{"version":"1.0.0","segments":[{"startTime":0.109,"endTime":1.692,"body":"()"},{"startTime":5.22,"endTime":8.91,"body":"- Long before it became"},{"startTime":5.22,"endTime":8.91,"body":"a world Heritage site"},{"startTime":8.91,"endTime":13.86,"body":"and a global symbol of the"},{"startTime":8.91,"endTime":13.86,"body":"mysteries of unrecoverable pasts,"},{"startTime":13.86,"endTime":18.24,"body":"Stonehenge was a biddable"},{"startTime":13.86,"endTime":18.24,"body":"icon for notions of British"},{"startTime":18.24,"endTime":20.463,"body":"antiquity and identity."},{"startTime":23.49,"endTime":24.693,"body":"In the Middle Ages,"},{"startTime":25.921,"endTime":28.62,"body":"it was given life in a"},{"startTime":25.921,"endTime":28.62,"body":"world of Arthur Merlin"},{"startTime":28.62,"endTime":30.303,"body":"and British origin myths."},{"startTime":31.29,"endTime":34.53,"body":"In the 18th century,"},{"startTime":31.29,"endTime":34.53,"body":"it became recognized as"},{"startTime":34.53,"endTime":36.81,"body":"a human monument,"},{"startTime":36.81,"endTime":40.62,"body":"but one from an unknown past"},{"startTime":36.81,"endTime":40.62,"body":"defined by its opposition to"},{"startTime":40.62,"endTime":42.6,"body":"the classical world."},{"startTime":42.6,"endTime":46.443,"body":"The stones had been raised"},{"startTime":42.6,"endTime":46.443,"body":"by the people Caesar invaded."},{"startTime":47.88,"endTime":51.51,"body":"In the 1960s to take one last example,"},{"startTime":51.51,"endTime":55.8,"body":"it was drafted as a computational"},{"startTime":51.51,"endTime":55.8,"body":"observatory morphing into"},{"startTime":55.8,"endTime":58.2,"body":"a confusion of earth mysteries,"},{"startTime":58.2,"endTime":63.2,"body":"aliens and alternative"},{"startTime":58.2,"endTime":63.2,"body":"lifestyles, but its most enduring,"},{"startTime":63.57,"endTime":67.8,"body":"modern evocation was shaped"},{"startTime":63.57,"endTime":67.8,"body":"in the first quarter of"},{"startTime":67.8,"endTime":68.943,"body":"the last century."},{"startTime":72.48,"endTime":76.17,"body":"Whenever we have a national"},{"startTime":72.48,"endTime":76.17,"body":"crisis wondering what being"},{"startTime":76.17,"endTime":80.88,"body":"British means, we invoke"},{"startTime":76.17,"endTime":80.88,"body":"Stonehenge, the centerpiece,"},{"startTime":80.88,"endTime":84.483,"body":"the epitome of our past"},{"startTime":80.88,"endTime":84.483,"body":"and island identity."},{"startTime":85.8,"endTime":90.8,"body":"The stories we tell draw both"},{"startTime":85.8,"endTime":90.8,"body":"on research and on attitudes"},{"startTime":90.93,"endTime":94.738,"body":"held by nation that once"},{"startTime":90.93,"endTime":94.738,"body":"boasted the world's largest"},{"startTime":94.738,"endTime":97.827,"body":"and most culturally varied empire."},{"startTime":97.827,"endTime":101.31,"body":"The first scientific excavation"},{"startTime":97.827,"endTime":101.31,"body":"at Stonehenge occurred in"},{"startTime":101.31,"endTime":105.36,"body":"the year Queen Victoria died"},{"startTime":101.31,"endTime":105.36,"body":"and the first modern book about"},{"startTime":105.36,"endTime":110.36,"body":"it was written by a British"},{"startTime":105.36,"endTime":110.36,"body":"engineer of the Indian railways."},{"startTime":111.99,"endTime":115.56,"body":"That quarter century was"},{"startTime":111.99,"endTime":115.56,"body":"also the era in which modern"},{"startTime":115.56,"endTime":117.48,"body":"archeology began."},{"startTime":117.48,"endTime":121.92,"body":"Ideas about Stonehenge were"},{"startTime":117.48,"endTime":121.92,"body":"reflected in wider visions of"},{"startTime":121.92,"endTime":126.303,"body":"antiquity that continue to"},{"startTime":121.92,"endTime":126.303,"body":"dominate popular histories today."},{"startTime":128.01,"endTime":132.18,"body":"I propose to consider that"},{"startTime":128.01,"endTime":132.18,"body":"image of national antiquity"},{"startTime":132.18,"endTime":135.93,"body":"and how it was framed at"},{"startTime":132.18,"endTime":135.93,"body":"Stonehenge by asking how"},{"startTime":135.93,"endTime":137.343,"body":"the monument was built."},{"startTime":138.24,"endTime":141.39,"body":"I'll outline an alternative"},{"startTime":138.24,"endTime":141.39,"body":"to the popular vision"},{"startTime":141.39,"endTime":144.003,"body":"that reflects the wealth"},{"startTime":141.39,"endTime":144.003,"body":"of new archeology."},{"startTime":145.92,"endTime":150.92,"body":"We judge pre-history as deficient"},{"startTime":145.92,"endTime":150.92,"body":"and thus by implication as"},{"startTime":152.61,"endTime":156.033,"body":"we will see recent and modern peoples too."},{"startTime":157.11,"endTime":159.78,"body":"I will ask you to think about"},{"startTime":157.11,"endTime":159.78,"body":"prehistoric communities in"},{"startTime":159.78,"endTime":162.96,"body":"a different way and I hope to convince you"},{"startTime":162.96,"endTime":166.2,"body":"that what I propose is more"},{"startTime":162.96,"endTime":166.2,"body":"suited to modern Britain"},{"startTime":166.2,"endTime":167.823,"body":"and to a global community."},{"startTime":169.65,"endTime":171.15,"body":"I need to start, however,"},{"startTime":171.15,"endTime":174.123,"body":"with a quick introduction"},{"startTime":171.15,"endTime":174.123,"body":"to how archeology works."},{"startTime":176.52,"endTime":180.09,"body":"The common image of archeologists"},{"startTime":176.52,"endTime":180.09,"body":"is that we bumble along"},{"startTime":180.09,"endTime":183.06,"body":"until we fall over a discovery"},{"startTime":180.09,"endTime":183.06,"body":"which changes everything"},{"startTime":183.06,"endTime":185.1,"body":"we thought we knew."},{"startTime":185.1,"endTime":188.73,"body":"Archeologists themselves"},{"startTime":185.1,"endTime":188.73,"body":"seem to enjoy explaining how"},{"startTime":188.73,"endTime":192.06,"body":"difficult it is to know"},{"startTime":188.73,"endTime":192.06,"body":"anything about the remote past."},{"startTime":192.06,"endTime":194.85,"body":"We give lectures about"},{"startTime":192.06,"endTime":194.85,"body":"it, write books about it."},{"startTime":194.85,"endTime":196.92,"body":"Now I understand if you're"},{"startTime":194.85,"endTime":196.92,"body":"not an archeologist,"},{"startTime":196.92,"endTime":200.52,"body":"it's easy to imagine"},{"startTime":196.92,"endTime":200.52,"body":"that we make it all up."},{"startTime":200.52,"endTime":204.183,"body":"So here briefly is why"},{"startTime":200.52,"endTime":204.183,"body":"the opposite is the case."},{"startTime":205.02,"endTime":207.78,"body":"You need to know that archeology"},{"startTime":205.02,"endTime":207.78,"body":"is actually very good at"},{"startTime":207.78,"endTime":209.31,"body":"writing history,"},{"startTime":209.31,"endTime":211.89,"body":"though I should add that that's"},{"startTime":209.31,"endTime":211.89,"body":"not the same thing as saying"},{"startTime":211.89,"endTime":213.573,"body":"that we always get it right."},{"startTime":214.77,"endTime":216.72,"body":"There are three parts to getting stories"},{"startTime":216.72,"endTime":218.82,"body":"that were never written down."},{"startTime":218.82,"endTime":220.053,"body":"We collect data,"},{"startTime":221.04,"endTime":225.24,"body":"we try to make that information"},{"startTime":221.04,"endTime":225.24,"body":"useful and we try to see"},{"startTime":225.24,"endTime":229.17,"body":"the lives of real people"},{"startTime":225.24,"endTime":229.17,"body":"through those efforts."},{"startTime":229.17,"endTime":232.5,"body":"Each of these is being"},{"startTime":229.17,"endTime":232.5,"body":"continuously explored by a whole"},{"startTime":232.5,"endTime":234.873,"body":"range of professions and sub-disciplines."},{"startTime":235.71,"endTime":237.69,"body":"So first we collect data."},{"startTime":237.69,"endTime":240.57,"body":"We survey sites, we dig things up,"},{"startTime":240.57,"endTime":243.363,"body":"we analyze them and use a lot of science."},{"startTime":244.47,"endTime":247.89,"body":"Here's me collecting"},{"startTime":244.47,"endTime":247.89,"body":"data on the left in 1979,"},{"startTime":247.89,"endTime":251.63,"body":"my first excavation at Stonehenge"},{"startTime":247.89,"endTime":251.63,"body":"and on the right in 2008"},{"startTime":251.63,"endTime":254.228,"body":"at another excavation at Stonehenge."},{"startTime":254.228,"endTime":257.97,"body":"Now this data, this fills"},{"startTime":254.228,"endTime":257.97,"body":"stores and libraries,"},{"startTime":257.97,"endTime":261.303,"body":"but it's only the start or it's"},{"startTime":257.97,"endTime":261.303,"body":"only part of the beginning."},{"startTime":262.14,"endTime":266.22,"body":"For at the same time a great"},{"startTime":262.14,"endTime":266.22,"body":"deal of research and thought"},{"startTime":266.22,"endTime":269.25,"body":"goes into how we can read those data,"},{"startTime":269.25,"endTime":273.18,"body":"which are several steps removed"},{"startTime":269.25,"endTime":273.18,"body":"from the real world past."},{"startTime":273.18,"endTime":277.53,"body":"How and why does stuff get"},{"startTime":273.18,"endTime":277.53,"body":"buried and what doesn't?"},{"startTime":277.53,"endTime":279.84,"body":"What happens to it when it's there,"},{"startTime":279.84,"endTime":282.72,"body":"and which bits are going to"},{"startTime":279.84,"endTime":282.72,"body":"tell us things we actually want"},{"startTime":282.72,"endTime":283.553,"body":"to know?"},{"startTime":284.94,"endTime":288.66,"body":"And then there's what matters"},{"startTime":284.94,"endTime":288.66,"body":"most tonight given what"},{"startTime":288.66,"endTime":291.36,"body":"we have achieved with all"},{"startTime":288.66,"endTime":291.36,"body":"the science and stuff,"},{"startTime":291.36,"endTime":294.45,"body":"how can we read what people"},{"startTime":291.36,"endTime":294.45,"body":"in the past were doing"},{"startTime":294.45,"endTime":295.283,"body":"and thinking."},{"startTime":296.43,"endTime":299.7,"body":"And here we can experiment,"},{"startTime":296.43,"endTime":299.7,"body":"we can make parts,"},{"startTime":299.7,"endTime":303.51,"body":"we can grow rare crops,"},{"startTime":299.7,"endTime":303.51,"body":"we can build bridges,"},{"startTime":303.51,"endTime":306.45,"body":"or we can see what other people do."},{"startTime":306.45,"endTime":308.523,"body":"Both of these have been very useful."},{"startTime":309.906,"endTime":313.38,"body":"We couldn't begin to understand"},{"startTime":309.906,"endTime":313.38,"body":"what was in the mind of a"},{"startTime":313.38,"endTime":316.26,"body":"Homo erectus millions of years"},{"startTime":313.38,"endTime":316.26,"body":"ago when they were making a"},{"startTime":316.26,"endTime":318.0,"body":"stone hand acts"},{"startTime":318.0,"endTime":322.47,"body":"if we hadn't learned how"},{"startTime":318.0,"endTime":322.47,"body":"to make one ourselves."},{"startTime":322.47,"endTime":326.4,"body":"Alternatively, we could"},{"startTime":322.47,"endTime":326.4,"body":"go say to Mexico or Turkey"},{"startTime":326.4,"endTime":329.43,"body":"and see how hand looms of a"},{"startTime":326.4,"endTime":329.43,"body":"particular type that might have"},{"startTime":329.43,"endTime":333.453,"body":"been used in Iron Age"},{"startTime":329.43,"endTime":333.453,"body":"Britain work and so on."},{"startTime":334.529,"endTime":338.73,"body":"Doing this helps us escape the"},{"startTime":334.529,"endTime":338.73,"body":"very restricted mindset and"},{"startTime":338.73,"endTime":341.34,"body":"the particular technologies"},{"startTime":338.73,"endTime":341.34,"body":"that the world in which we"},{"startTime":341.34,"endTime":342.723,"body":"ourselves live."},{"startTime":343.732,"endTime":346.47,"body":"There's an old archeological"},{"startTime":343.732,"endTime":346.47,"body":"phrase for this"},{"startTime":346.47,"endTime":349.293,"body":"using ethnographic parallels,"},{"startTime":350.25,"endTime":353.61,"body":"we can go further than this"},{"startTime":350.25,"endTime":353.61,"body":"beyond the particular and seek"},{"startTime":353.61,"endTime":356.883,"body":"to identify apparent behavioral constance."