509.595,"body":"have never encountered."},{"startTime":2509.595,"endTime":2511.277,"body":"This is smallpox."},{"startTime":2511.277,"endTime":2512.11,"body":"Okay?"},{"startTime":2512.11,"endTime":2515.414,"body":"Smallpox is a viral infection of humans"},{"startTime":2515.414,"endTime":2517.621,"body":"that has been with us for probably"},{"startTime":2517.621,"endTime":2518.762,"body":"most of our modern history."},{"startTime":2518.762,"endTime":2520.636,"body":"So there's very good evidence"},{"startTime":2518.762,"endTime":2520.636,"body":"of smallpox, for example,"},{"startTime":2520.636,"endTime":2521.967,"body":"in ancient Egypt."},{"startTime":2521.967,"endTime":2526.753,"body":"So it's certainly been around"},{"startTime":2521.967,"endTime":2526.753,"body":"humans for a long time,"},{"startTime":2526.753,"endTime":2529.145,"body":"but it comes in waves."},{"startTime":2529.145,"endTime":2531.942,"body":"There's been particular"},{"startTime":2529.145,"endTime":2531.942,"body":"waves and the big wave"},{"startTime":2531.942,"endTime":2535.769,"body":"that is particularly dramatic"},{"startTime":2531.942,"endTime":2535.769,"body":"is the one that occurred"},{"startTime":2535.769,"endTime":2539.608,"body":"after Europeans \"discovered\""},{"startTime":2535.769,"endTime":2539.608,"body":"and I use the word advisedly,"},{"startTime":2539.608,"endTime":2541.61,"body":"the new world of the Americas."},{"startTime":2541.61,"endTime":2543.516,"body":"So you might be familiar with this story."},{"startTime":2543.516,"endTime":2546.863,"body":"Then, of course, ships from"},{"startTime":2543.516,"endTime":2546.863,"body":"Europe discovered America."},{"startTime":2546.863,"endTime":2550.512,"body":"People started to move"},{"startTime":2546.863,"endTime":2550.512,"body":"from Europe to America."},{"startTime":2550.512,"endTime":2552.885,"body":"Unfortunately for them, there"},{"startTime":2550.512,"endTime":2552.885,"body":"were already people living"},{"startTime":2552.885,"endTime":2553.802,"body":"in America."},{"startTime":2554.648,"endTime":2557.671,"body":"And unfortunately for the people"},{"startTime":2554.648,"endTime":2557.671,"body":"who were living in America,"},{"startTime":2557.671,"endTime":2558.654,"body":"this did not end well."},{"startTime":2558.654,"endTime":2562.288,"body":"Primarily because smallpox"},{"startTime":2558.654,"endTime":2562.288,"body":"was a virus that had evolved"},{"startTime":2562.288,"endTime":2565.094,"body":"in Europe and Asia for"},{"startTime":2562.288,"endTime":2565.094,"body":"many hundreds of years,"},{"startTime":2565.094,"endTime":2567.921,"body":"thousands of years probably"},{"startTime":2565.094,"endTime":2567.921,"body":"prior to the discovery"},{"startTime":2567.921,"endTime":2569.684,"body":"of the new world."},{"startTime":2569.684,"endTime":2571.073,"body":"Human populations in the new world"},{"startTime":2571.073,"endTime":2573.247,"body":"had not previously experienced this virus."},{"startTime":2573.247,"endTime":2575.49,"body":"As far as we can tell, the"},{"startTime":2573.247,"endTime":2575.49,"body":"virus was not present there."},{"startTime":2575.49,"endTime":2579.084,"body":"And so they were completely"},{"startTime":2575.49,"endTime":2579.084,"body":"vulnerable to smallpox,"},{"startTime":2579.084,"endTime":2581.464,"body":"smallpox swept through"},{"startTime":2579.084,"endTime":2581.464,"body":"those native populations."},{"startTime":2581.464,"endTime":2584.413,"body":"And in some cases,"},{"startTime":2581.464,"endTime":2584.413,"body":"particularly egregious cases,"},{"startTime":2584.413,"endTime":2587.898,"body":"was deliberately promoted"},{"startTime":2584.413,"endTime":2587.898,"body":"by invading colonists"},{"startTime":2587.898,"endTime":2589.385,"body":"as a means of clearing the land."},{"startTime":2589.385,"endTime":2592.457,"body":"They would, for example, give"},{"startTime":2589.385,"endTime":2592.457,"body":"Native Americans blankets"},{"startTime":2592.457,"endTime":2594.655,"body":"that had been slept in"},{"startTime":2592.457,"endTime":2594.655,"body":"by smallpox patients"},{"startTime":2594.655,"endTime":2597.63,"body":"in order to try and \"eradicate\" the people"},{"startTime":2597.63,"endTime":2599.068,"body":"from the land they wanted."},{"startTime":2599.068,"endTime":2603.028,"body":"And that pandemic that arose"},{"startTime":2599.068,"endTime":2603.028,"body":"from that colonialization"},{"startTime":2603.028,"endTime":2605.982,"body":"of the new world in,"},{"startTime":2603.028,"endTime":2605.982,"body":"particular, is estimated"},{"startTime":2605.982,"endTime":2608.32,"body":"to have killed about 50 million people."},{"startTime":2608.32,"endTime":2609.507,"body":"That's more than influenza."},{"startTime":2609.507,"endTime":2613.422,"body":"But most strikingly, I think"},{"startTime":2609.507,"endTime":2613.422,"body":"we estimate at the time"},{"startTime":2613.422,"endTime":2617.187,"body":"that the entire native"},{"startTime":2613.422,"endTime":2617.187,"body":"population of the Americas"},{"startTime":2617.187,"endTime":2619.05,"body":"was not much more than that actually."},{"startTime":2619.05,"endTime":2621.356,"body":"So this is about 90% is the estimate."},{"startTime":2621.356,"endTime":2624.509,"body":"90% of indigenous peoples in the Americas"},{"startTime":2624.509,"endTime":2625.963,"body":"were killed by smallpox."},{"startTime":2625.963,"endTime":2629.639,"body":"It almost caused the"},{"startTime":2625.963,"endTime":2629.639,"body":"extinction-level event"},{"startTime":2629.639,"endTime":2634.639,"body":"of that whole branch of humanity"},{"startTime":2629.639,"endTime":2634.639,"body":"as a result of a pandemic."},{"startTime":2635.14,"endTime":2637.393,"body":"But even that very grim"},{"startTime":2635.14,"endTime":2637.393,"body":"lesson is not as bad"},{"startTime":2637.393,"endTime":2641.044,"body":"as my final gold medal-winning"},{"startTime":2637.393,"endTime":2641.044,"body":"one, which is not a virus."},{"startTime":2641.044,"endTime":2644.353,"body":"This is a bacterium,"},{"startTime":2641.044,"endTime":2644.353,"body":"this is Yersinia pestis,"},{"startTime":2644.353,"endTime":2647.149,"body":"the cause of the bubonic plague."},{"startTime":2647.149,"endTime":2649.369,"body":"Once again, an organism"},{"startTime":2647.149,"endTime":2649.369,"body":"that has been with us"},{"startTime":2649.369,"endTime":2650.81,"body":"over most of human history,"},{"startTime":2650.81,"endTime":2653.461,"body":"we have known multiple waves of plague."