},{"startTime":357.87,"endTime":360.78,"body":"Telling stories and"},{"startTime":357.87,"endTime":360.78,"body":"making music, for example,"},{"startTime":360.78,"endTime":363.39,"body":"seem to be universal."},{"startTime":363.39,"endTime":366.6,"body":"So we might imagine that ice"},{"startTime":363.39,"endTime":366.6,"body":"age people didn't just paint"},{"startTime":366.6,"endTime":370.874,"body":"animals on cave walls,"},{"startTime":366.6,"endTime":370.874,"body":"they told tales about them."},{"startTime":370.874,"endTime":375.06,"body":"If I could go back in time and"},{"startTime":370.874,"endTime":375.06,"body":"see Stonehenge being built,"},{"startTime":375.06,"endTime":377.25,"body":"I wouldn't ask, why are you doing that?"},{"startTime":377.25,"endTime":379.71,"body":"I wouldn't expect to"},{"startTime":377.25,"endTime":379.71,"body":"get a meaningful answer."},{"startTime":379.71,"endTime":381.903,"body":"I'd say sing me a song."},{"startTime":383.79,"endTime":387.6,"body":"Archeologists often forget"},{"startTime":383.79,"endTime":387.6,"body":"that it is human to laugh."},{"startTime":387.6,"endTime":389.37,"body":"People need to sleep."},{"startTime":389.37,"endTime":393.273,"body":"Not everything we can know"},{"startTime":389.37,"endTime":393.273,"body":"about the past has to be dug up."},{"startTime":397.8,"endTime":400.98,"body":"Getting the right blend of"},{"startTime":397.8,"endTime":400.98,"body":"these tactics is tricky."},{"startTime":400.98,"endTime":405.06,"body":"Today's science dominates"},{"startTime":400.98,"endTime":405.06,"body":"advances in radiocarbon dating"},{"startTime":405.06,"endTime":409.83,"body":"and DNA studies are allowing"},{"startTime":405.06,"endTime":409.83,"body":"us to map how people"},{"startTime":409.83,"endTime":413.16,"body":"moved about and were"},{"startTime":409.83,"endTime":413.16,"body":"related to each other,"},{"startTime":413.16,"endTime":416.91,"body":"the building blocks for"},{"startTime":413.16,"endTime":416.91,"body":"social insights undreamt of"},{"startTime":416.91,"endTime":418.173,"body":"when I was a student."},{"startTime":419.88,"endTime":421.14,"body":"At the beginning, however,"},{"startTime":421.14,"endTime":424.14,"body":"at the beginning of this quest"},{"startTime":421.14,"endTime":424.14,"body":"into the past there were only"},{"startTime":424.14,"endTime":427.29,"body":"texts the Bible and for Britain,"},{"startTime":427.29,"endTime":432.06,"body":"medieval mythology in which"},{"startTime":427.29,"endTime":432.06,"body":"Stonehenge was built by Merlin"},{"startTime":432.06,"endTime":434.29,"body":"after flying the stones over from Ireland"},{"startTime":435.54,"endTime":437.46,"body":"and classical observations of people"},{"startTime":437.46,"endTime":438.753,"body":"on the fringe of empire."},{"startTime":440.31,"endTime":445.17,"body":"Roman descriptions of the British"},{"startTime":440.31,"endTime":445.17,"body":"emphasized their barbarity"},{"startTime":445.17,"endTime":448.59,"body":"dressed in skins or naked"},{"startTime":445.17,"endTime":448.59,"body":"covered in body paint"},{"startTime":448.59,"endTime":452.01,"body":"in a cold land of mists and swamps."},{"startTime":452.01,"endTime":455.01,"body":"A vague notion of barbarity permeated"},{"startTime":455.01,"endTime":456.3,"body":"early anti Cree visions"},{"startTime":456.3,"endTime":457.353,"body":"of ancient Britain."},{"startTime":458.31,"endTime":460.89,"body":"And to help them picture"},{"startTime":458.31,"endTime":460.89,"body":"those vanished people,"},{"startTime":460.89,"endTime":463.923,"body":"they drew on reports from the new world."},{"startTime":465.72,"endTime":468.247,"body":"As Caroline Dodds Pennock"},{"startTime":465.72,"endTime":468.247,"body":"tells us in her new book on"},{"startTime":468.247,"endTime":472.29,"body":"\"Savage Shores\", thousands"},{"startTime":468.247,"endTime":472.29,"body":"of indigenous Americans"},{"startTime":472.29,"endTime":476.077,"body":"came to Europe from the"},{"startTime":472.29,"endTime":476.077,"body":"days of first contact."},{"startTime":476.077,"endTime":479.216,"body":"For anti Chris, these people"},{"startTime":476.077,"endTime":479.216,"body":"were walking illustrations of"},{"startTime":479.216,"endTime":481.57,"body":"how ancient Britains might have looked"},{"startTime":482.58,"endTime":483.93,"body":"and who better to show us this"},{"startTime":483.93,"endTime":488.52,"body":"than John White artist"},{"startTime":483.93,"endTime":488.52,"body":"and governor in 1587"},{"startTime":488.52,"endTime":491.49,"body":"of Roanoke colony in Algonkin territory"},{"startTime":491.49,"endTime":493.263,"body":"in what is now North Carolina,"},{"startTime":494.28,"endTime":499.263,"body":"famously white drew many"},{"startTime":494.28,"endTime":499.263,"body":"Algonkin figures and scenes."},{"startTime":500.28,"endTime":502.38,"body":"He also illustrated ancient Britains,"},{"startTime":502.38,"endTime":506.76,"body":"including these two pictures"},{"startTime":502.38,"endTime":506.76,"body":"of both were published together"},{"startTime":506.76,"endTime":509.583,"body":"and explicit comparisons"},{"startTime":506.76,"endTime":509.583,"body":"were made between them."},{"startTime":510.51,"endTime":513.607,"body":"The juxtaposition showed, I quote"},{"startTime":513.607,"endTime":516.24,"body":"\"how the inhabitants of"},{"startTime":513.607,"endTime":516.24,"body":"Great Britain have been"},{"startTime":516.24,"endTime":520.803,"body":"in times past a savage as"},{"startTime":516.24,"endTime":520.803,"body":"those of the of Virginia."},{"startTime":521.91,"endTime":524.31,"body":"Some argue today that there"},{"startTime":521.91,"endTime":524.31,"body":"was an underlying purpose"},{"startTime":524.31,"endTime":528.21,"body":"to this to show a Europeans"},{"startTime":524.31,"endTime":528.21,"body":"European colonists that they had"},{"startTime":528.21,"endTime":531.87,"body":"little to fear from the"},{"startTime":528.21,"endTime":531.87,"body":"Algonquins who were more civilized"},{"startTime":531.87,"endTime":533.163,"body":"than ancient Britains."},{"startTime":535.86,"endTime":538.98,"body":"Their warriors bows showed"},{"startTime":535.86,"endTime":538.98,"body":"greater craft skills"},{"startTime":538.98,"endTime":541.56,"body":"than the Britain's brutal swords."},{"startTime":541.56,"endTime":545.283,"body":"They dressed better and their"},{"startTime":541.56,"endTime":545.283,"body":"body paint was more subtle."},{"startTime":546.54,"endTime":549.24,"body":"While ancient British women"},{"startTime":546.54,"endTime":549.24,"body":"paraded naked with nothing"},{"startTime":549.24,"endTime":552.96,"body":"but weapons, Algonkin"},{"startTime":549.24,"endTime":552.96,"body":"women also dressed well,"},{"startTime":552.96,"endTime":555.363,"body":"prepared food and looked after children."},{"startTime":556.32,"endTime":559.65,"body":"Dress and body ornament"},{"startTime":556.32,"endTime":559.65,"body":"has told us, sorry,"},{"startTime":559.65,"endTime":564.09,"body":"breast dress and body ornament"},{"startTime":559.65,"endTime":564.09,"body":"were important signifiers"},{"startTime":564.09,"endTime":566.79,"body":"of identity in early modern England."},{"startTime":566.79,"endTime":571.47,"body":"Habit was how you dressed"},{"startTime":566.79,"endTime":571.47,"body":"as well as how you behaved."},{"startTime":571.47,"endTime":574.563,"body":"Even skin color perhaps"},{"startTime":571.47,"endTime":574.563,"body":"was a cultural choice."},{"startTime":576.45,"endTime":579.78,"body":"Here's another 16th century"},{"startTime":576.45,"endTime":579.78,"body":"view of Britain's at the time of"},{"startTime":579.78,"endTime":583.41,"body":"Julius Caesar this time"},{"startTime":579.78,"endTime":583.41,"body":"drawn by Lucas Dahir,"},{"startTime":583.41,"endTime":585.993,"body":"a contemporary of whites"},{"startTime":583.41,"endTime":585.993,"body":"then working in London,"},{"startTime":587.16,"endTime":591.0,"body":"even if classical texts"},{"startTime":587.16,"endTime":591.0,"body":"do very occasionally"},{"startTime":591.0,"endTime":593.46,"body":"say North Europeans were naked,"},{"startTime":593.46,"endTime":595.35,"body":"and it is very occasionally,"},{"startTime":595.35,"endTime":597.54,"body":"it's hard to think that"},{"startTime":595.35,"endTime":597.54,"body":"Dahir would've drawn this if"},{"startTime":597.54,"endTime":601.233,"body":"he hadn't heard about people"},{"startTime":597.54,"endTime":601.233,"body":"who lived in warmer climates."},{"startTime":602.4,"endTime":605.4,"body":"And funny enough Dahir"},{"startTime":602.4,"endTime":605.4,"body":"was also the first person"},{"startTime":605.4,"endTime":608.19,"body":"who we know to have given us a shot at"},{"startTime":608.19,"endTime":610.683,"body":"a realistic depiction of Stonehenge."},{"startTime":612.72,"endTime":617.22,"body":"So we have early modern"},{"startTime":612.72,"endTime":617.22,"body":"Europeans observing other peoples"},{"startTime":617.22,"endTime":621.333,"body":"in a way we might call ethnographic"},{"startTime":617.22,"endTime":621.333,"body":"rather than myth making."},{"startTime":622.32,"endTime":625.98,"body":"And we have the first anti"},{"startTime":622.32,"endTime":625.98,"body":"Cree, notably William Camden,"},{"startTime":625.98,"endTime":630.63,"body":"who published his first"},{"startTime":625.98,"endTime":630.63,"body":"edition of Britannia in 1586"},{"startTime":630.63,"endTime":634.77,"body":"the year John White was"},{"startTime":630.63,"endTime":634.77,"body":"preparing to sail to Virginia,"},{"startTime":634.77,"endTime":638.13,"body":"figuring out how to tell"},{"startTime":634.77,"endTime":638.13,"body":"stories about ancient Britains"},{"startTime":638.13,"endTime":640.803,"body":"without falling back on medieval myths."},{"startTime":641.7,"endTime":645.66,"body":"The comparisons start at"},{"startTime":641.7,"endTime":645.66,"body":"precisely the same time"},{"startTime":645.66,"endTime":647.043,"body":"and they're never given up."},{"startTime":648.42,"endTime":651.503,"body":"Over the following three"},{"startTime":648.42,"endTime":651.503,"body":"centuries anti Chris worked out"},{"startTime":651.503,"endTime":655.2,"body":"ways of writing histories before history."},{"startTime":655.2,"endTime":657.69,"body":"They looked at standing"},{"startTime":655.2,"endTime":657.69,"body":"monuments like Stonehenge"},{"startTime":657.69,"endTime":661.02,"body":"and chance fines of strange artifacts."},{"startTime":661.02,"endTime":662.943,"body":"They started to dig into earthworks,"},{"startTime":663.9,"endTime":667.231,"body":"often finding graves"},{"startTime":663.9,"endTime":667.231,"body":"with more strange things."},{"startTime":667.231,"endTime":670.41,"body":"They realized these artifacts"},{"startTime":667.231,"endTime":670.41,"body":"could be arranged into"},{"startTime":670.41,"endTime":674.97,"body":"a time louder, a stone"},{"startTime":670.41,"endTime":674.97,"body":"bronze, and then iron."},{"startTime":674.97,"endTime":677.61,"body":"The word prehistory was coined."},{"startTime":677.61,"endTime":682.53,"body":"In Denmark in the 1830s"},{"startTime":677.61,"endTime":682.53,"body":"excavation began to be treated as"},{"startTime":682.53,"endTime":684.12,"body":"a science."},{"startTime":684.12,"endTime":687.6,"body":"And in 1901, a man who'd"},{"startTime":684.12,"endTime":687.6,"body":"spent most of his career"},{"startTime":687.6,"endTime":692.6,"body":"in Japan directed the first"},{"startTime":687.6,"endTime":692.6,"body":"proper dig at Stonehenge."},{"startTime":694.5,"endTime":696.9,"body":"But we're getting ahead of ourselves."},{"startTime":696.9,"endTime":700.83,"body":"In the 16th century, up to a point,"},{"startTime":700.83,"endTime":703.32,"body":"there was no great investment"},{"startTime":700.83,"endTime":703.32,"body":"in the state of other"},{"startTime":703.32,"endTime":706.02,"body":"people's Britains or Algonquins."},{"startTime":706.02,"endTime":708.3,"body":"They were just being observed."