},{"startTime":2653.461,"endTime":2654.997,"body":"But the one, of course, that is ingrained"},{"startTime":2654.997,"endTime":2657.459,"body":"in all our consciousness"},{"startTime":2654.997,"endTime":2657.459,"body":"is the Black Death"},{"startTime":2657.459,"endTime":2659.424,"body":"in the Middle ages."},{"startTime":2659.424,"endTime":2663.589,"body":"This particularly virulent form"},{"startTime":2659.424,"endTime":2663.589,"body":"of plague came out of Asia,"},{"startTime":2663.589,"endTime":2665.954,"body":"along trading routes, along"},{"startTime":2663.589,"endTime":2665.954,"body":"the silk route in particular,"},{"startTime":2665.954,"endTime":2667.19,"body":"into Europe."},{"startTime":2667.19,"endTime":2669.963,"body":"And because this was a"},{"startTime":2667.19,"endTime":2669.963,"body":"time of great movement,"},{"startTime":2669.963,"endTime":2672.662,"body":"but also of great urbanization of Europe,"},{"startTime":2672.662,"endTime":2675.268,"body":"lots of people moving to cities,"},{"startTime":2672.662,"endTime":2675.268,"body":"for example, like London,"},{"startTime":2675.268,"endTime":2676.682,"body":"like the one we're in now."},{"startTime":2676.682,"endTime":2679.346,"body":"And therefore, it gave the opportunity"},{"startTime":2679.346,"endTime":2681.937,"body":"for the Black Death to"},{"startTime":2679.346,"endTime":2681.937,"body":"spread very, very swiftly."},{"startTime":2681.937,"endTime":2684.818,"body":"Which it did with quite"},{"startTime":2681.937,"endTime":2684.818,"body":"startling efficiency."},{"startTime":2684.818,"endTime":2688.237,"body":"And in fact, during the seven"},{"startTime":2684.818,"endTime":2688.237,"body":"years of which the Black Death"},{"startTime":2688.237,"endTime":2691.766,"body":"was most rampant, this is"},{"startTime":2688.237,"endTime":2691.766,"body":"estimated to have killed"},{"startTime":2691.766,"endTime":2693.254,"body":"about 200 million people."},{"startTime":2693.254,"endTime":2698.254,"body":"At the time, this is 50% of"},{"startTime":2693.254,"endTime":2698.254,"body":"the entire world's population"},{"startTime":2699.035,"endTime":2700.509,"body":"within a seven-year period."},{"startTime":2700.509,"endTime":2701.342,"body":"Okay?"},{"startTime":2701.342,"endTime":2702.967,"body":"And so it's for that"},{"startTime":2701.342,"endTime":2702.967,"body":"reason that even today"},{"startTime":2702.967,"endTime":2705.427,"body":"you can visit medieval"},{"startTime":2702.967,"endTime":2705.427,"body":"churches and you can see these"},{"startTime":2705.427,"endTime":2708.824,"body":"rather beautiful scrolls"},{"startTime":2705.427,"endTime":2708.824,"body":"asking for divine intervention"},{"startTime":2708.824,"endTime":2710.12,"body":"because the end of the world is here."},{"startTime":2710.12,"endTime":2711.98,"body":"And it's quite reasonable,"},{"startTime":2710.12,"endTime":2711.98,"body":"I think, to assume"},{"startTime":2711.98,"endTime":2714.418,"body":"if you were in a village where"},{"startTime":2711.98,"endTime":2714.418,"body":"half the village had died"},{"startTime":2714.418,"endTime":2715.93,"body":"in the last seven years, you might think"},{"startTime":2715.93,"endTime":2717.609,"body":"that there was no way out of this"},{"startTime":2717.609,"endTime":2719.493,"body":"except by divine intervention."},{"startTime":2719.493,"endTime":2720.907,"body":"And this is still, as far as we know,"},{"startTime":2720.907,"endTime":2724.989,"body":"the most deadly pandemic"},{"startTime":2720.907,"endTime":2724.989,"body":"in the history of humanity."},{"startTime":2724.989,"endTime":2726.682,"body":"That's a really gloomy note to end on."},{"startTime":2726.682,"endTime":2728.34,"body":"So let me finish with one last slide,"},{"startTime":2728.34,"endTime":2731.241,"body":"which is a little bit more"},{"startTime":2728.34,"endTime":2731.241,"body":"upbeat about our record-breakers,"},{"startTime":2731.241,"endTime":2733.091,"body":"which is thinking forwards."},{"startTime":2733.091,"endTime":2736.76,"body":"This is a selection of random"},{"startTime":2733.091,"endTime":2736.76,"body":"record breakers tonight,"},{"startTime":2736.76,"endTime":2738.74,"body":"but there are so many"},{"startTime":2736.76,"endTime":2738.74,"body":"more records out there"},{"startTime":2738.74,"endTime":2740.874,"body":"because we have no idea actually"},{"startTime":2740.874,"endTime":2742.808,"body":"how many bacterial species exist."},{"startTime":2742.808,"endTime":2744.947,"body":"But we estimate that might be as many"},{"startTime":2744.947,"endTime":2748.775,"body":"as a billion different"},{"startTime":2744.947,"endTime":2748.775,"body":"bacterial species on the planet."},{"startTime":2748.775,"endTime":2750.635,"body":"That's a big number."},{"startTime":2750.635,"endTime":2752.725,"body":"Pales into insignificance"},{"startTime":2750.635,"endTime":2752.725,"body":"when you consider the number"},{"startTime":2752.725,"endTime":2756.655,"body":"of individual cells,"},{"startTime":2752.725,"endTime":2756.655,"body":"individual bacterial cells,"},{"startTime":2756.655,"endTime":2759.351,"body":"which is very, very loosely estimated"},{"startTime":2759.351,"endTime":2762.991,"body":"at a million, trillion,"},{"startTime":2759.351,"endTime":2762.991,"body":"trillion, or one with 30 zeros"},{"startTime":2762.991,"endTime":2765.317,"body":"at the end of it, types of cell."},{"startTime":2765.317,"endTime":2767.921,"body":"Each one of those cells, of"},{"startTime":2765.317,"endTime":2767.921,"body":"course, is slightly unique."},{"startTime":2767.921,"endTime":2769.483,"body":"There are mutations, there are changes."},{"startTime":2769.483,"endTime":2772.795,"body":"And so there are a million,"},{"startTime":2769.483,"endTime":2772.795,"body":"trillion, trillion opportunities"},{"startTime":2772.795,"endTime":2775.864,"body":"for differences, for"},{"startTime":2772.795,"endTime":2775.864,"body":"startling new biology,"},{"startTime":2775.864,"endTime":2777.884,"body":"for remarkable physiology."},{"startTime":2777.884,"endTime":2779.808,"body":"And so I think when we start"},{"startTime":2777.884,"endTime":2779.808,"body":"digging further and further"},{"startTime":2779.808,"endTime":2782.557,"body":"as we start to do now,"},{"startTime":2779.808,"endTime":2782.557,"body":"particularly with the advent"},{"startTime":2782.557,"endTime":2786.159,"body":"of really high-scale genetics"},{"startTime":2782.557,"endTime":2786.159,"body":"to go and look in places"},{"startTime":2786.159,"endTime":2788.425,"body":"we haven't previously"},{"startTime":2786.159,"endTime":2788.425,"body":"looked for these organisms,"},{"startTime":2788.425,"endTime":2789.912,"body":"we'll find lots of opportunities,"},{"startTime":2789.912,"endTime":2791.714,"body":"lots of really exciting new biology."