},{"startTime":708.3,"endTime":712.023,"body":"But any element of"},{"startTime":708.3,"endTime":712.023,"body":"disengagement soon fell away."},{"startTime":713.13,"endTime":715.68,"body":"Writing in the later 17th century,"},{"startTime":715.68,"endTime":719.25,"body":"John Aubrey author of \"Brief"},{"startTime":715.68,"endTime":719.25,"body":"Lives\" and \"At Stonehenge\","},{"startTime":719.25,"endTime":723.163,"body":"the man after whom archeologists"},{"startTime":719.25,"endTime":723.163,"body":"named the Aubrey Holes,"},{"startTime":723.163,"endTime":726.75,"body":"thought the early inhabitants"},{"startTime":723.163,"endTime":726.75,"body":"of Wilshire were as savage as"},{"startTime":726.75,"endTime":729.453,"body":"the beasts whose skins"},{"startTime":726.75,"endTime":729.453,"body":"were their only Raymond."},{"startTime":730.32,"endTime":733.95,"body":"Their druidic priests"},{"startTime":730.32,"endTime":733.95,"body":"were described by Caesar"},{"startTime":733.95,"endTime":737.22,"body":"and the stone circles at"},{"startTime":733.95,"endTime":737.22,"body":"eighth Bri and at Stonehenge"},{"startTime":737.22,"endTime":738.423,"body":"were their temples."},{"startTime":739.26,"endTime":741.06,"body":"They had the use of iron, however,"},{"startTime":741.06,"endTime":743.82,"body":"which made them and I"},{"startTime":741.06,"endTime":743.82,"body":"quote, two or three degrees,"},{"startTime":743.82,"endTime":747.063,"body":"I suppose, less savage than the Americans."},{"startTime":748.89,"endTime":753.3,"body":"Such judgments soon became"},{"startTime":748.89,"endTime":753.3,"body":"commonplace analogies between"},{"startTime":753.3,"endTime":757.2,"body":"observed peoples and imagined"},{"startTime":753.3,"endTime":757.2,"body":"ancients moved steadily back"},{"startTime":757.2,"endTime":762.003,"body":"in time as the living were"},{"startTime":757.2,"endTime":762.003,"body":"deemed inferior to the extinct."},{"startTime":763.47,"endTime":765.87,"body":"Traveling on the beagle in the 1830s,"},{"startTime":765.87,"endTime":769.24,"body":"Charles Darwin described people"},{"startTime":765.87,"endTime":769.24,"body":"he came across as savage,"},{"startTime":769.24,"endTime":771.81,"body":"the lowest barbarians."},{"startTime":771.81,"endTime":772.77,"body":"And in Tahiti,"},{"startTime":772.77,"endTime":776.73,"body":"those who'd quote would have"},{"startTime":772.77,"endTime":776.73,"body":"formed a fine picture of man"},{"startTime":776.73,"endTime":779.283,"body":"inhabiting some primeval forest."},{"startTime":781.8,"endTime":783.18,"body":"Daniel Wilson,"},{"startTime":783.18,"endTime":785.88,"body":"a Scottish archeologist who"},{"startTime":783.18,"endTime":785.88,"body":"coined the English word,"},{"startTime":785.88,"endTime":789.93,"body":"prehistoric, developed his"},{"startTime":785.88,"endTime":789.93,"body":"interest in ethnography"},{"startTime":789.93,"endTime":793.02,"body":"when he moved to the"},{"startTime":789.93,"endTime":793.02,"body":"University of Toronto."},{"startTime":793.02,"endTime":798.02,"body":"In 1862, he published a massive"},{"startTime":793.02,"endTime":798.02,"body":"work on prehistoric man,"},{"startTime":798.6,"endTime":801.09,"body":"that's the title of his books."},{"startTime":801.09,"endTime":803.7,"body":"For him, North America"},{"startTime":801.09,"endTime":803.7,"body":"was like a distant planet"},{"startTime":803.7,"endTime":805.41,"body":"viewed from earth"},{"startTime":805.41,"endTime":808.29,"body":"so far away that what"},{"startTime":805.41,"endTime":808.29,"body":"he saw in his telescope"},{"startTime":808.29,"endTime":812.25,"body":"was long past, its forests, its animals,"},{"startTime":812.25,"endTime":815.55,"body":"and its peoples were yet to"},{"startTime":812.25,"endTime":815.55,"body":"suffer the oppressive effects"},{"startTime":815.55,"endTime":819.66,"body":"of millennia of history"},{"startTime":815.55,"endTime":819.66,"body":"that a Europe had endured."},{"startTime":819.66,"endTime":823.44,"body":"Perhaps there he could identify"},{"startTime":819.66,"endTime":823.44,"body":"the primeval condition of"},{"startTime":823.44,"endTime":827.583,"body":"man as he had existed after leaving Eden."},{"startTime":828.81,"endTime":833.19,"body":"So for example, on the"},{"startTime":828.81,"endTime":833.19,"body":"Pacific Northwest coast,"},{"startTime":833.19,"endTime":837.3,"body":"he finds rude tribes living"},{"startTime":833.19,"endTime":837.3,"body":"in the simplest condition"},{"startTime":837.3,"endTime":839.313,"body":"of nomadic savage life."},{"startTime":841.05,"endTime":844.95,"body":"And remember, Wilson's books"},{"startTime":841.05,"endTime":844.95,"body":"are about \"Prehistoric Man\","},{"startTime":844.95,"endTime":846.843,"body":"not modern peoples."},{"startTime":847.86,"endTime":852.86,"body":"Move forward a century in"},{"startTime":847.86,"endTime":852.86,"body":"Roger Fry's influential work on"},{"startTime":853.59,"endTime":857.25,"body":"art published in 1920,"},{"startTime":853.59,"endTime":857.25,"body":"\"Vision and Design\","},{"startTime":857.25,"endTime":860.55,"body":"he compared ice age cave art in Spain"},{"startTime":860.55,"endTime":862.533,"body":"to modern art in South Africa."},{"startTime":863.61,"endTime":866.19,"body":"The prehistoric art was better, he said,"},{"startTime":866.19,"endTime":869.37,"body":"but the South African"},{"startTime":866.19,"endTime":869.37,"body":"bushman had somehow held on"},{"startTime":869.37,"endTime":872.91,"body":"to some of that ice age genius"},{"startTime":869.37,"endTime":872.91,"body":"as they were descendants"},{"startTime":872.91,"endTime":875.13,"body":"of Paleolithic man"},{"startTime":875.13,"endTime":878.04,"body":"though the achievements"},{"startTime":875.13,"endTime":878.04,"body":"were otherwise at the same"},{"startTime":878.04,"endTime":879.783,"body":"rudimentary stage."},{"startTime":881.04,"endTime":885.54,"body":"Move forward to a couple of"},{"startTime":881.04,"endTime":885.54,"body":"months ago the conversation,"},{"startTime":885.54,"endTime":890.07,"body":"a website promoting academic"},{"startTime":885.54,"endTime":890.07,"body":"research illustrated an article"},{"startTime":890.07,"endTime":895.07,"body":"about the supposed origins of"},{"startTime":890.07,"endTime":895.07,"body":"language 70,000 years ago with"},{"startTime":895.35,"endTime":897.783,"body":"photos of modern people"},{"startTime":895.35,"endTime":897.783,"body":"in southern Africa."},{"startTime":899.82,"endTime":904.82,"body":"Funny enough that bison on"},{"startTime":899.82,"endTime":904.82,"body":"the left is from the cave"},{"startTime":905.58,"endTime":909.72,"body":"that Roger Fry was writing"},{"startTime":905.58,"endTime":909.72,"body":"about in \"Vision and Design\""},{"startTime":909.72,"endTime":911.02,"body":"but this is an older book."},{"startTime":912.36,"endTime":915.33,"body":"And this issue shows starkly in"},{"startTime":915.33,"endTime":917.82,"body":"the work of the Victorian politician,"},{"startTime":917.82,"endTime":922.23,"body":"banker and popular science"},{"startTime":917.82,"endTime":922.23,"body":"writer John Lubbock."},{"startTime":922.23,"endTime":926.16,"body":"Rightly hailed as the man who"},{"startTime":922.23,"endTime":926.16,"body":"created the concept of giving"},{"startTime":926.16,"endTime":929.79,"body":"historic remains in this"},{"startTime":926.16,"endTime":929.79,"body":"country legal protection."},{"startTime":929.79,"endTime":933.57,"body":"His ancient monument's Bill"},{"startTime":929.79,"endTime":933.57,"body":"received its first reading"},{"startTime":933.57,"endTime":937.323,"body":"in parliament 150 years ago this month."},{"startTime":938.97,"endTime":943.97,"body":"In 1865, he published a book"},{"startTime":938.97,"endTime":943.97,"body":"called \"Prehistoric Times\""},{"startTime":944.04,"endTime":947.34,"body":"as illustrated by Ancient Remains,"},{"startTime":947.34,"endTime":949.47,"body":"it's importantness and"},{"startTime":947.34,"endTime":949.47,"body":"the Manners and Customs of"},{"startTime":949.47,"endTime":954.47,"body":"Modern Savages went down well,"},{"startTime":949.47,"endTime":954.47,"body":"glowingly reviewed in nature."},{"startTime":955.05,"endTime":959.16,"body":"Its seventh edition was published in 1913."},{"startTime":959.16,"endTime":962.16,"body":"I'll tell you, I'd be pleased"},{"startTime":959.16,"endTime":962.16,"body":"at something like that."},{"startTime":962.16,"endTime":966.3,"body":"It was an extraordinary"},{"startTime":962.16,"endTime":966.3,"body":"detailed roundup of archeology."},{"startTime":966.3,"endTime":969.18,"body":"There was also a survey of more"},{"startTime":966.3,"endTime":969.18,"body":"or less contemporary people"},{"startTime":969.18,"endTime":972.84,"body":"around the world whose live"},{"startTime":969.18,"endTime":972.84,"body":"sought Lubbock could help his"},{"startTime":972.84,"endTime":976.593,"body":"readers understand the ancients"},{"startTime":972.84,"endTime":976.593,"body":"who were his main subject."},{"startTime":977.94,"endTime":979.53,"body":"There's some pretty rough stuff."},{"startTime":979.53,"endTime":983.01,"body":"The progress of science will"},{"startTime":979.53,"endTime":983.01,"body":"erase ignorance and so on,"},{"startTime":983.01,"endTime":986.1,"body":"but he did have considerable"},{"startTime":983.01,"endTime":986.1,"body":"respect for the technological"},{"startTime":986.1,"endTime":987.873,"body":"skills he was describing."},{"startTime":990.0,"endTime":991.71,"body":"There's plenty about"},{"startTime":990.0,"endTime":991.71,"body":"Stonehenge incidentally,"},{"startTime":991.71,"endTime":995.073,"body":"which he compares to"},{"startTime":991.71,"endTime":995.073,"body":"megalithic structures in India."},{"startTime":996.36,"endTime":1000.29,"body":"Now, Lubbock followed up this"},{"startTime":996.36,"endTime":1000.29,"body":"book with another one about"},{"startTime":1000.29,"endTime":1002.24,"body":"prehistoric people."},{"startTime":1002.24,"endTime":1004.04,"body":"First published in 1870,"},{"startTime":1004.04,"endTime":1008.3,"body":"it too was popular and"},{"startTime":1004.04,"endTime":1008.3,"body":"reprinted several times,"},{"startTime":1008.3,"endTime":1011.27,"body":"but this was no catalog of facts."},{"startTime":1011.27,"endTime":1013.583,"body":"Here, Lubbock was on a mission."},{"startTime":1014.75,"endTime":1017.57,"body":"The book was called \"The"},{"startTime":1014.75,"endTime":1017.57,"body":"Origin of Civilization"},{"startTime":1017.57,"endTime":1020.207,"body":"and the Primitive Condition of Man\"."},{"startTime":1021.59,"endTime":1023.93,"body":"It has a revealing subtitle,"},{"startTime":1023.93,"endTime":1027.227,"body":"the \"Mental and Social"},{"startTime":1023.93,"endTime":1027.227,"body":"Condition of Savages\"."},{"startTime":1029.21,"endTime":1031.64,"body":"In later edition, Stonehenge features two"},{"startTime":1031.64,"endTime":1032.87,"body":"opposite the title page."},{"startTime":1032.87,"endTime":1036.26,"body":"I suspect the publisher"},{"startTime":1032.87,"endTime":1036.26,"body":"was hoping to revive sales."},{"startTime":1036.26,"endTime":1040.64,"body":"Stonehenge always sells, but"},{"startTime":1036.26,"endTime":1040.64,"body":"it's nowhere else in the book."},{"startTime":1040.64,"endTime":1043.34,"body":"Instead, it's a lengthy polemic about"},{"startTime":1043.34,"endTime":1046.34,"body":"the behaviors of living savages."},{"startTime":1046.34,"endTime":1051.34,"body":"Studies of the lower races"},{"startTime":1046.34,"endTime":1051.34,"body":"of man he says has direct"},{"startTime":1051.74,"endTime":1055.973,"body":"importance in an empire like ours."},{"startTime":1057.534,"endTime":1061.46,"body":"Minds are impenetrable and"},{"startTime":1057.534,"endTime":1061.46,"body":"communication in this empire"},{"startTime":1061.46,"endTime":1063.56,"body":"is often impossible."},{"startTime":1063.56,"endTime":1067.22,"body":"How can you govern like that? Answer."},{"startTime":1067.22,"endTime":1070.88,"body":"You need to understand savage life."},{"startTime":1070.88,"endTime":1073.97,"body":"Lubbock warns his readers to"},{"startTime":1070.88,"endTime":1073.97,"body":"expect facts which are very"},{"startTime":1073.97,"endTime":1075.863,"body":"repugnant to our feelings."},{"startTime":1077.06,"endTime":1081.274,"body":"Yet still all this is wrapped"},{"startTime":1077.06,"endTime":1081.274,"body":"up in the idea that these wild"},{"startTime":1081.274,"endTime":1085.4,"body":"uncontrollable people"},{"startTime":1081.274,"endTime":1085.4,"body":"that somehow Britain is"},{"startTime":1085.4,"endTime":1090.08,"body":"trying to rule are in some"},{"startTime":1085.4,"endTime":1090.08,"body":"ways like prehistoric folk"},{"startTime":1090.08,"endTime":1092.573,"body":"and can help us understand the past."},{"startTime":1093.5,"endTime":1097.433,"body":"It too was repeatedly praised"},{"startTime":1093.5,"endTime":1097.433,"body":"by reviewers in nature."},{"startTime":1099.42,"endTime":1101.663,"body":"And so we come to Stonehenge."},{"startTime":1103.49,"endTime":1105.26,"body":"By the turn of the 20th century,"},{"startTime":1105.26,"endTime":1109.1,"body":"Stonehenge being bombarded by"},{"startTime":1105.26,"endTime":1109.1,"body":"endless debate about its age"},{"startTime":1109.1,"endTime":1111.83,"body":"and purpose and in the"},{"startTime":1109.1,"endTime":1111.83,"body":"absence of any evidence,"},{"startTime":1111.83,"endTime":1115.103,"body":"it was completely mystifying and random."},{"startTime":1116.15,"endTime":1118.91,"body":"A key question was where"},{"startTime":1116.15,"endTime":1118.91,"body":"had the stones come from,"},{"startTime":1118.91,"endTime":1120.803,"body":"for example, but there was no answer."},{"startTime":1122.78,"endTime":1125.87,"body":"But there'd been little advance"},{"startTime":1122.78,"endTime":1125.87,"body":"in real understanding since"},{"startTime":1125.87,"endTime":1129.44,"body":"the 18th century and the"},{"startTime":1125.87,"endTime":1129.44,"body":"days of the great anti Cree,"},{"startTime":1129.44,"endTime":1131.3,"body":"William Stukeley."},{"startTime":1131.3,"endTime":1134.21,"body":"Meanwhile, the site had decayed."},{"startTime":1134.21,"endTime":1136.31,"body":"People had dug holes all over it,"},{"startTime":1136.31,"endTime":1139.61,"body":"A cart track ran through"},{"startTime":1136.31,"endTime":1139.61,"body":"the middle, visitors,"},{"startTime":1139.61,"endTime":1142.16,"body":"horses scattered manure underfoot"},{"startTime":1142.16,"endTime":1144.65,"body":"and people left broken bottles."},{"startTime":1144.65,"endTime":1147.56,"body":"Some of the largest"},{"startTime":1144.65,"endTime":1147.56,"body":"megaliths had fallen over"},{"startTime":1147.56,"endTime":1150.56,"body":"and stones within an easy reach"},{"startTime":1147.56,"endTime":1150.56,"body":"of being very badly damaged"},{"startTime":1150.56,"endTime":1152.003,"body":"by souvenir hunters."},{"startTime":1153.74,"endTime":1157.523,"body":"Within 25 years, all that had changed."},{"startTime":1159.92,"endTime":1163.7,"body":"Began in 1901 with a small"},{"startTime":1159.92,"endTime":1163.7,"body":"excavation that remains one of"},{"startTime":1163.7,"endTime":1166.313,"body":"the best ever conducted at the site."},{"startTime":1167.24,"endTime":1170.33,"body":"The project focused on"},{"startTime":1167.24,"endTime":1170.33,"body":"straightening a large stone"},{"startTime":1170.33,"endTime":1172.97,"body":"people feared might fall on visitors"},{"startTime":1172.97,"endTime":1175.82,"body":"and he was led by William Galland."},{"startTime":1175.82,"endTime":1178.208,"body":"He was a retired engineer,"},{"startTime":1178.208,"endTime":1182.54,"body":"common form of wildlife at"},{"startTime":1178.208,"endTime":1182.54,"body":"Stonehenge who had worked in"},{"startTime":1182.54,"endTime":1185.78,"body":"government in Japan."},{"startTime":1185.78,"endTime":1188.33,"body":"While there, he got really"},{"startTime":1185.78,"endTime":1188.33,"body":"interested in archeology"},{"startTime":1188.33,"endTime":1191.06,"body":"and excavated megalithic sites."},{"startTime":1191.06,"endTime":1193.76,"body":"He's better known in"},{"startTime":1191.06,"endTime":1193.76,"body":"Japan for his archeology"},{"startTime":1193.76,"endTime":1195.44,"body":"than he is here."},{"startTime":1195.44,"endTime":1197.843,"body":"His experience showed in Wilshire."},{"startTime":1199.34,"endTime":1202.91,"body":"Today, thanks to more excavation"},{"startTime":1199.34,"endTime":1202.91,"body":"and radiocarbon dating,"},{"startTime":1202.91,"endTime":1206.63,"body":"we can see the monument was"},{"startTime":1202.91,"endTime":1206.63,"body":"changed at various points over"},{"startTime":1206.63,"endTime":1208.73,"body":"as much as a thousand years."},{"startTime":1208.73,"endTime":1210.74,"body":"It didn't take a thousand years to build,"},{"startTime":1210.74,"endTime":1212.27,"body":"it took a year or two to build,"},{"startTime":1212.27,"endTime":1215.387,"body":"but then there would be a century or so"},{"startTime":1215.387,"endTime":1216.8,"body":"and then they'd change it again"},{"startTime":1217.94,"endTime":1220.28,"body":"and then leave it and"},{"startTime":1217.94,"endTime":1220.28,"body":"then change it again."},{"startTime":1220.28,"endTime":1223.97,"body":"But we still basically agree"},{"startTime":1220.28,"endTime":1223.97,"body":"with Galland's conclusion"},{"startTime":1223.97,"endTime":1227.18,"body":"that Stonehenge had been built"},{"startTime":1223.97,"endTime":1227.18,"body":"at the end of the Stone age"},{"startTime":1227.18,"endTime":1228.95,"body":"or at the start of the Bronze Age."},{"startTime":1228.95,"endTime":1232.07,"body":"We'd now say around 2,500 BC,"},{"startTime":1232.07,"endTime":1233.723,"body":"give or take a few centuries."},{"startTime":1236.9,"endTime":1238.34,"body":"Now, soon after Galland's dig,"},{"startTime":1238.34,"endTime":1243.23,"body":"the owner sold the stones"},{"startTime":1238.34,"endTime":1243.23,"body":"and in 1918 the buyer settled"},{"startTime":1243.23,"endTime":1247.133,"body":"Chaba local barrister and"},{"startTime":1243.23,"endTime":1247.133,"body":"Worthy gave it to the nation."},{"startTime":1248.0,"endTime":1251.626,"body":"Stonehenge was now permanently protected,"},{"startTime":1251.626,"endTime":1253.07,"body":"or to put it another way,"},{"startTime":1253.07,"endTime":1256.103,"body":"any damage done was"},{"startTime":1253.07,"endTime":1256.103,"body":"authorized by the government."},{"startTime":1259.22,"endTime":1262.76,"body":"A larger conservation program"},{"startTime":1259.22,"endTime":1262.76,"body":"began accompanied by further"},{"startTime":1262.76,"endTime":1266.69,"body":"excavations, which continued until 1926."},{"startTime":1266.69,"endTime":1268.553,"body":"Directed by William Hawley,"},{"startTime":1269.57,"endTime":1272.63,"body":"who's the chap on the"},{"startTime":1269.57,"endTime":1272.63,"body":"right with the mustache"},{"startTime":1272.63,"endTime":1275.78,"body":"who'd served with the royal"},{"startTime":1272.63,"endTime":1275.78,"body":"engineers in South Africa,"},{"startTime":1275.78,"endTime":1279.272,"body":"these revealed most of what we know today"},{"startTime":1279.272,"endTime":1282.23,"body":"as well as insights into"},{"startTime":1279.272,"endTime":1282.23,"body":"what lies underground."},{"startTime":1282.23,"endTime":1285.413,"body":"There were a couple of significant"},{"startTime":1282.23,"endTime":1285.413,"body":"spinoffs from this work."},{"startTime":1287.6,"endTime":1289.73,"body":"The stones of Stonehenge"},{"startTime":1287.6,"endTime":1289.73,"body":"had long been divided"},{"startTime":1289.73,"endTime":1291.35,"body":"into two types."},{"startTime":1291.35,"endTime":1294.95,"body":"The bigger sassons, a local sandstone"},{"startTime":1294.95,"endTime":1297.77,"body":"and the other small megaliths made from"},{"startTime":1297.77,"endTime":1300.98,"body":"a variety of foreign rocks"},{"startTime":1297.77,"endTime":1300.98,"body":"that had come to be known"},{"startTime":1300.98,"endTime":1303.68,"body":"collectively as Blue Stones."},{"startTime":1303.68,"endTime":1306.65,"body":"Suggestions as to where these"},{"startTime":1303.68,"endTime":1306.65,"body":"originated were not limited"},{"startTime":1306.65,"endTime":1309.765,"body":"to Southern Britain, an"},{"startTime":1306.65,"endTime":1309.765,"body":"extended even to Ireland,"},{"startTime":1309.765,"endTime":1312.023,"body":"Finland and Africa,"},{"startTime":1313.67,"endTime":1317.42,"body":"Hawley's team found a lot of"},{"startTime":1313.67,"endTime":1317.42,"body":"rock debris and Herbert Thomas,"},{"startTime":1317.42,"endTime":1320.153,"body":"the government's photographer,"},{"startTime":1317.42,"endTime":1320.153,"body":"had a good look at it."},{"startTime":1321.14,"endTime":1323.39,"body":"He definitively established"},{"startTime":1321.14,"endTime":1323.39,"body":"that almost all of the"},{"startTime":1323.39,"endTime":1326.84,"body":"bluestones had in fact"},{"startTime":1323.39,"endTime":1326.84,"body":"come from Pembroke shire"},{"startTime":1326.84,"endTime":1329.39,"body":"and the only way they"},{"startTime":1326.84,"endTime":1329.39,"body":"could have got to the site"},{"startTime":1329.39,"endTime":1330.953,"body":"is by people bringing them."},{"startTime":1331.91,"endTime":1335.03,"body":"This is a model the geologists had made"},{"startTime":1335.03,"endTime":1337.13,"body":"and is now in the science museum."},{"startTime":1337.13,"endTime":1340.25,"body":"Each of the stones is made"},{"startTime":1337.13,"endTime":1340.25,"body":"from rock collected at"},{"startTime":1340.25,"endTime":1342.053,"body":"the sources he identified."},{"startTime":1343.16,"endTime":1346.49,"body":"While new studies backed by"},{"startTime":1343.16,"endTime":1346.49,"body":"new science have changed almost"},{"startTime":1346.49,"endTime":1349.46,"body":"all the details of the original work,"},{"startTime":1349.46,"endTime":1354.17,"body":"Thomas's two principles"},{"startTime":1349.46,"endTime":1354.17,"body":"remain Southwest Wales"},{"startTime":1354.17,"endTime":1355.403,"body":"human transport."},{"startTime":1357.11,"endTime":1361.52,"body":"The other outcome was a"},{"startTime":1357.11,"endTime":1361.52,"body":"book published in 1924."},{"startTime":1361.52,"endTime":1363.32,"body":"It was called \"The Stones of Stonehenge\","},{"startTime":1363.32,"endTime":1365.93,"body":"and it was written by one Herbert Stone."},{"startTime":1365.93,"endTime":1367.16,"body":"There were two, funny enough,"},{"startTime":1367.16,"endTime":1369.497,"body":"there are two archeologists"},{"startTime":1367.16,"endTime":1369.497,"body":"who had quite a big impact in"},{"startTime":1369.497,"endTime":1371.805,"body":"the last century on Stonehenge"},{"startTime":1369.497,"endTime":1371.805,"body":"and both of whom had"},{"startTime":1371.805,"endTime":1374.06,"body":"surnamed Stone."},{"startTime":1374.06,"endTime":1377.39,"body":"And I often wondered if"},{"startTime":1374.06,"endTime":1377.39,"body":"only they'd lived longer"},{"startTime":1377.39,"endTime":1381.29,"body":"the three of us could have"},{"startTime":1377.39,"endTime":1381.29,"body":"written probably a often"},{"startTime":1381.29,"endTime":1382.22,"body":"referenced article,"},{"startTime":1382.22,"endTime":1386.271,"body":"but it's not talked about much these days"},{"startTime":1386.271,"endTime":1388.1,"body":"Herbert Stone's book."},{"startTime":1388.1,"endTime":1390.83,"body":"Further restoration and"},{"startTime":1388.1,"endTime":1390.83,"body":"excavation occurred later in"},{"startTime":1390.83,"endTime":1392.33,"body":"the century."},{"startTime":1392.33,"endTime":1395.9,"body":"One of the archeologists"},{"startTime":1392.33,"endTime":1395.9,"body":"involved then, Richard Atkinson,"},{"startTime":1395.9,"endTime":1398.15,"body":"wrote a bestseller which"},{"startTime":1395.9,"endTime":1398.15,"body":"gave the impression it had"},{"startTime":1398.15,"endTime":1399.893,"body":"all begun in the 1950s."