},{"startTime":2791.714,"endTime":2793.372,"body":"And hopefully, in a few years from now"},{"startTime":2793.372,"endTime":2794.666,"body":"someone else will stand here and tell you"},{"startTime":2794.666,"endTime":2796.479,"body":"a whole bunch of new records"},{"startTime":2794.666,"endTime":2796.479,"body":"that have been broken"},{"startTime":2796.479,"endTime":2799.751,"body":"by lots of new bacteria that"},{"startTime":2796.479,"endTime":2799.751,"body":"we don't even know exist."},{"startTime":2799.751,"endTime":2800.584,"body":"And let me finish there."},{"startTime":2800.584,"endTime":2802.02,"body":"Thank you very much for listening."},{"startTime":2802.02,"endTime":2805.187,"body":"(audience applauding)"},{"startTime":2810.494,"endTime":2811.327,"body":"- Thank you very much."},{"startTime":2811.327,"endTime":2815.555,"body":"Thank you, Professor May, for"},{"startTime":2811.327,"endTime":2815.555,"body":"this very interesting lecture."},{"startTime":2815.555,"endTime":2818.147,"body":"We have now time to take a few questions."},{"startTime":2818.147,"endTime":2819.947,"body":"So we'll start with our online audience"},{"startTime":2819.947,"endTime":2823.496,"body":"and then we'll open up"},{"startTime":2819.947,"endTime":2823.496,"body":"the floor for questions."},{"startTime":2823.496,"endTime":2828.15,"body":"So first a question more"},{"startTime":2823.496,"endTime":2828.15,"body":"on the RQ biology term"},{"startTime":2828.15,"endTime":2830.4,"body":"and perhaps global warming."},{"startTime":2832.235,"endTime":2836.147,"body":"So will melting permafrost"},{"startTime":2832.235,"endTime":2836.147,"body":"release ancient viruses"},{"startTime":2836.147,"endTime":2839.027,"body":"and microbes and what could"},{"startTime":2836.147,"endTime":2839.027,"body":"be the consequences of this?"},{"startTime":2839.027,"endTime":2842.857,"body":"- That's another doom-monger"},{"startTime":2839.027,"endTime":2842.857,"body":"question to start off with."},{"startTime":2842.857,"endTime":2846.011,"body":"So the short answer is"},{"startTime":2842.857,"endTime":2846.011,"body":"quite possibly, I think,"},{"startTime":2846.011,"endTime":2846.844,"body":"so what do we know?"},{"startTime":2846.844,"endTime":2849.822,"body":"We know that there are"},{"startTime":2846.844,"endTime":2849.822,"body":"large areas of permafrost,"},{"startTime":2849.822,"endTime":2851.373,"body":"obviously all around the world."},{"startTime":2851.373,"endTime":2853.418,"body":"We know that many of those"},{"startTime":2851.373,"endTime":2853.418,"body":"areas have not melted"},{"startTime":2853.418,"endTime":2854.445,"body":"for millions of years."},{"startTime":2854.445,"endTime":2856.486,"body":"Like the example I gave in the lecture."},{"startTime":2856.486,"endTime":2858.453,"body":"We know that lots of microbes can survive"},{"startTime":2858.453,"endTime":2860.468,"body":"perfectly happily in those conditions."},{"startTime":2860.468,"endTime":2862.459,"body":"So all of those things"},{"startTime":2860.468,"endTime":2862.459,"body":"would lead me to believe"},{"startTime":2862.459,"endTime":2865.566,"body":"that melting permafrost"},{"startTime":2862.459,"endTime":2865.566,"body":"will release organisms"},{"startTime":2865.566,"endTime":2869.373,"body":"that are new to science, in"},{"startTime":2865.566,"endTime":2869.373,"body":"the sense we haven't seen them,"},{"startTime":2869.373,"endTime":2871.927,"body":"why am I not running for my bunker?"},{"startTime":2871.927,"endTime":2874.782,"body":"I guess the saving grace there is that"},{"startTime":2874.782,"endTime":2877.015,"body":"for those to be the next pandemic,"},{"startTime":2877.015,"endTime":2879.86,"body":"they would have to be pathogens of humans."},{"startTime":2879.86,"endTime":2883.016,"body":"And I can't think of a"},{"startTime":2879.86,"endTime":2883.016,"body":"reason why a bacteria"},{"startTime":2883.016,"endTime":2885.796,"body":"8 million years ago would be"},{"startTime":2883.016,"endTime":2885.796,"body":"optimized to live on a human,"},{"startTime":2885.796,"endTime":2887.61,"body":"which didn't even exist at the time."},{"startTime":2887.61,"endTime":2890.717,"body":"So I think for most organisms"},{"startTime":2887.61,"endTime":2890.717,"body":"coming from permafrost,"},{"startTime":2890.717,"endTime":2893.179,"body":"the chance of it being"},{"startTime":2890.717,"endTime":2893.179,"body":"a major human pathogen"},{"startTime":2893.179,"endTime":2895.039,"body":"is very, very slender."},{"startTime":2895.039,"endTime":2896.914,"body":"What might be much more"},{"startTime":2895.039,"endTime":2896.914,"body":"serious though is the chance"},{"startTime":2896.914,"endTime":2897.747,"body":"of it being, for example,"},{"startTime":2897.747,"endTime":2899.6,"body":"an agriculturally relevant pathogen."},{"startTime":2899.6,"endTime":2903.596,"body":"So you could imagine something"},{"startTime":2899.6,"endTime":2903.596,"body":"that lived quite happily on,"},{"startTime":2903.596,"endTime":2908.596,"body":"I dunno, ancient ancestors"},{"startTime":2903.596,"endTime":2908.596,"body":"of cattle that's tucked away"},{"startTime":2908.649,"endTime":2911.413,"body":"in permafrost somewhere and"},{"startTime":2908.649,"endTime":2911.413,"body":"comes out and it is optimized"},{"startTime":2911.413,"endTime":2914.088,"body":"for living on cows today."},{"startTime":2914.088,"endTime":2917.557,"body":"So yeah, so I think it doesn't"},{"startTime":2914.088,"endTime":2917.557,"body":"keep me awake at night,"},{"startTime":2917.557,"endTime":2921.284,"body":"I would say it's a"},{"startTime":2917.557,"endTime":2921.284,"body":"non-zero risk definitely."},{"startTime":2921.284,"endTime":2922.424,"body":"- And perhaps could those,"},{"startTime":2922.424,"endTime":2924.648,"body":"because of these extreme circumstances,"},{"startTime":2924.648,"endTime":2926.907,"body":"could they be perhaps a learning"},{"startTime":2924.648,"endTime":2926.907,"body":"point from, I don't know,"},{"startTime":2926.907,"endTime":2929.152,"body":"extraterrestrial life, or microbes,"},{"startTime":2929.152,"endTime":2931.66,"body":"or this sort of environment?"