},{"startTime":1400.94,"endTime":1403.79,"body":"In reality, most of his"},{"startTime":1400.94,"endTime":1403.79,"body":"data were drawn from"},{"startTime":1403.79,"endTime":1407.87,"body":"the 1920s excavations"},{"startTime":1403.79,"endTime":1407.87,"body":"and Herbert Stone's book."},{"startTime":1407.87,"endTime":1410.78,"body":"Although Richard Atkinson"},{"startTime":1407.87,"endTime":1410.78,"body":"directed excavation at Stonehenge,"},{"startTime":1410.78,"endTime":1413.93,"body":"he actually wrote the book"},{"startTime":1410.78,"endTime":1413.93,"body":"before almost all his excavations"},{"startTime":1413.93,"endTime":1414.763,"body":"had begun."},{"startTime":1415.7,"endTime":1419.6,"body":"In any way, popular culture"},{"startTime":1415.7,"endTime":1419.6,"body":"had already absorbed"},{"startTime":1419.6,"endTime":1422.24,"body":"Stone's ideas which were further backed up"},{"startTime":1422.24,"endTime":1423.74,"body":"by the official guidebook,"},{"startTime":1423.74,"endTime":1426.38,"body":"which from 1953 was written by one of"},{"startTime":1426.38,"endTime":1429.035,"body":"Hawley's excavation assistants."},{"startTime":1429.035,"endTime":1432.65,"body":"The Stonehenge most of us"},{"startTime":1429.035,"endTime":1432.65,"body":"know today is pretty much"},{"startTime":1432.65,"endTime":1434.903,"body":"a child of the 1920s."},{"startTime":1437.81,"endTime":1439.52,"body":"You probably can't see"},{"startTime":1437.81,"endTime":1439.52,"body":"it, I certainly can't,"},{"startTime":1439.52,"endTime":1441.59,"body":"but if you've got really good eyes,"},{"startTime":1441.59,"endTime":1443.09,"body":"you could see that stone two."},{"startTime":1443.09,"endTime":1445.79,"body":"Herbert Stone two was an engineer."},{"startTime":1445.79,"endTime":1448.34,"body":"In fact, he was a very"},{"startTime":1445.79,"endTime":1448.34,"body":"distinguished engineer."},{"startTime":1448.34,"endTime":1451.79,"body":"He studied math and science"},{"startTime":1448.34,"endTime":1451.79,"body":"at King's College London"},{"startTime":1451.79,"endTime":1454.4,"body":"and spent most of his"},{"startTime":1451.79,"endTime":1454.4,"body":"career working in Asia."},{"startTime":1454.4,"endTime":1456.71,"body":"First at similar in Calcutta,"},{"startTime":1456.71,"endTime":1458.96,"body":"then on the Rangoon Railway in Burma,"},{"startTime":1458.96,"endTime":1461.39,"body":"I'm using obviously names of the time,"},{"startTime":1461.39,"endTime":1466.37,"body":"and finally as chief engineer"},{"startTime":1461.39,"endTime":1466.37,"body":"of the East India Railway"},{"startTime":1466.37,"endTime":1467.513,"body":"based at Hyderabad."},{"startTime":1470.15,"endTime":1473.21,"body":"Here is a station on a line he worked on"},{"startTime":1473.21,"endTime":1476.36,"body":"and below is what is now"},{"startTime":1473.21,"endTime":1476.36,"body":"the Nerucetu railway bridge,"},{"startTime":1476.36,"endTime":1479.81,"body":"another of his schemes when"},{"startTime":1476.36,"endTime":1479.81,"body":"built the longest in India"},{"startTime":1479.81,"endTime":1482.213,"body":"and said to be the second"},{"startTime":1479.81,"endTime":1482.213,"body":"longest in the world."},{"startTime":1483.65,"endTime":1485.9,"body":"On projects like these,"},{"startTime":1485.9,"endTime":1489.41,"body":"he will have visited Stone"},{"startTime":1485.9,"endTime":1489.41,"body":"quarries and he would've heard"},{"startTime":1489.41,"endTime":1491.3,"body":"from other colonial staff in India,"},{"startTime":1491.3,"endTime":1493.19,"body":"especially in the Northeast,"},{"startTime":1493.19,"endTime":1496.91,"body":"about people who were then"},{"startTime":1493.19,"endTime":1496.91,"body":"creating megalithic monuments,"},{"startTime":1496.91,"endTime":1499.073,"body":"which could be compared to Stonehenge."},{"startTime":1500.66,"endTime":1503.81,"body":"I suspect his wife would've"},{"startTime":1500.66,"endTime":1503.81,"body":"said that after retirement,"},{"startTime":1503.81,"endTime":1506.843,"body":"Stone became obsessed with Stonehenge."},{"startTime":1508.46,"endTime":1512.033,"body":"In his book he describes"},{"startTime":1508.46,"endTime":1512.033,"body":"a quarry at Hyderabad."},{"startTime":1512.9,"endTime":1515.75,"body":"Here is granite broken"},{"startTime":1512.9,"endTime":1515.75,"body":"up with stone hammers"},{"startTime":1515.75,"endTime":1519.14,"body":"that he calls mauls and"},{"startTime":1515.75,"endTime":1519.14,"body":"that he characterizes as"},{"startTime":1519.14,"endTime":1520.433,"body":"the native system."},{"startTime":1522.41,"endTime":1525.17,"body":"Here is another view in the"},{"startTime":1522.41,"endTime":1525.17,"body":"same quarry where steel hammers"},{"startTime":1525.17,"endTime":1527.6,"body":"have been used, which one imagines many"},{"startTime":1527.6,"endTime":1530.72,"body":"seeing the photo at the time"},{"startTime":1527.6,"endTime":1530.72,"body":"would've read as British order"},{"startTime":1530.72,"endTime":1535.72,"body":"and efficiency, but on the"},{"startTime":1530.72,"endTime":1535.72,"body":"far left is a rounded boulder."},{"startTime":1537.35,"endTime":1540.113,"body":"This is a native stone mauls."},{"startTime":1541.13,"endTime":1543.68,"body":"They were used to split"},{"startTime":1541.13,"endTime":1543.68,"body":"off a layer of granite"},{"startTime":1543.68,"endTime":1545.27,"body":"for building use."},{"startTime":1545.27,"endTime":1546.86,"body":"A row of men, says Stone,"},{"startTime":1546.86,"endTime":1550.73,"body":"each holding a mauls between"},{"startTime":1546.86,"endTime":1550.73,"body":"two hands above his head stood"},{"startTime":1550.73,"endTime":1552.77,"body":"along the rock face."},{"startTime":1552.77,"endTime":1554.81,"body":"At a signal from a foreman,"},{"startTime":1554.81,"endTime":1557.72,"body":"they brought down their"},{"startTime":1554.81,"endTime":1557.72,"body":"maul simultaneously"},{"startTime":1557.72,"endTime":1559.883,"body":"and a crack would open up."},{"startTime":1561.8,"endTime":1562.633,"body":"Back in England,"},{"startTime":1562.633,"endTime":1565.52,"body":"the railway engineer found"},{"startTime":1562.633,"endTime":1565.52,"body":"that the megalith at Stonehenge"},{"startTime":1565.52,"endTime":1568.64,"body":"had also been carved with mauls."},{"startTime":1568.64,"endTime":1572.12,"body":"Many had been found in"},{"startTime":1568.64,"endTime":1572.12,"body":"the recent excavations."},{"startTime":1572.12,"endTime":1574.34,"body":"In the center are a couple from his book"},{"startTime":1574.34,"endTime":1576.95,"body":"and on the writer selection"},{"startTime":1574.34,"endTime":1576.95,"body":"in the British Museum"},{"startTime":1576.95,"endTime":1579.113,"body":"Stonehenge exhibition last year."},{"startTime":1580.85,"endTime":1585.23,"body":"Now megalith says Stone was"},{"startTime":1580.85,"endTime":1585.23,"body":"split by hammering with mauls"},{"startTime":1585.23,"endTime":1587.0,"body":"aided by setting a line of fire,"},{"startTime":1587.0,"endTime":1589.22,"body":"which will be dowsed with water."},{"startTime":1589.22,"endTime":1592.04,"body":"Such use of fire had been"},{"startTime":1589.22,"endTime":1592.04,"body":"reported to the Royal"},{"startTime":1592.04,"endTime":1595.82,"body":"Anthropological Institute"},{"startTime":1592.04,"endTime":1595.82,"body":"in London in 1871,"},{"startTime":1595.82,"endTime":1599.0,"body":"observed by a man who was an"},{"startTime":1595.82,"endTime":1599.0,"body":"aide de comp in the second"},{"startTime":1599.0,"endTime":1603.053,"body":"Anglo Burmese war and later"},{"startTime":1599.0,"endTime":1603.053,"body":"joined the survey of India."},{"startTime":1603.95,"endTime":1608.95,"body":"And here it is, a quarry scene"},{"startTime":1603.95,"endTime":1608.95,"body":"drawn by Brian Hope Taylor,"},{"startTime":1608.96,"endTime":1612.2,"body":"an archeologist who is"},{"startTime":1608.96,"endTime":1612.2,"body":"also a talented illustrator"},{"startTime":1612.2,"endTime":1615.173,"body":"for a 1960 National Geographic feature."},{"startTime":1616.49,"endTime":1619.193,"body":"Here are the mauls and the lines of fire."},{"startTime":1620.33,"endTime":1624.203,"body":"What we also see our"},{"startTime":1620.33,"endTime":1624.203,"body":"timber levers and rollers."},{"startTime":1625.25,"endTime":1626.87,"body":"The use of these have been described,"},{"startTime":1626.87,"endTime":1630.11,"body":"especially in Indonesia where"},{"startTime":1626.87,"endTime":1630.11,"body":"people have been photographed"},{"startTime":1630.11,"endTime":1632.843,"body":"moving megaliths in 1915."},{"startTime":1634.88,"endTime":1639.32,"body":"And here from Stone's book in"},{"startTime":1634.88,"endTime":1639.32,"body":"1924 is a model illustrating"},{"startTime":1639.32,"endTime":1640.31,"body":"the use of rollers."},{"startTime":1640.31,"endTime":1642.17,"body":"He made these little"},{"startTime":1640.31,"endTime":1642.17,"body":"models and took them around"},{"startTime":1642.17,"endTime":1644.63,"body":"when he gave lectures, they"},{"startTime":1642.17,"endTime":1644.63,"body":"must have been wonderful,"},{"startTime":1644.63,"endTime":1647.36,"body":"but sadly they don't"},{"startTime":1644.63,"endTime":1647.36,"body":"seem to exist anymore."},{"startTime":1647.36,"endTime":1649.853,"body":"Now he wasn't the first to show this."},{"startTime":1651.89,"endTime":1655.64,"body":"This striking scene is from"},{"startTime":1651.89,"endTime":1655.64,"body":"the romance of early British"},{"startTime":1655.64,"endTime":1660.29,"body":"Life by GF Scott Elliott,"},{"startTime":1655.64,"endTime":1660.29,"body":"a well-traveled botanist,"},{"startTime":1660.29,"endTime":1661.673,"body":"born in Calcutta."},{"startTime":1662.6,"endTime":1666.21,"body":"Published in 1909, the books a fantasy,"},{"startTime":1666.21,"endTime":1669.98,"body":"often comical in its"},{"startTime":1666.21,"endTime":1669.98,"body":"absurdism anachronisms"},{"startTime":1669.98,"endTime":1671.93,"body":"one of the things these"},{"startTime":1669.98,"endTime":1671.93,"body":"ancient British do is"},{"startTime":1671.93,"endTime":1675.263,"body":"they make wine, although it's"},{"startTime":1671.93,"endTime":1675.263,"body":"not very good apparently."},{"startTime":1676.21,"endTime":1678.11,"body":"But the Great King offers the people,"},{"startTime":1678.11,"endTime":1680.96,"body":"and I quote the privilege"},{"startTime":1678.11,"endTime":1680.96,"body":"of volunteering to help"},{"startTime":1680.96,"endTime":1682.643,"body":"in building Stonehenge."},{"startTime":1683.72,"endTime":1687.65,"body":"The work went on for years,"},{"startTime":1683.72,"endTime":1687.65,"body":"neither slave nor volunteer."},{"startTime":1687.65,"endTime":1690.2,"body":"Now here Scott Elliott"},{"startTime":1687.65,"endTime":1690.2,"body":"puts the word volunteer"},{"startTime":1690.2,"endTime":1694.283,"body":"in quotation marks, ever"},{"startTime":1690.2,"endTime":1694.283,"body":"returned to his native village."},{"startTime":1695.81,"endTime":1698.93,"body":"A stone is prized from a"},{"startTime":1695.81,"endTime":1698.93,"body":"quarry with wooden wedges"},{"startTime":1698.93,"endTime":1701.39,"body":"and dragged over giant rollers."},{"startTime":1701.39,"endTime":1705.083,"body":"They eat unleavened bread rather"},{"startTime":1701.39,"endTime":1705.083,"body":"like the chapatis of India."},{"startTime":1706.58,"endTime":1709.04,"body":"This is supposedly prehistoric Britain."},{"startTime":1709.04,"endTime":1711.83,"body":"Now the artwork is by Lancelot Speed,"},{"startTime":1711.83,"endTime":1715.047,"body":"who among other things"},{"startTime":1711.83,"endTime":1715.047,"body":"illustrated Edward Buller Litton's"},{"startTime":1715.047,"endTime":1717.167,"body":"\"The Last Days of Pompei\"."},{"startTime":1718.55,"endTime":1721.31,"body":"This is not a huge distance"},{"startTime":1718.55,"endTime":1721.31,"body":"from Alan Sorrell's vision"},{"startTime":1721.31,"endTime":1722.51,"body":"on the right,"},{"startTime":1722.51,"endTime":1727.51,"body":"drawn for a Ministry of Work's"},{"startTime":1722.51,"endTime":1727.51,"body":"guidebook in the late 1950s."