},{"startTime":2931.66,"endTime":2932.493,"body":"- Yeah, absolutely."},{"startTime":2932.493,"endTime":2933.76,"body":"So astrobiology, so there's a lot,"},{"startTime":2933.76,"endTime":2935.286,"body":"I mean I think there's a"},{"startTime":2933.76,"endTime":2935.286,"body":"lot of interesting things,"},{"startTime":2935.286,"endTime":2936.546,"body":"particularly those extreme environments."},{"startTime":2936.546,"endTime":2939.986,"body":"So the organisms that live"},{"startTime":2936.546,"endTime":2939.986,"body":"in very low temperatures,"},{"startTime":2939.986,"endTime":2942.69,"body":"the ones that live in"},{"startTime":2939.986,"endTime":2942.69,"body":"extreme radiation areas,"},{"startTime":2942.69,"endTime":2944.679,"body":"the ones that live"},{"startTime":2942.69,"endTime":2944.679,"body":"under massive pressures."},{"startTime":2944.679,"endTime":2947.525,"body":"Those conditions exist we"},{"startTime":2944.679,"endTime":2947.525,"body":"know on lots of other planets"},{"startTime":2947.525,"endTime":2949.178,"body":"and as a lot of you people"},{"startTime":2947.525,"endTime":2949.178,"body":"might be familiar with,"},{"startTime":2949.178,"endTime":2951.19,"body":"a lot of interest in Europa, for example,"},{"startTime":2951.19,"endTime":2956.048,"body":"as one non-earth-type area"},{"startTime":2951.19,"endTime":2956.048,"body":"where there might be life."},{"startTime":2956.048,"endTime":2958.561,"body":"Looking at exoplanet, we"},{"startTime":2956.048,"endTime":2958.561,"body":"now know the existence"},{"startTime":2958.561,"endTime":2962.1,"body":"of several hundred planets"},{"startTime":2958.561,"endTime":2962.1,"body":"that are orbiting other stars,"},{"startTime":2962.1,"endTime":2964.431,"body":"some of which are in what's"},{"startTime":2962.1,"endTime":2964.431,"body":"called a habitable zone."},{"startTime":2964.431,"endTime":2967.951,"body":"So they're in a temperature"},{"startTime":2964.431,"endTime":2967.951,"body":"area where you could have life."},{"startTime":2967.951,"endTime":2971.341,"body":"So looking in those places,"},{"startTime":2967.951,"endTime":2971.341,"body":"you might well want to look for"},{"startTime":2971.341,"endTime":2972.386,"body":"the kind of micros we're talking about"},{"startTime":2972.386,"endTime":2974.696,"body":"in terms of extreme microbes rather than"},{"startTime":2974.696,"endTime":2976.627,"body":"your run-of-the-mill"},{"startTime":2974.696,"endTime":2976.627,"body":"microbes that you find"},{"startTime":2976.627,"endTime":2979.41,"body":"in ambient conditions because"},{"startTime":2976.627,"endTime":2979.41,"body":"it's the extreme environments"},{"startTime":2979.41,"endTime":2981.338,"body":"where you might be more likely"},{"startTime":2981.338,"endTime":2983.486,"body":"to find those life on other planets."},{"startTime":2983.486,"endTime":2985.517,"body":"So yeah, it'd be very"},{"startTime":2983.486,"endTime":2985.517,"body":"exciting wouldn't it?"},{"startTime":2985.517,"endTime":2987.011,"body":"I'd be very excited to"},{"startTime":2985.517,"endTime":2987.011,"body":"find life on other planets."},{"startTime":2987.011,"endTime":2988.651,"body":"We'll see."},{"startTime":2988.651,"endTime":2990.66,"body":"- Another question, this time perhaps more"},{"startTime":2990.66,"endTime":2994.79,"body":"in the medical term, in"},{"startTime":2990.66,"endTime":2994.79,"body":"terms of cell biology"},{"startTime":2994.79,"endTime":2998.036,"body":"and biochemistry, what"},{"startTime":2994.79,"endTime":2998.036,"body":"makes fungal infection"},{"startTime":2998.036,"endTime":2999.869,"body":"so difficult to treat?"},{"startTime":3000.829,"endTime":3002.129,"body":"- Right."},{"startTime":3002.129,"endTime":3005.552,"body":"So yeah, what makes fungi,"},{"startTime":3002.129,"endTime":3005.552,"body":"so why are fungi harder,"},{"startTime":3005.552,"endTime":3006.991,"body":"I guess the question"},{"startTime":3005.552,"endTime":3006.991,"body":"is why are fungi harder"},{"startTime":3006.991,"endTime":3009.007,"body":"to treat than bacterial"},{"startTime":3006.991,"endTime":3009.007,"body":"viruses, generally?"},{"startTime":3009.007,"endTime":3010.44,"body":"And I mean the simplest answer of that is"},{"startTime":3010.44,"endTime":3012.37,"body":"'cause they're much closer to us."},{"startTime":3012.37,"endTime":3016.367,"body":"So in terms of evolution, bacteria are,"},{"startTime":3016.367,"endTime":3018.273,"body":"have been a very, very long"},{"startTime":3016.367,"endTime":3018.273,"body":"time since we've shared"},{"startTime":3018.273,"endTime":3021.084,"body":"any ancestry with bacteria,"},{"startTime":3018.273,"endTime":3021.084,"body":"fungi are eucaryotes"},{"startTime":3021.084,"endTime":3023.576,"body":"so they're like us, they"},{"startTime":3021.084,"endTime":3023.576,"body":"have a nucleus in their cell"},{"startTime":3023.576,"endTime":3025.056,"body":"for example."},{"startTime":3025.056,"endTime":3027.605,"body":"Their biology is much"},{"startTime":3025.056,"endTime":3027.605,"body":"more similar to humans"},{"startTime":3027.605,"endTime":3029.807,"body":"than bacteria is, which means"},{"startTime":3027.605,"endTime":3029.807,"body":"if you're trying to design"},{"startTime":3029.807,"endTime":3033.088,"body":"a drug that kills it, it's"},{"startTime":3029.807,"endTime":3033.088,"body":"much harder to come with a drug"},{"startTime":3033.088,"endTime":3034.347,"body":"that kills a fungus specifically"},{"startTime":3034.347,"endTime":3037.276,"body":"and doesn't hurt humans than"},{"startTime":3034.347,"endTime":3037.276,"body":"one that kills bacteria."},{"startTime":3037.276,"endTime":3039.589,"body":"And that's one of the reasons"},{"startTime":3037.276,"endTime":3039.589,"body":"if anyone's unfortunate enough"},{"startTime":3039.589,"endTime":3041.098,"body":"to have had a systemic fungal infection,"},{"startTime":3041.098,"endTime":3043.216,"body":"that often the drugs have"},{"startTime":3041.098,"endTime":3043.216,"body":"quite nasty side effects"},{"startTime":3043.216,"endTime":3044.637,"body":"'cause they're not perfect."},{"startTime":3044.637,"endTime":3045.859,"body":"So that's one reason."},{"startTime":3045.859,"endTime":3048.57,"body":"The other reason is the"},{"startTime":3045.859,"endTime":3048.57,"body":"fungi are very good at,"},{"startTime":3048.57,"endTime":3050.137,"body":"many fungi are good at growing in places"},{"startTime":3050.137,"endTime":3051.388,"body":"which are really difficult to treat."},{"startTime":3051.388,"endTime":3052.957,"body":"And I'm sure lots of"},{"startTime":3051.388,"endTime":3052.957,"body":"people in the audience"},{"startTime":3052.957,"endTime":3054.72,"body":"have had the delight of, for example,"},{"startTime":3054.72,"endTime":3056.949,"body":"a toenail fungal infection."},{"startTime":3056.949,"endTime":3059.255,"body":"They penetrate into this toenail,"},{"startTime":3056.949,"endTime":3059.255,"body":"your toenail's quite hard"},{"startTime":3059.255,"endTime":3061.352,"body":"to get drugs into, fungus doesn't mind,"},{"startTime":3061.352,"endTime":3062.443,"body":"but it's quite hard for us to treat."},{"startTime":3062.443,"endTime":3064.591,"body":"So there's combination"},{"startTime":3062.443,"endTime":3064.591,"body":"of where they're growing"},{"startTime":3064.591,"endTime":3066.193,"body":"and the fact that they are"},{"startTime":3064.591,"endTime":3066.193,"body":"much more similar to us"},{"startTime":3066.193,"endTime":3067.67,"body":"makes them very, very tricky."},{"startTime":3067.67,"endTime":3068.503,"body":"Alright."},{"startTime":3068.503,"endTime":3069.336,"body":"- Wow, thank you."},{"startTime":3069.336,"endTime":3070.428,"body":"Any questions from the audience?"},{"startTime":3070.428,"endTime":3072.926,"body":"I'm just going to just"},{"startTime":3070.428,"endTime":3072.926,"body":"wait for my colleague"},{"startTime":3072.926,"endTime":3074.177,"body":"to pass the microphone."},{"startTime":3074.177,"endTime":3075.01,"body":"Thank you."},{"startTime":3076.391,"endTime":3079.085,"body":"- [Audience Member] You talked"},{"startTime":3076.391,"endTime":3079.085,"body":"about a microbe, bacteria,"},{"startTime":3079.085,"endTime":3083.752,"body":"and also viruses, is bacteria"},{"startTime":3079.085,"endTime":3083.752,"body":"and viruses both microbes?"},{"startTime":3086.115,"endTime":3087.749,"body":"- Yes, yes, sure."},{"startTime":3087.749,"endTime":3091.258,"body":"So microbe is not a"},{"startTime":3087.749,"endTime":3091.258,"body":"biological term in the sense"},{"startTime":3091.258,"endTime":3093.357,"body":"that you can't say all"},{"startTime":3091.258,"endTime":3093.357,"body":"these microbes are related."},{"startTime":3093.357,"endTime":3096.596,"body":"I mean it's used to mean"},{"startTime":3093.357,"endTime":3096.596,"body":"a free-living organism"},{"startTime":3096.596,"endTime":3098.538,"body":"that you need a microscope to see,"},{"startTime":3098.538,"endTime":3101.788,"body":"below the limit of the eyes resolution."},{"startTime":3102.636,"endTime":3104.276,"body":"- [Audience Member] See, I"},{"startTime":3102.636,"endTime":3104.276,"body":"thought that the bacteria"},{"startTime":3104.276,"endTime":3106.256,"body":"is bigger than a virus"},{"startTime":3106.256,"endTime":3110.069,"body":"and bacteria lives on living organisms,"},{"startTime":3110.069,"endTime":3113.587,"body":"whereas the virus dies with the organism."},{"startTime":3113.587,"endTime":3114.42,"body":"Is that true?"},{"startTime":3114.42,"endTime":3115.253,"body":"- Yes."},{"startTime":3115.253,"endTime":3116.086,"body":"So, yes."},{"startTime":3116.086,"endTime":3118.527,"body":"So viruses by definition"},{"startTime":3116.086,"endTime":3118.527,"body":"can only live inside a host"},{"startTime":3118.527,"endTime":3120.338,"body":"or on a host, they can't free live."},{"startTime":3120.338,"endTime":3123.636,"body":"So if I have a tube of"},{"startTime":3120.338,"endTime":3123.636,"body":"virus, it's not growing,"},{"startTime":3123.636,"endTime":3125.854,"body":"it's only when it goes"},{"startTime":3123.636,"endTime":3125.854,"body":"into a human, or plant,"},{"startTime":3125.854,"endTime":3128.026,"body":"or whatever it's host is"},{"startTime":3125.854,"endTime":3128.026,"body":"that it can start to grow."},{"startTime":3128.026,"endTime":3129.658,"body":"And for that reason, people argue about"},{"startTime":3129.658,"endTime":3131.763,"body":"whether a virus is truly alive or not."},{"startTime":3131.763,"endTime":3133.787,"body":"'Cause it can't free live."},{"startTime":3133.787,"endTime":3135.285,"body":"There are some bacteria that can only live"},{"startTime":3135.285,"endTime":3136.235,"body":"on a host as well."},{"startTime":3136.235,"endTime":3138.624,"body":"But broadly speaking,"},{"startTime":3136.235,"endTime":3138.624,"body":"most bacteria live freely."},{"startTime":3138.624,"endTime":3140.226,"body":"And yes, broadly speaking,"},{"startTime":3140.226,"endTime":3142.116,"body":"viruses are typically"},{"startTime":3140.226,"endTime":3142.116,"body":"much smaller than bacteria"},{"startTime":3142.116,"endTime":3144.537,"body":"and bacteria typically smaller than fungi."},{"startTime":3144.537,"endTime":3146.406,"body":"But there are some really"},{"startTime":3144.537,"endTime":3146.406,"body":"wonderful exceptions."},{"startTime":3146.406,"endTime":3149.665,"body":"So there are these giant"},{"startTime":3146.406,"endTime":3149.665,"body":"viruses, for example,"},{"startTime":3149.665,"endTime":3152.87,"body":"that have been found in"},{"startTime":3149.665,"endTime":3152.87,"body":"a cooling tower in France"},{"startTime":3152.87,"endTime":3155.171,"body":"that are as big as some bacterial cells."},{"startTime":3155.171,"endTime":3157.171,"body":"There are some bacterial cells"},{"startTime":3155.171,"endTime":3157.171,"body":"that are almost big enough"},{"startTime":3157.171,"endTime":3158.901,"body":"to see with a naked eye"},{"startTime":3158.901,"endTime":3160.85,"body":"and there are some very, very tiny fungi."},{"startTime":3160.85,"endTime":3162.63,"body":"So yeah, it's not a hard and fast rule,"},{"startTime":3162.63,"endTime":3165.063,"body":"but broadly speaking, that's the scaling."},{"startTime":3165.063,"endTime":3166.383,"body":"- [Audience Member 2]"},{"startTime":3165.063,"endTime":3166.383,"body":"So one of the problems"},{"startTime":3166.383,"endTime":3168.43,"body":"that I've heard about"},{"startTime":3166.383,"endTime":3168.43,"body":"dealing with microbes,"},{"startTime":3168.43,"endTime":3171.103,"body":"especially in hospitals,"},{"startTime":3168.43,"endTime":3171.103,"body":"is how do you clean a room?"},{"startTime":3171.103,"endTime":3174.101,"body":"Because there's always"},{"startTime":3171.103,"endTime":3174.101,"body":"one species of bacteria"},{"startTime":3174.101,"endTime":3176.549,"body":"that's perfect for"},{"startTime":3174.101,"endTime":3176.549,"body":"whatever your particular"},{"startTime":3176.549,"endTime":3178.89,"body":"cleaning solution is."