},{"startTime":1728.0,"endTime":1730.28,"body":"In both we see rollers,"},{"startTime":1730.28,"endTime":1733.28,"body":"half naked men being ordered about"},{"startTime":1733.28,"endTime":1737.093,"body":"and an overall sense"},{"startTime":1733.28,"endTime":1737.093,"body":"of dark drama and fear."},{"startTime":1739.13,"endTime":1742.94,"body":"And here taking stone's idea"},{"startTime":1739.13,"endTime":1742.94,"body":"to its ultimate conclusion"},{"startTime":1742.94,"endTime":1745.82,"body":"is a full size model"},{"startTime":1742.94,"endTime":1745.82,"body":"megalith on rollers at"},{"startTime":1745.82,"endTime":1747.473,"body":"the Stonehenge Visitor Center."},{"startTime":1748.37,"endTime":1750.953,"body":"You can test your strength"},{"startTime":1748.37,"endTime":1750.953,"body":"by pulling on the rope."},{"startTime":1753.95,"endTime":1756.95,"body":"So the megaliths are"},{"startTime":1753.95,"endTime":1756.95,"body":"dressed at the quarries,"},{"startTime":1756.95,"endTime":1760.01,"body":"put on wooden rollers and pulled"},{"startTime":1756.95,"endTime":1760.01,"body":"by men on ropes until they"},{"startTime":1760.01,"endTime":1761.93,"body":"reached the building site."},{"startTime":1761.93,"endTime":1764.15,"body":"Here Herbert Stone tells"},{"startTime":1761.93,"endTime":1764.15,"body":"us they were raised"},{"startTime":1764.15,"endTime":1765.293,"body":"with sheer legs."},{"startTime":1773.63,"endTime":1778.01,"body":"And this is how that looks"},{"startTime":1773.63,"endTime":1778.01,"body":"in English Heritages 2022"},{"startTime":1778.01,"endTime":1779.333,"body":"Stonehenge guidebook."},{"startTime":1780.5,"endTime":1782.93,"body":"Quite complicated stuff,"},{"startTime":1782.93,"endTime":1785.51,"body":"but the people who built"},{"startTime":1782.93,"endTime":1785.51,"body":"Stonehenge as the 1920s"},{"startTime":1785.51,"endTime":1788.3,"body":"guy book says, were a primitive race."},{"startTime":1788.3,"endTime":1789.893,"body":"So how did they do it?"},{"startTime":1790.94,"endTime":1793.76,"body":"Herbert Stone agreed that"},{"startTime":1790.94,"endTime":1793.76,"body":"the stones were erected"},{"startTime":1793.76,"endTime":1796.4,"body":"by a primitive people,"},{"startTime":1796.4,"endTime":1800.24,"body":"but they were told what"},{"startTime":1796.4,"endTime":1800.24,"body":"to do by an expert."},{"startTime":1800.24,"endTime":1803.9,"body":"This \"architect and engineer was a man"},{"startTime":1803.9,"endTime":1805.643,"body":"of extraordinary ability."},{"startTime":1806.9,"endTime":1809.6,"body":"The words of a man who'd"},{"startTime":1806.9,"endTime":1809.6,"body":"overseen construction of India's"},{"startTime":1809.6,"endTime":1812.84,"body":"railways and was probably a foreigner,"},{"startTime":1812.84,"endTime":1814.637,"body":"a wise man from the east\"."},{"startTime":1816.08,"endTime":1818.72,"body":"So we have a bunch of ideas"},{"startTime":1816.08,"endTime":1818.72,"body":"about how to shape move"},{"startTime":1818.72,"endTime":1821.75,"body":"and erect large stones."},{"startTime":1821.75,"endTime":1824.54,"body":"All of these have been imported from Asia,"},{"startTime":1824.54,"endTime":1827.84,"body":"mostly by colonial officers"},{"startTime":1824.54,"endTime":1827.84,"body":"who had recorded local people"},{"startTime":1827.84,"endTime":1829.73,"body":"making megaliths."},{"startTime":1829.73,"endTime":1833.15,"body":"Sheerlegs alone, I think came from Stones"},{"startTime":1833.15,"endTime":1835.223,"body":"own engineering works."},{"startTime":1836.54,"endTime":1841.37,"body":"We also have a judgment about"},{"startTime":1836.54,"endTime":1841.37,"body":"the sort of people who did it."},{"startTime":1841.37,"endTime":1844.01,"body":"Native Britains were a primitive race,"},{"startTime":1844.01,"endTime":1846.35,"body":"but they pulled off the"},{"startTime":1844.01,"endTime":1846.35,"body":"extraordinary engineering"},{"startTime":1846.35,"endTime":1849.47,"body":"achievement of Stonehenge"},{"startTime":1846.35,"endTime":1849.47,"body":"because they were directed in"},{"startTime":1849.47,"endTime":1853.01,"body":"the mere manual labor,"},{"startTime":1849.47,"endTime":1853.01,"body":"not quite as slaves,"},{"startTime":1853.01,"endTime":1855.14,"body":"but neither were they volunteers"},{"startTime":1855.14,"endTime":1857.513,"body":"by a higher being from another land."},{"startTime":1858.47,"endTime":1862.97,"body":"And \"a primitive people"},{"startTime":1858.47,"endTime":1862.97,"body":"under the immediate guidance"},{"startTime":1862.97,"endTime":1865.64,"body":"and supervision of an expert\"."},{"startTime":1865.64,"endTime":1868.1,"body":"Now far-fetched as that might sound,"},{"startTime":1868.1,"endTime":1871.31,"body":"it was espoused in the"},{"startTime":1868.1,"endTime":1871.31,"body":"1950s by Richard Atkinson"},{"startTime":1871.31,"endTime":1874.97,"body":"in the guise of a priest"},{"startTime":1871.31,"endTime":1874.97,"body":"from Bronze Age Greece."},{"startTime":1874.97,"endTime":1877.46,"body":"And as such it survived"},{"startTime":1874.97,"endTime":1877.46,"body":"well into the 1970s"},{"startTime":1877.46,"endTime":1879.35,"body":"and you can still find"},{"startTime":1877.46,"endTime":1879.35,"body":"it kicking around today"},{"startTime":1879.35,"endTime":1880.403,"body":"in odd corners."},{"startTime":1881.75,"endTime":1883.883,"body":"Let's recap a bit more."},{"startTime":1885.83,"endTime":1888.38,"body":"This Stonehenge vision,"},{"startTime":1888.38,"endTime":1892.64,"body":"a civilized man abroad"},{"startTime":1888.38,"endTime":1892.64,"body":"directing primitive laborers was"},{"startTime":1892.64,"endTime":1896.57,"body":"created in the 1920s by"},{"startTime":1892.64,"endTime":1896.57,"body":"a former Imperial Indian"},{"startTime":1896.57,"endTime":1897.923,"body":"railway engineer."},{"startTime":1898.88,"endTime":1902.27,"body":"He was 22 when the first"},{"startTime":1898.88,"endTime":1902.27,"body":"edition of Lubbock's book about"},{"startTime":1902.27,"endTime":1904.763,"body":"savage minds and lives was published,"},{"startTime":1905.69,"endTime":1907.58,"body":"a book which not only compared modern"},{"startTime":1907.58,"endTime":1910.01,"body":"with prehistoric people,"},{"startTime":1910.01,"endTime":1913.34,"body":"but advocated their study as important"},{"startTime":1913.34,"endTime":1916.613,"body":"because it would make them easier to rule."},{"startTime":1918.53,"endTime":1921.68,"body":"I don't think archeologists"},{"startTime":1918.53,"endTime":1921.68,"body":"at the time or since were"},{"startTime":1921.68,"endTime":1924.83,"body":"explicitly conscious of this pedigree"},{"startTime":1924.83,"endTime":1926.72,"body":"in the way that say John"},{"startTime":1924.83,"endTime":1926.72,"body":"Lubbock would've been."},{"startTime":1926.72,"endTime":1930.26,"body":"They just thought this is"},{"startTime":1926.72,"endTime":1930.26,"body":"what happened at Stonehenge."},{"startTime":1930.26,"endTime":1932.84,"body":"They didn't think that"},{"startTime":1930.26,"endTime":1932.84,"body":"Stonehenge people were like"},{"startTime":1932.84,"endTime":1936.863,"body":"the modern subjects of"},{"startTime":1932.84,"endTime":1936.863,"body":"empire up to a point."},{"startTime":1937.76,"endTime":1940.22,"body":"They may have done it"},{"startTime":1937.76,"endTime":1940.22,"body":"with innocent intentions,"},{"startTime":1940.22,"endTime":1943.07,"body":"but archeologists throughout"},{"startTime":1940.22,"endTime":1943.07,"body":"the last century turned"},{"startTime":1943.07,"endTime":1947.213,"body":"to modern people around the"},{"startTime":1943.07,"endTime":1947.213,"body":"world as models for antiquity."},{"startTime":1948.35,"endTime":1949.97,"body":"Excuse me."},{"startTime":1949.97,"endTime":1952.64,"body":"We have round houses in Arnage Britain."},{"startTime":1952.64,"endTime":1955.61,"body":"They build round houses in"},{"startTime":1952.64,"endTime":1955.61,"body":"Kenya. Let's look at those."},{"startTime":1955.61,"endTime":1958.46,"body":"They use stonex blades"},{"startTime":1955.61,"endTime":1958.46,"body":"in Neolithic Britain."},{"startTime":1958.46,"endTime":1960.56,"body":"They use Stonex blades two in New Guinea."},{"startTime":1960.56,"endTime":1962.06,"body":"Let's look at those."},{"startTime":1962.06,"endTime":1965.48,"body":"Aura has happened on the"},{"startTime":1962.06,"endTime":1965.48,"body":"conversation in 2022."},{"startTime":1965.48,"endTime":1969.28,"body":"We want to illustrate a story"},{"startTime":1965.48,"endTime":1969.28,"body":"about the origins of speech"},{"startTime":1969.28,"endTime":1971.87,"body":"70,000 years ago."},{"startTime":1971.87,"endTime":1976.73,"body":"Let's use modern photos of"},{"startTime":1971.87,"endTime":1976.73,"body":"quote the indigenous San people"},{"startTime":1976.73,"endTime":1978.143,"body":"in the Kalahari desert."},{"startTime":1979.76,"endTime":1983.72,"body":"Brian Om, a distinguished"},{"startTime":1979.76,"endTime":1983.72,"body":"archeologist now retired,"},{"startTime":1983.72,"endTime":1985.19,"body":"wrote a book for her colleagues"},{"startTime":1985.19,"endTime":1987.653,"body":"about ethnographic parallels."},{"startTime":1988.91,"endTime":1991.88,"body":"Published in 1981 defines anthropology as"},{"startTime":1991.88,"endTime":1994.79,"body":"the study of primitive societies."},{"startTime":1994.79,"endTime":1997.67,"body":"Unconscious, I think."},{"startTime":1997.67,"endTime":2000.91,"body":"But both antiquity and"},{"startTime":1997.67,"endTime":2000.91,"body":"modernity are being judged."},{"startTime":2000.91,"endTime":2003.43,"body":"They are deficient."},{"startTime":2003.43,"endTime":2006.88,"body":"Just as the image of ancient"},{"startTime":2003.43,"endTime":2006.88,"body":"stone hinge is informed by"},{"startTime":2006.88,"endTime":2011.86,"body":"modern peoples that comparison"},{"startTime":2006.88,"endTime":2011.86,"body":"judges modern peoples."},{"startTime":2011.86,"endTime":2013.723,"body":"It works both ways."},{"startTime":2014.98,"endTime":2017.62,"body":"One person who made no bones"},{"startTime":2014.98,"endTime":2017.62,"body":"at all about the primitive"},{"startTime":2017.62,"endTime":2021.01,"body":"nature of the prehistoric"},{"startTime":2017.62,"endTime":2021.01,"body":"world was a popular writer on"},{"startTime":2021.01,"endTime":2023.923,"body":"stone circles, the late Aubrey Burl."},{"startTime":2025.03,"endTime":2028.46,"body":"In a 1987 book, he"},{"startTime":2025.03,"endTime":2028.46,"body":"compared Stonehenge people"},{"startTime":2030.377,"endTime":2034.48,"body":"\"short-lived, superstitious,"},{"startTime":2030.377,"endTime":2034.48,"body":"sun worshipers"},{"startTime":2034.48,"endTime":2037.33,"body":"who lived in dirty hobbles in a dark land"},{"startTime":2037.33,"endTime":2040.753,"body":"and feared death but feared the dead more\""},{"startTime":2041.62,"endTime":2045.757,"body":"to \"19th century Zulu in southern Africa\"."},{"startTime":2047.38,"endTime":2050.35,"body":"I'd like to say I made"},{"startTime":2047.38,"endTime":2050.35,"body":"that out, but I didn't."},{"startTime":2050.35,"endTime":2051.55,"body":"And here's the rub."},{"startTime":2051.55,"endTime":2054.7,"body":"When it came to Stonehenge,"},{"startTime":2051.55,"endTime":2054.7,"body":"Herbert Stone got"},{"startTime":2054.7,"endTime":2056.743,"body":"almost everything wrong."},{"startTime":2057.79,"endTime":2059.17,"body":"For a variety of reasons,"},{"startTime":2059.17,"endTime":2062.17,"body":"none of his proposals now"},{"startTime":2059.17,"endTime":2062.17,"body":"enshrined in modern Stonehenge"},{"startTime":2062.17,"endTime":2064.66,"body":"mythology could have worked."},{"startTime":2064.66,"endTime":2068.53,"body":"Now all this might seem like"},{"startTime":2064.66,"endTime":2068.53,"body":"nitpicking, but bear with me,"},{"startTime":2068.53,"endTime":2069.63,"body":"we're going somewhere."},{"startTime":2070.93,"endTime":2075.13,"body":"Fire would not have worked on"},{"startTime":2070.93,"endTime":2075.13,"body":"the Stonehenge types of rock"},{"startTime":2075.13,"endTime":2077.743,"body":"and there is no evidence"},{"startTime":2075.13,"endTime":2077.743,"body":"for its use in this way."