},{"startTime":3178.89,"endTime":3180.693,"body":"Is there ever a way that"},{"startTime":3178.89,"endTime":3180.693,"body":"we are going to be able"},{"startTime":3180.693,"endTime":3185.0,"body":"to finally clean a hospital"},{"startTime":3180.693,"endTime":3185.0,"body":"room without setting fire to it?"},{"startTime":3185.0,"endTime":3185.833,"body":"- Yes."},{"startTime":3185.833,"endTime":3187.582,"body":"I wouldn't recommend setting"},{"startTime":3185.833,"endTime":3187.582,"body":"fire to your hospital rooms."},{"startTime":3187.582,"endTime":3188.463,"body":"That's a really good question."},{"startTime":3188.463,"endTime":3190.998,"body":"And you're absolutely"},{"startTime":3188.463,"endTime":3190.998,"body":"right that the whole point"},{"startTime":3190.998,"endTime":3193.158,"body":"about disinfection is you're"},{"startTime":3190.998,"endTime":3193.158,"body":"trying to kill everything,"},{"startTime":3193.158,"endTime":3194.477,"body":"but as we've just learned,"},{"startTime":3194.477,"endTime":3197.431,"body":"some things are really quite hard to kill."},{"startTime":3197.431,"endTime":3201.589,"body":"So is there a way to completely"},{"startTime":3197.431,"endTime":3201.589,"body":"sterilize a hospital room?"},{"startTime":3201.589,"endTime":3205.687,"body":"I mean realistically, to"},{"startTime":3201.589,"endTime":3205.687,"body":"utterly sterilize it completely"},{"startTime":3205.687,"endTime":3207.969,"body":"is probably going to be quite challenging,"},{"startTime":3207.969,"endTime":3210.848,"body":"in a way that makes it still usable."},{"startTime":3210.848,"endTime":3212.07,"body":"I guess what you're worried"},{"startTime":3210.848,"endTime":3212.07,"body":"about as a clinician"},{"startTime":3212.07,"endTime":3213.28,"body":"is sterilizing it from all the things"},{"startTime":3213.28,"endTime":3214.647,"body":"that might do your patient harm."},{"startTime":3214.647,"endTime":3215.689,"body":"That's probably a bit easier."},{"startTime":3215.689,"endTime":3217.561,"body":"Most of the extreme"},{"startTime":3215.689,"endTime":3217.561,"body":"organisms we've talked about"},{"startTime":3217.561,"endTime":3220.31,"body":"are not pathogens, for example."},{"startTime":3220.31,"endTime":3223.242,"body":"Where it gets sticky actually,"},{"startTime":3220.31,"endTime":3223.242,"body":"is in the diagnostic field."},{"startTime":3223.242,"endTime":3225.082,"body":"And you might be familiar"},{"startTime":3223.242,"endTime":3225.082,"body":"with the fact that,"},{"startTime":3225.082,"endTime":3227.677,"body":"so obviously now we do a lot"},{"startTime":3225.082,"endTime":3227.677,"body":"of diagnostics using DNA,"},{"startTime":3227.677,"endTime":3229.871,"body":"we sequence stuff, and you say, oh look,"},{"startTime":3229.871,"endTime":3232.338,"body":"this patient's got x, y, and z."},{"startTime":3232.338,"endTime":3233.9,"body":"And one of the problems"},{"startTime":3232.338,"endTime":3233.9,"body":"that has come to light"},{"startTime":3233.9,"endTime":3235.641,"body":"in recent years, is"},{"startTime":3233.9,"endTime":3235.641,"body":"there are some organisms"},{"startTime":3235.641,"endTime":3238.43,"body":"that are very good at"},{"startTime":3235.641,"endTime":3238.43,"body":"persisting even in the factories"},{"startTime":3238.43,"endTime":3240.128,"body":"which make those DNA kits."},{"startTime":3240.128,"endTime":3241.989,"body":"And so what you often find early on"},{"startTime":3241.989,"endTime":3243.167,"body":"was a whole lot of patients"},{"startTime":3243.167,"endTime":3244.709,"body":"with this weird bacterial species,"},{"startTime":3244.709,"endTime":3246.122,"body":"I think it's Bradyrhizobium,"},{"startTime":3246.122,"endTime":3247.721,"body":"that no one's ever seen in a patient."},{"startTime":3247.721,"endTime":3248.801,"body":"And we didn't understand that."},{"startTime":3248.801,"endTime":3251.14,"body":"And then we realize that"},{"startTime":3248.801,"endTime":3251.14,"body":"that's because this bacteria"},{"startTime":3251.14,"endTime":3253.5,"body":"is not in the patient at all,"},{"startTime":3251.14,"endTime":3253.5,"body":"but it's living in the kit"},{"startTime":3253.5,"endTime":3255.201,"body":"that you extract the DNA from."},{"startTime":3255.201,"endTime":3257.18,"body":"So there are problems like"},{"startTime":3255.201,"endTime":3257.18,"body":"that that you need to iron out."},{"startTime":3257.18,"endTime":3258.013,"body":"Absolutely."},{"startTime":3258.013,"endTime":3259.819,"body":"But yeah, a total"},{"startTime":3258.013,"endTime":3259.819,"body":"sterilization is probably a bit"},{"startTime":3259.819,"endTime":3261.659,"body":"of a big ask, I would say."},{"startTime":3261.659,"endTime":3263.326,"body":"Sorry to disappoint."},{"startTime":3266.134,"endTime":3267.15,"body":"- [Audience Member 3] Thank you."},{"startTime":3267.15,"endTime":3270.589,"body":"The slide that showed the E.coli dividing,"},{"startTime":3270.589,"endTime":3274.156,"body":"there seemed to be one that"},{"startTime":3270.589,"endTime":3274.156,"body":"was very long not dividing."},{"startTime":3274.156,"endTime":3275.436,"body":"Why was that?"},{"startTime":3275.436,"endTime":3277.564,"body":"- Oh, that's a very good spot."},{"startTime":3277.564,"endTime":3280.346,"body":"Okay, so yes, you're quite right."},{"startTime":3280.346,"endTime":3283.508,"body":"So when you have, so that"},{"startTime":3280.346,"endTime":3283.508,"body":"bacterium and many others"},{"startTime":3283.508,"endTime":3284.887,"body":"grow out what's called polar division,"},{"startTime":3284.887,"endTime":3286.637,"body":"so they elongate, it's quite clever."},{"startTime":3286.637,"endTime":3288.148,"body":"So they elongate and"},{"startTime":3286.637,"endTime":3288.148,"body":"then somehow they know"},{"startTime":3288.148,"endTime":3290.518,"body":"where their middle is and"},{"startTime":3288.148,"endTime":3290.518,"body":"they put a new wall in."},{"startTime":3290.518,"endTime":3292.808,"body":"And then you have two cells"},{"startTime":3290.518,"endTime":3292.808,"body":"and you do it again and again."},{"startTime":3292.808,"endTime":3294.288,"body":"There are lots of mutations"},{"startTime":3294.288,"endTime":3295.795,"body":"in which that process goes wrong."},{"startTime":3295.795,"endTime":3297.527,"body":"So you can have filamentous mutations"},{"startTime":3297.527,"endTime":3300.197,"body":"where the bacteria grows,"},{"startTime":3297.527,"endTime":3300.197,"body":"forgets to put the wall in"},{"startTime":3300.197,"endTime":3302.377,"body":"and grows again and keeps going like that."