},{"startTime":2079.48,"endTime":2082.75,"body":"The roller idea had long been"},{"startTime":2079.48,"endTime":2082.75,"body":"supported by ethnographic"},{"startTime":2082.75,"endTime":2086.713,"body":"records in Indonesia, but this"},{"startTime":2082.75,"endTime":2086.713,"body":"was based on a misreading."},{"startTime":2087.7,"endTime":2092.7,"body":"In this photo on the left,"},{"startTime":2087.7,"endTime":2092.7,"body":"taken around 1915 in Sinatra,"},{"startTime":2092.86,"endTime":2095.11,"body":"the stone is not being pulled over rollers"},{"startTime":2095.11,"endTime":2096.97,"body":"as everybody said it was,"},{"startTime":2096.97,"endTime":2101.97,"body":"but along a fixed track and the"},{"startTime":2096.97,"endTime":2101.97,"body":"poles are pegged into place."},{"startTime":2102.28,"endTime":2104.2,"body":"And despite best intentions,"},{"startTime":2104.2,"endTime":2106.63,"body":"experiments which are really quite common"},{"startTime":2106.63,"endTime":2110.383,"body":"always show rollers to be a"},{"startTime":2106.63,"endTime":2110.383,"body":"barely controllable liability."},{"startTime":2112.72,"endTime":2115.51,"body":"And as for sheerlegs, as for sheerlegs,"},{"startTime":2115.51,"endTime":2117.85,"body":"much loved by experimenters,"},{"startTime":2117.85,"endTime":2120.463,"body":"they would've been"},{"startTime":2117.85,"endTime":2120.463,"body":"impossible at Stonehenge."},{"startTime":2121.3,"endTime":2123.1,"body":"There just wasn't room."},{"startTime":2123.1,"endTime":2126.28,"body":"It might have worked for one"},{"startTime":2123.1,"endTime":2126.28,"body":"or two stones in a field,"},{"startTime":2126.28,"endTime":2129.673,"body":"but not in the confined"},{"startTime":2126.28,"endTime":2129.673,"body":"spaces of a building site."},{"startTime":2130.6,"endTime":2132.79,"body":"You'd have to do the sort"},{"startTime":2130.6,"endTime":2132.79,"body":"of things the illustrator"},{"startTime":2132.79,"endTime":2134.77,"body":"John Civic does here."},{"startTime":2134.77,"endTime":2136.45,"body":"Now I'm not blaming John Civic for this."},{"startTime":2136.45,"endTime":2139.36,"body":"He will would've been doing"},{"startTime":2136.45,"endTime":2139.36,"body":"what he was told to do"},{"startTime":2139.36,"endTime":2141.31,"body":"to suit what an"},{"startTime":2139.36,"endTime":2141.31,"body":"archeologist had written for"},{"startTime":2141.31,"endTime":2143.17,"body":"a magazine feature."},{"startTime":2143.17,"endTime":2146.47,"body":"But what he does is he"},{"startTime":2143.17,"endTime":2146.47,"body":"moves the tall triathlons,"},{"startTime":2146.47,"endTime":2149.89,"body":"which are on the far right."},{"startTime":2149.89,"endTime":2152.44,"body":"There's two uprights with"},{"startTime":2149.89,"endTime":2152.44,"body":"a single stone over the top"},{"startTime":2152.44,"endTime":2154.3,"body":"to slightly taller than the rest of them."},{"startTime":2154.3,"endTime":2158.2,"body":"He moves them so far out that"},{"startTime":2154.3,"endTime":2158.2,"body":"they touch the stone circle."},{"startTime":2158.2,"endTime":2160.453,"body":"He shrinks the workforce literally."},{"startTime":2161.995,"endTime":2163.57,"body":"And as you still don't"},{"startTime":2161.995,"endTime":2163.57,"body":"have the distance to get"},{"startTime":2163.57,"endTime":2166.543,"body":"the leverage, you push the"},{"startTime":2163.57,"endTime":2166.543,"body":"stone up from the back."},{"startTime":2169.12,"endTime":2171.82,"body":"Just one more. I'd love these."},{"startTime":2171.82,"endTime":2175.84,"body":"These fabulous scenes are"},{"startTime":2171.82,"endTime":2175.84,"body":"from a 1961 Lady bird book"},{"startTime":2175.84,"endTime":2179.92,"body":"drawn by John Kenny splitting described"},{"startTime":2179.92,"endTime":2180.94,"body":"at one Indian quarry,"},{"startTime":2180.94,"endTime":2184.39,"body":"but geologically inappropriate in the UK,"},{"startTime":2184.39,"endTime":2186.343,"body":"rolling and ramping."},{"startTime":2187.21,"endTime":2190.3,"body":"Earth ramping was another thing"},{"startTime":2187.21,"endTime":2190.3,"body":"that Herbert Stone picked up"},{"startTime":2190.3,"endTime":2191.32,"body":"from India."},{"startTime":2191.32,"endTime":2194.23,"body":"He proposed it as a way to"},{"startTime":2191.32,"endTime":2194.23,"body":"raise the horizontal lentils"},{"startTime":2194.23,"endTime":2195.343,"body":"at Stonehenge."},{"startTime":2196.54,"endTime":2198.1,"body":"If it had been used at Stonehenge,"},{"startTime":2198.1,"endTime":2200.23,"body":"there will be physical evidence."},{"startTime":2200.23,"endTime":2201.973,"body":"Sadly, there is none."},{"startTime":2203.47,"endTime":2206.5,"body":"Now I puzzled over these"},{"startTime":2203.47,"endTime":2206.5,"body":"illustrations for some time,"},{"startTime":2206.5,"endTime":2210.34,"body":"Lady Bird books often go"},{"startTime":2206.5,"endTime":2210.34,"body":"awol with pre-history."},{"startTime":2210.34,"endTime":2213.67,"body":"But where did the inspiration"},{"startTime":2210.34,"endTime":2213.67,"body":"for these illustrations"},{"startTime":2213.67,"endTime":2214.503,"body":"come from?"},{"startTime":2214.503,"endTime":2215.336,"body":"They are so vivid."},{"startTime":2215.336,"endTime":2218.27,"body":"I thought he hasn't just made"},{"startTime":2215.336,"endTime":2218.27,"body":"these up and then I found it."},{"startTime":2220.93,"endTime":2225.93,"body":"Raper Nui, the photo is from"},{"startTime":2220.93,"endTime":2225.93,"body":"Toge Doll's bestselling book"},{"startTime":2226.0,"endTime":2228.73,"body":"about East Land and published in 1958,"},{"startTime":2228.73,"endTime":2231.31,"body":"so just a couple of years"},{"startTime":2228.73,"endTime":2231.31,"body":"before the Lady Bird book"},{"startTime":2231.31,"endTime":2236.31,"body":"came out, obviously"},{"startTime":2231.31,"endTime":2236.31,"body":"based on the photograph."},{"startTime":2236.83,"endTime":2239.5,"body":"Now in fact it's only something like this"},{"startTime":2239.5,"endTime":2241.42,"body":"that would've been"},{"startTime":2239.5,"endTime":2241.42,"body":"possible at a Stonehenge."},{"startTime":2241.42,"endTime":2244.75,"body":"By sheer accident this illustrator"},{"startTime":2241.42,"endTime":2244.75,"body":"had hit on more or less"},{"startTime":2244.75,"endTime":2245.92,"body":"the right thing."},{"startTime":2245.92,"endTime":2249.25,"body":"Now we don't have the"},{"startTime":2245.92,"endTime":2249.25,"body":"evidence for earth and ranch,"},{"startTime":2249.25,"endTime":2252.7,"body":"but the same effect could have"},{"startTime":2249.25,"endTime":2252.7,"body":"been achieved with timber."},{"startTime":2252.7,"endTime":2257.44,"body":"And we do know that people"},{"startTime":2252.7,"endTime":2257.44,"body":"then were in the habit of using"},{"startTime":2257.44,"endTime":2260.593,"body":"and working very large timbers with skill."},{"startTime":2261.67,"endTime":2263.29,"body":"Now you might be thinking neolithic people"},{"startTime":2263.29,"endTime":2264.52,"body":"got the stones up."},{"startTime":2264.52,"endTime":2265.69,"body":"These are just details."},{"startTime":2265.69,"endTime":2267.853,"body":"But there is a bigger point."},{"startTime":2269.05,"endTime":2273.16,"body":"The ideas that came from"},{"startTime":2269.05,"endTime":2273.16,"body":"observations in Asia weren't really"},{"startTime":2273.16,"endTime":2274.78,"body":"thought through."},{"startTime":2274.78,"endTime":2278.47,"body":"Stone and other archeologists"},{"startTime":2274.78,"endTime":2278.47,"body":"didn't look carefully enough"},{"startTime":2278.47,"endTime":2280.1,"body":"at what was being done in India"},{"startTime":2281.23,"endTime":2283.399,"body":"neither did they think"},{"startTime":2281.23,"endTime":2283.399,"body":"they had to get close to"},{"startTime":2283.399,"endTime":2288.399,"body":"the stones at Stonehenge to"},{"startTime":2283.399,"endTime":2288.399,"body":"understand their materials,"},{"startTime":2288.67,"endTime":2292.33,"body":"to scrutinize the evidence"},{"startTime":2288.67,"endTime":2292.33,"body":"for how they'd been dressed"},{"startTime":2292.33,"endTime":2294.73,"body":"and to imagine not just one"},{"startTime":2292.33,"endTime":2294.73,"body":"stone being pushed about"},{"startTime":2294.73,"endTime":2297.49,"body":"but an entire complicated monument."},{"startTime":2297.49,"endTime":2300.283,"body":"All of that came only this century."},{"startTime":2302.59,"endTime":2306.16,"body":"We now know where at least"},{"startTime":2302.59,"endTime":2306.16,"body":"some of the large stones"},{"startTime":2306.16,"endTime":2307.27,"body":"came from."},{"startTime":2307.27,"endTime":2310.27,"body":"This is West Woods, 20"},{"startTime":2307.27,"endTime":2310.27,"body":"miles north of Stonehenge"},{"startTime":2310.27,"endTime":2312.85,"body":"high on the Morba downs."},{"startTime":2312.85,"endTime":2315.28,"body":"This gives us the chance"},{"startTime":2312.85,"endTime":2315.28,"body":"to look for quarries."},{"startTime":2315.28,"endTime":2317.29,"body":"We have much to learn."},{"startTime":2317.29,"endTime":2319.6,"body":"It means we can map the"},{"startTime":2317.29,"endTime":2319.6,"body":"journey the stones took"},{"startTime":2319.6,"endTime":2321.253,"body":"knowing each end point."},{"startTime":2323.35,"endTime":2325.87,"body":"This shows a wooden"},{"startTime":2323.35,"endTime":2325.87,"body":"track early last century"},{"startTime":2325.87,"endTime":2329.923,"body":"made for dragging large timbers"},{"startTime":2325.87,"endTime":2329.923,"body":"out of forest in Malaysia."},{"startTime":2331.09,"endTime":2334.12,"body":"In northeast India, people"},{"startTime":2331.09,"endTime":2334.12,"body":"used to carry small megaliths"},{"startTime":2334.12,"endTime":2335.83,"body":"in wooden frames."},{"startTime":2335.83,"endTime":2339.313,"body":"These are both viable"},{"startTime":2335.83,"endTime":2339.313,"body":"techniques in Neolithic Britain."},{"startTime":2340.15,"endTime":2344.83,"body":"I can't imagine how you could"},{"startTime":2340.15,"endTime":2344.83,"body":"get 75 sassans to the site"},{"startTime":2344.83,"endTime":2347.5,"body":"from more or less the same location"},{"startTime":2347.5,"endTime":2350.98,"body":"averaging 20 tons in many"},{"startTime":2347.5,"endTime":2350.98,"body":"weighing more than 30"},{"startTime":2350.98,"endTime":2355.98,"body":"and tied to a 10 ton sledge"},{"startTime":2350.98,"endTime":2355.98,"body":"without a fixed track."},{"startTime":2355.99,"endTime":2358.87,"body":"And we do know that people were"},{"startTime":2355.99,"endTime":2358.87,"body":"laying wooden tracks at more"},{"startTime":2358.87,"endTime":2361.363,"body":"or less this time elsewhere in Britain."},{"startTime":2363.22,"endTime":2366.16,"body":"Study of the megalith"},{"startTime":2363.22,"endTime":2366.16,"body":"surfaces at Stonehenge"},{"startTime":2366.16,"endTime":2368.47,"body":"just revealed them to be"},{"startTime":2366.16,"endTime":2368.47,"body":"far more heavily shaped"},{"startTime":2368.47,"endTime":2370.42,"body":"than we had realized."},{"startTime":2370.42,"endTime":2373.33,"body":"And people didn't just"},{"startTime":2370.42,"endTime":2373.33,"body":"bash with large mauls,"},{"startTime":2373.33,"endTime":2376.27,"body":"they used tools of varying"},{"startTime":2373.33,"endTime":2376.27,"body":"sizes in a sequence"},{"startTime":2376.27,"endTime":2378.79,"body":"of ever finer dressing,"},{"startTime":2378.79,"endTime":2381.823,"body":"grinding and smoothing were"},{"startTime":2378.79,"endTime":2381.823,"body":"as important as hitting."},{"startTime":2383.08,"endTime":2385.93,"body":"The evidence was always there."},{"startTime":2385.93,"endTime":2388.06,"body":"It was just that like Lubbock,"},{"startTime":2388.06,"endTime":2391.09,"body":"Herbert Stone had a mindset"},{"startTime":2388.06,"endTime":2391.09,"body":"that encouraged him to think"},{"startTime":2391.09,"endTime":2394.27,"body":"that he, the engineer was the boss."},{"startTime":2394.27,"endTime":2396.85,"body":"Everyone else was a laborer."