},{"startTime":3302.377,"endTime":3305.837,"body":"And some of those processes,"},{"startTime":3302.377,"endTime":3305.837,"body":"either by genetic mutation"},{"startTime":3305.837,"endTime":3309.057,"body":"or just by random chance do"},{"startTime":3305.837,"endTime":3309.057,"body":"occur in a natural population."},{"startTime":3309.057,"endTime":3311.088,"body":"So when you see a natural"},{"startTime":3309.057,"endTime":3311.088,"body":"population of bacteria,"},{"startTime":3311.088,"endTime":3313.749,"body":"some of 'em are getting"},{"startTime":3311.088,"endTime":3313.749,"body":"it wrong basically."},{"startTime":3313.749,"endTime":3315.459,"body":"And actually, there's"},{"startTime":3313.749,"endTime":3315.459,"body":"been a very interesting,"},{"startTime":3315.459,"endTime":3317.747,"body":"slightly digressing, very"},{"startTime":3315.459,"endTime":3317.747,"body":"interesting series of work"},{"startTime":3317.747,"endTime":3320.005,"body":"from people looking at mutants,"},{"startTime":3320.005,"endTime":3321.887,"body":"where they consistently get it wrong."},{"startTime":3321.887,"endTime":3324.117,"body":"And there's some lovely"},{"startTime":3321.887,"endTime":3324.117,"body":"ones where, for example,"},{"startTime":3324.117,"endTime":3325.127,"body":"they always go the wrong way."},{"startTime":3325.127,"endTime":3326.407,"body":"So they start to bend to the left,"},{"startTime":3326.407,"endTime":3327.24,"body":"and they bend to the left,"},{"startTime":3327.24,"endTime":3329.099,"body":"and they eventually go"},{"startTime":3327.24,"endTime":3329.099,"body":"around in the circle."},{"startTime":3329.099,"endTime":3331.939,"body":"Which is obviously not a"},{"startTime":3329.099,"endTime":3331.939,"body":"very sensible way to evolve,"},{"startTime":3331.939,"endTime":3334.148,"body":"but you can learn a lot about"},{"startTime":3331.939,"endTime":3334.148,"body":"cell division, the process."},{"startTime":3334.148,"endTime":3336.575,"body":"So I mean, without sequencing"},{"startTime":3334.148,"endTime":3336.575,"body":"that very bacteria,"},{"startTime":3336.575,"endTime":3337.408,"body":"I can't tell you,"},{"startTime":3337.408,"endTime":3339.309,"body":"but my guess is that the"},{"startTime":3337.408,"endTime":3339.309,"body":"one that grows that dividing"},{"startTime":3339.309,"endTime":3343.462,"body":"has probably got an error"},{"startTime":3339.309,"endTime":3343.462,"body":"in that cell wall machinery."},{"startTime":3343.462,"endTime":3346.672,"body":"- [Audience Member 3] That"},{"startTime":3343.462,"endTime":3346.672,"body":"might be helpful in curing that,"},{"startTime":3346.672,"endTime":3349.351,"body":"on eliminating that bacteria."},{"startTime":3349.351,"endTime":3350.184,"body":"- Absolutely."},{"startTime":3350.184,"endTime":3351.952,"body":"No, that's very, yeah, so one of the ways"},{"startTime":3351.952,"endTime":3353.792,"body":"that people look for"},{"startTime":3351.952,"endTime":3353.792,"body":"antibiotics for example,"},{"startTime":3353.792,"endTime":3357.133,"body":"is to look for defects in growth."},{"startTime":3357.133,"endTime":3359.5,"body":"So a very easy screen"},{"startTime":3357.133,"endTime":3359.5,"body":"is to look for bacteria"},{"startTime":3359.5,"endTime":3361.214,"body":"that bulge out."},{"startTime":3361.214,"endTime":3363.542,"body":"And so instead of growing"},{"startTime":3361.214,"endTime":3363.542,"body":"as nice rods, they bulge,"},{"startTime":3363.542,"endTime":3365.602,"body":"which means they cell"},{"startTime":3363.542,"endTime":3365.602,"body":"wall is not as intact."},{"startTime":3365.602,"endTime":3367.112,"body":"So something, a chemical that does that"},{"startTime":3367.112,"endTime":3369.529,"body":"might be a useful antibiotic."},{"startTime":3370.6,"endTime":3373.03,"body":"- [Audience Member 3] On the"},{"startTime":3370.6,"endTime":3373.03,"body":"slide that shows the bacteria"},{"startTime":3373.03,"endTime":3376.521,"body":"in a rock, that bacteria"},{"startTime":3373.03,"endTime":3376.521,"body":"must have survived"},{"startTime":3376.521,"endTime":3379.118,"body":"extremes of temperature."},{"startTime":3379.118,"endTime":3380.28,"body":"- Yes, absolutely."},{"startTime":3380.28,"endTime":3382.869,"body":"So it's unclear from"},{"startTime":3380.28,"endTime":3382.869,"body":"that particular sample"},{"startTime":3382.869,"endTime":3386.329,"body":"whether it was deposited in"},{"startTime":3382.869,"endTime":3386.329,"body":"the rock as it was forming,"},{"startTime":3386.329,"endTime":3389.609,"body":"which would be massively or"},{"startTime":3386.329,"endTime":3389.609,"body":"whether there are micro-cracks"},{"startTime":3389.609,"endTime":3392.618,"body":"that have allowed it to enter at a point."},{"startTime":3392.618,"endTime":3395.068,"body":"And then the rock has been"},{"startTime":3392.618,"endTime":3395.068,"body":"pushed down through sedimentation"},{"startTime":3395.068,"endTime":3396.669,"body":"and sealed afterwards."},{"startTime":3396.669,"endTime":3399.434,"body":"But notwithstanding that,"},{"startTime":3396.669,"endTime":3399.434,"body":"there are certainly about,"},{"startTime":3399.434,"endTime":3401.712,"body":"so there are many species"},{"startTime":3399.434,"endTime":3401.712,"body":"known, for example,"},{"startTime":3401.712,"endTime":3405.947,"body":"from deep-sea thermal vents"},{"startTime":3401.712,"endTime":3405.947,"body":"where the water temperature"},{"startTime":3405.947,"endTime":3408.078,"body":"is up at 200 degrees"},{"startTime":3405.947,"endTime":3408.078,"body":"'cause it's under pressure,"},{"startTime":3408.078,"endTime":3409.166,"body":"so it's not boiling."},{"startTime":3409.166,"endTime":3411.338,"body":"200 degrees and those"},{"startTime":3409.166,"endTime":3411.338,"body":"bacteria are still fine."},{"startTime":3411.338,"endTime":3413.682,"body":"So there are certainly"},{"startTime":3411.338,"endTime":3413.682,"body":"bacteria that can survive"},{"startTime":3413.682,"endTime":3416.659,"body":"both very high temperatures"},{"startTime":3413.682,"endTime":3416.659,"body":"and many, many that survive"},{"startTime":3416.659,"endTime":3419.42,"body":"down into the minus 50,"},{"startTime":3416.659,"endTime":3419.42,"body":"minus 60 degrees Celsius."},{"startTime":3419.42,"endTime":3421.094,"body":"It's quite remarkable."},{"startTime":3421.094,"endTime":3421.927,"body":"- [Audience Member 3] Thank you."},{"startTime":3421.927,"endTime":3422.76,"body":"- Thank you."},{"startTime":3422.76,"endTime":3424.26,"body":"One last question."},{"startTime":3426.451,"endTime":3428.901,"body":"- [Audience Member 4] You"},{"startTime":3426.451,"endTime":3428.901,"body":"talked about potential to learn,"},{"startTime":3428.901,"endTime":3431.745,"body":"for example, from the"},{"startTime":3428.901,"endTime":3431.745,"body":"bacteria or from the microbe"},{"startTime":3431.745,"endTime":3436.31,"body":"that survives huge amounts"},{"startTime":3431.745,"endTime":3436.31,"body":"of radiation for us."},{"startTime":3436.31,"endTime":3438.408,"body":"Do you have examples of, have we already,"},{"startTime":3438.408,"endTime":3442.411,"body":"have scientists already"},{"startTime":3438.408,"endTime":3442.411,"body":"learned from other microbes"},{"startTime":3442.411,"endTime":3443.877,"body":"that we use today?"},{"startTime":3443.877,"endTime":3445.295,"body":"- Yeah, that's a very good question."},{"startTime":3445.295,"endTime":3447.627,"body":"What have we learned"},{"startTime":3445.295,"endTime":3447.627,"body":"practically from these?"},{"startTime":3447.627,"endTime":3450.146,"body":"So in that specific example, Deinococcus,"},{"startTime":3450.146,"endTime":3451.725,"body":"we have learned quite a"},{"startTime":3450.146,"endTime":3451.725,"body":"lot from that bacteria"},{"startTime":3451.725,"endTime":3453.934,"body":"about how a different"},{"startTime":3451.725,"endTime":3453.934,"body":"way of repairing DNA."},{"startTime":3453.934,"endTime":3456.946,"body":"So the way it repairs its"},{"startTime":3453.934,"endTime":3456.946,"body":"DNA we now know quite well"},{"startTime":3456.946,"endTime":3458.803,"body":"and it's different to the"},{"startTime":3456.946,"endTime":3458.803,"body":"way different bacteria do it."},{"startTime":3458.803,"endTime":3461.604,"body":"So it's able to repair what's"},{"startTime":3458.803,"endTime":3461.604,"body":"called a double-strand break."},{"startTime":3461.604,"endTime":3463.653,"body":"So when your entire DNA is snapped,"},{"startTime":3463.653,"endTime":3466.096,"body":"it somehow can figure out that"},{"startTime":3463.653,"endTime":3466.096,"body":"those ends go back together"},{"startTime":3466.096,"endTime":3466.973,"body":"and stick them."},{"startTime":3466.973,"endTime":3468.214,"body":"Whereas other cells can only do that"},{"startTime":3468.214,"endTime":3471.352,"body":"if only one strand breaks"},{"startTime":3468.214,"endTime":3471.352,"body":"and you have the template."},{"startTime":3471.352,"endTime":3472.936,"body":"But perhaps the nicest example,"},{"startTime":3472.936,"endTime":3474.884,"body":"and I haven't checked my"},{"startTime":3472.936,"endTime":3474.884,"body":"facts, so I hope I'm correct,"},{"startTime":3474.884,"endTime":3479.884,"body":"is actually from that rice"},{"startTime":3474.884,"endTime":3479.884,"body":"blast fungus where the, sorry,"},{"startTime":3479.964,"endTime":3482.355,"body":"I'll show you the fungus"},{"startTime":3479.964,"endTime":3482.355,"body":"attaches and it pushes in."},{"startTime":3482.355,"endTime":3483.716,"body":"Now if you think about drilling in,"},{"startTime":3483.716,"endTime":3485.487,"body":"anyone who's done serious drilling,"},{"startTime":3485.487,"endTime":3486.628,"body":"you've got to anchor yourself, right?"},{"startTime":3486.628,"endTime":3488.056,"body":"Otherwise, all that happens"},{"startTime":3486.628,"endTime":3488.056,"body":"is a drill goes up and down"},{"startTime":3488.056,"endTime":3488.889,"body":"and you go up and down with it,"},{"startTime":3488.889,"endTime":3490.308,"body":"you've got to attach yourself."},{"startTime":3490.308,"endTime":3493.982,"body":"So that fungus sticks"},{"startTime":3490.308,"endTime":3493.982,"body":"onto the leaf surface."},{"startTime":3493.982,"endTime":3496.156,"body":"And I'm led to believe"},{"startTime":3493.982,"endTime":3496.156,"body":"that a chemicals company"},{"startTime":3496.156,"endTime":3499.924,"body":"back many years ago,"},{"startTime":3496.156,"endTime":3499.924,"body":"cleverly spotted the proteins"},{"startTime":3499.924,"endTime":3501.825,"body":"that are used to stick it on and realize"},{"startTime":3501.825,"endTime":3505.116,"body":"that these are serious glue and"},{"startTime":3501.825,"endTime":3505.116,"body":"have taken many of the ideas"},{"startTime":3505.116,"endTime":3508.125,"body":"from that to essentially generate"},{"startTime":3505.116,"endTime":3508.125,"body":"really, really impressive"},{"startTime":3508.125,"endTime":3510.486,"body":"super glue materials."},{"startTime":3510.486,"endTime":3512.015,"body":"But I'm not sure, even if I knew,"},{"startTime":3512.015,"endTime":3513.525,"body":"I'm not sure I should name the company,"},{"startTime":3513.525,"endTime":3515.635,"body":"but there are certain examples like that."},{"startTime":3515.635,"endTime":3517.992,"body":"And I guess that surface manipulation,"},{"startTime":3517.992,"endTime":3519.425,"body":"lots of examples of people doing stuff"},{"startTime":3519.425,"endTime":3523.114,"body":"like learning about non-stick"},{"startTime":3519.425,"endTime":3523.114,"body":"or shielding surfaces,"},{"startTime":3523.114,"endTime":3525.944,"body":"surfaces that resist UV by"},{"startTime":3523.114,"endTime":3525.944,"body":"looking at these organisms."},{"startTime":3525.944,"endTime":3528.545,"body":"So there's a lot of interesting"},{"startTime":3525.944,"endTime":3528.545,"body":"learning you can do there."},{"startTime":3528.545,"endTime":3530.565,"body":"It's often the most"},{"startTime":3528.545,"endTime":3530.565,"body":"unexpected areas though"},{"startTime":3530.565,"endTime":3531.982,"body":"that yield those."},{"startTime":3532.817,"endTime":3533.65,"body":"- Thank you very much."},{"startTime":3533.65,"endTime":3535.505,"body":"Well, thank you very much everyone,"},{"startTime":3535.505,"endTime":3537.624,"body":"and thank you again,"},{"startTime":3535.505,"endTime":3537.624,"body":"Professor May, for joining us."},{"startTime":3537.624,"endTime":3540.625,"body":"(audience applauding)"},{"startTime":3540.625,"endTime":3545.542,"body":"And please join us, well, for"},{"startTime":3540.625,"endTime":3545.542,"body":"Professor May's next lecture,"},{"startTime":3549.536,"endTime":3553.144,"body":"how microbes manipulate"},{"startTime":3549.536,"endTime":3553.144,"body":"life on the 22nd of March."},{"startTime":3553.144,"endTime":3553.977,"body":"Thank you."}]}