},{"startTime":2396.85,"endTime":2400.78,"body":"Primitive hands in need of"},{"startTime":2396.85,"endTime":2400.78,"body":"instruction to understand"},{"startTime":2400.78,"endTime":2403.99,"body":"the simple technology you needed"},{"startTime":2400.78,"endTime":2403.99,"body":"to do no more than give it"},{"startTime":2403.99,"endTime":2405.64,"body":"a quick glance."},{"startTime":2405.64,"endTime":2409.75,"body":"It didn't occur to anyone that"},{"startTime":2405.64,"endTime":2409.75,"body":"superstitious sun worshipers"},{"startTime":2409.75,"endTime":2413.713,"body":"might be able to do things"},{"startTime":2409.75,"endTime":2413.713,"body":"the archeologists could not."},{"startTime":2415.03,"endTime":2418.15,"body":"And the final irony is if"},{"startTime":2415.03,"endTime":2418.15,"body":"they'd looked more closely in"},{"startTime":2418.15,"endTime":2420.223,"body":"India, they might have got it right."},{"startTime":2421.93,"endTime":2425.35,"body":"When Herbert Stone in retirement"},{"startTime":2421.93,"endTime":2425.35,"body":"was defining a Stonehenge"},{"startTime":2425.35,"endTime":2427.06,"body":"for the 20th century,"},{"startTime":2427.06,"endTime":2430.933,"body":"social and cultural"},{"startTime":2427.06,"endTime":2430.933,"body":"anthropology were taking shape."},{"startTime":2430.933,"endTime":2433.18,"body":"Bronislav Malinovskin Britain and France,"},{"startTime":2433.18,"endTime":2437.86,"body":"Boas in North America were"},{"startTime":2433.18,"endTime":2437.86,"body":"promoting the idea that peoples"},{"startTime":2437.86,"endTime":2442.86,"body":"or cultures could only be"},{"startTime":2437.86,"endTime":2442.86,"body":"understood on their own terms."},{"startTime":2442.87,"endTime":2444.46,"body":"They could not be judged."},{"startTime":2444.46,"endTime":2447.31,"body":"There was no point and it was meaningless"},{"startTime":2447.31,"endTime":2450.64,"body":"and it led to misunderstandings."},{"startTime":2450.64,"endTime":2453.64,"body":"Partly they were reacting"},{"startTime":2450.64,"endTime":2453.64,"body":"against that very dismissal of"},{"startTime":2453.64,"endTime":2455.59,"body":"other people's as savages."},{"startTime":2455.59,"endTime":2458.62,"body":"The living counterpart, the"},{"startTime":2455.59,"endTime":2458.62,"body":"archeologist, primitives,"},{"startTime":2458.62,"endTime":2461.113,"body":"Lubbock's lower races of man."},{"startTime":2462.34,"endTime":2466.18,"body":"Now archeology two was"},{"startTime":2462.34,"endTime":2466.18,"body":"taking shape at this time,"},{"startTime":2466.18,"endTime":2469.21,"body":"but here emphasis was self-consciously"},{"startTime":2469.21,"endTime":2473.11,"body":"on the new sciences of"},{"startTime":2469.21,"endTime":2473.11,"body":"excavation and artifact study."},{"startTime":2473.11,"endTime":2476.17,"body":"Archeology had something to"},{"startTime":2473.11,"endTime":2476.17,"body":"prove that it was a proper field"},{"startTime":2476.17,"endTime":2479.593,"body":"of study and it did that"},{"startTime":2476.17,"endTime":2479.593,"body":"by focusing on digging."},{"startTime":2480.58,"endTime":2483.52,"body":"The earlier reliance on"},{"startTime":2480.58,"endTime":2483.52,"body":"knowledge of other peoples"},{"startTime":2483.52,"endTime":2485.023,"body":"rapidly fell away."},{"startTime":2485.86,"endTime":2489.01,"body":"As a result, Stonehenge"},{"startTime":2485.86,"endTime":2489.01,"body":"archeologists missed"},{"startTime":2489.01,"endTime":2491.35,"body":"what was going on in anthropology"},{"startTime":2491.35,"endTime":2493.66,"body":"and more immediately in India."},{"startTime":2493.66,"endTime":2498.66,"body":"Some people there continued"},{"startTime":2493.66,"endTime":2498.66,"body":"to move and raise large stones"},{"startTime":2499.3,"endTime":2501.34,"body":"and some of the new"},{"startTime":2499.3,"endTime":2501.34,"body":"observers recorded them,"},{"startTime":2501.34,"endTime":2503.323,"body":"in particular, John Hutton."},{"startTime":2504.55,"endTime":2508.51,"body":"Hutton joined the Indian"},{"startTime":2504.55,"endTime":2508.51,"body":"Civil Service in 1909."},{"startTime":2508.51,"endTime":2511.48,"body":"He later became commissioner"},{"startTime":2508.51,"endTime":2511.48,"body":"for the Census of India,"},{"startTime":2511.48,"endTime":2515.92,"body":"encouraging officials \"to"},{"startTime":2511.48,"endTime":2515.92,"body":"produce descriptive accounts"},{"startTime":2515.92,"endTime":2517.87,"body":"of the tribes and backward communities"},{"startTime":2517.87,"endTime":2519.42,"body":"with which they were familiar\"."},{"startTime":2520.75,"endTime":2524.59,"body":"He resigned in 1936 to become"},{"startTime":2520.75,"endTime":2524.59,"body":"professor of anthropology"},{"startTime":2524.59,"endTime":2526.36,"body":"at the University of Cambridge."},{"startTime":2526.36,"endTime":2530.02,"body":"But by then he'd been able to"},{"startTime":2526.36,"endTime":2530.02,"body":"conduct substantial field work"},{"startTime":2530.02,"endTime":2533.95,"body":"among people living in the"},{"startTime":2530.02,"endTime":2533.95,"body":"Naga Hills in the northeast."},{"startTime":2533.95,"endTime":2538.063,"body":"Here he recorded megaliths"},{"startTime":2533.95,"endTime":2538.063,"body":"being created in vivid detail."},{"startTime":2539.62,"endTime":2544.33,"body":"What's striking is how much"},{"startTime":2539.62,"endTime":2544.33,"body":"what he observed seems relevant"},{"startTime":2544.33,"endTime":2547.39,"body":"Stonehenge as he himself recognized."},{"startTime":2547.39,"endTime":2548.8,"body":"And I'll mention just one thing,"},{"startTime":2548.8,"endTime":2550.873,"body":"how stones were raised upright."},{"startTime":2552.22,"endTime":2554.65,"body":"Hutton saw no sheerlegs."},{"startTime":2554.65,"endTime":2558.28,"body":"Instead he described how"},{"startTime":2554.65,"endTime":2558.28,"body":"people gathered around a stone"},{"startTime":2558.28,"endTime":2562.18,"body":"and by pushing and pulling"},{"startTime":2558.28,"endTime":2562.18,"body":"wedging and levering with poles"},{"startTime":2562.18,"endTime":2565.453,"body":"and a bit of rope, they"},{"startTime":2562.18,"endTime":2565.453,"body":"just warred it into place,"},{"startTime":2567.01,"endTime":2570.94,"body":"which is pretty much what"},{"startTime":2567.01,"endTime":2570.94,"body":"we see here on the left."},{"startTime":2570.94,"endTime":2573.22,"body":"On Rappa Nui, says Heldo,"},{"startTime":2573.22,"endTime":2576.22,"body":"it took 18 days to get"},{"startTime":2573.22,"endTime":2576.22,"body":"a small statue upright"},{"startTime":2576.22,"endTime":2577.9,"body":"from horizontal."},{"startTime":2577.9,"endTime":2582.4,"body":"Hour by hour, it was barely"},{"startTime":2577.9,"endTime":2582.4,"body":"possible to see anything move."},{"startTime":2582.4,"endTime":2584.623,"body":"It was a very gentle human affair."},{"startTime":2585.97,"endTime":2590.5,"body":"And Stonehenge nudging stones"},{"startTime":2585.97,"endTime":2590.5,"body":"up with timber frames, levers,"},{"startTime":2590.5,"endTime":2594.763,"body":"and short ropes has to be"},{"startTime":2590.5,"endTime":2594.763,"body":"the only realistic option."},{"startTime":2595.78,"endTime":2599.5,"body":"We get the megaliths upright"},{"startTime":2595.78,"endTime":2599.5,"body":"with timbers and are seen here"},{"startTime":2599.5,"endTime":2603.94,"body":"on the right in West Sumber,"},{"startTime":2599.5,"endTime":2603.94,"body":"another island in Indonesia,"},{"startTime":2603.94,"endTime":2608.94,"body":"we use timbers to lift"},{"startTime":2603.94,"endTime":2608.94,"body":"the lentils and people."},{"startTime":2609.22,"endTime":2612.37,"body":"Because labor is not a costly resourced"},{"startTime":2612.37,"endTime":2614.56,"body":"to be managed and minimized"},{"startTime":2614.56,"endTime":2617.8,"body":"but the social engagement of"},{"startTime":2614.56,"endTime":2617.8,"body":"entire communities who actually"},{"startTime":2617.8,"endTime":2619.48,"body":"want to be part of the project,"},{"startTime":2619.48,"endTime":2621.58,"body":"whether or not they're need it."},{"startTime":2621.58,"endTime":2624.52,"body":"Because Stonehenge bonkers as it is,"},{"startTime":2624.52,"endTime":2628.78,"body":"an undeniably and architectural"},{"startTime":2624.52,"endTime":2628.78,"body":"and engineering challenge"},{"startTime":2628.78,"endTime":2632.62,"body":"is more than anything about"},{"startTime":2628.78,"endTime":2632.62,"body":"people, politics, religion,"},{"startTime":2632.62,"endTime":2635.11,"body":"sharing and being seen."},{"startTime":2635.11,"endTime":2636.463,"body":"The more the better."},{"startTime":2639.22,"endTime":2641.8,"body":"Contrast that with sheerlegs."},{"startTime":2641.8,"endTime":2646.36,"body":"This is a scene during filming"},{"startTime":2641.8,"endTime":2646.36,"body":"for a BBC broadcast in 1994."},{"startTime":2648.25,"endTime":2651.7,"body":"First a stone is rocked"},{"startTime":2648.25,"endTime":2651.7,"body":"into a pit with the help of"},{"startTime":2651.7,"endTime":2652.753,"body":"a large weight."},{"startTime":2654.13,"endTime":2656.86,"body":"Then it just pulled"},{"startTime":2654.13,"endTime":2656.86,"body":"vertical with giant poles"},{"startTime":2656.86,"endTime":2658.153,"body":"and long ropes."},{"startTime":2659.02,"endTime":2661.36,"body":"This project is the inspiration behind"},{"startTime":2661.36,"endTime":2664.63,"body":"the English heritage"},{"startTime":2661.36,"endTime":2664.63,"body":"guidebook illustration."},{"startTime":2664.63,"endTime":2665.89,"body":"Once everything's in place,"},{"startTime":2665.89,"endTime":2669.16,"body":"the actual erection is over"},{"startTime":2665.89,"endTime":2669.16,"body":"in a matter of minutes."},{"startTime":2669.16,"endTime":2673.693,"body":"It happens fast with an an"},{"startTime":2669.16,"endTime":2673.693,"body":"element of genuine danger."},{"startTime":2674.98,"endTime":2677.8,"body":"Now I've already pointed out"},{"startTime":2674.98,"endTime":2677.8,"body":"that you couldn't do this"},{"startTime":2677.8,"endTime":2679.67,"body":"at Stonehenge because there's no room"},{"startTime":2680.662,"endTime":2682.212,"body":"and too many stones in the way."},{"startTime":2683.23,"endTime":2685.45,"body":"But what I want to draw"},{"startTime":2683.23,"endTime":2685.45,"body":"your attention to here is"},{"startTime":2685.45,"endTime":2688.9,"body":"the distance between the"},{"startTime":2685.45,"endTime":2688.9,"body":"stone and the people moving it"},{"startTime":2688.9,"endTime":2693.9,"body":"somewhere far out of frame are"},{"startTime":2688.9,"endTime":2693.9,"body":"gangs pulling on the ropes."},{"startTime":2695.56,"endTime":2698.77,"body":"Contrast this with the Rapa Nui scene"},{"startTime":2698.77,"endTime":2701.65,"body":"where people are close to the statue."},{"startTime":2701.65,"endTime":2704.14,"body":"Here there is an intimate"},{"startTime":2701.65,"endTime":2704.14,"body":"affair between laborers"},{"startTime":2704.14,"endTime":2706.453,"body":"and stone drawn out over half a month."},{"startTime":2707.8,"endTime":2711.43,"body":"There were close to the stone"},{"startTime":2707.8,"endTime":2711.43,"body":"in Hutton's description too."},{"startTime":2711.43,"endTime":2714.43,"body":"In all he writes about megaliths in India,"},{"startTime":2714.43,"endTime":2717.7,"body":"creating them is not"},{"startTime":2714.43,"endTime":2717.7,"body":"just about engineering."},{"startTime":2717.7,"endTime":2720.76,"body":"There's an understanding"},{"startTime":2717.7,"endTime":2720.76,"body":"between people and stone,"},{"startTime":2720.76,"endTime":2723.283,"body":"a slow careful respect."},{"startTime":2724.39,"endTime":2725.53,"body":"In one of his articles,"},{"startTime":2725.53,"endTime":2729.37,"body":"Hutton described people"},{"startTime":2725.53,"endTime":2729.37,"body":"erecting wooden memorial posts."},{"startTime":2729.37,"endTime":2733.36,"body":"In 15 pages, only two are"},{"startTime":2729.37,"endTime":2733.36,"body":"actually about carving"},{"startTime":2733.36,"endTime":2735.28,"body":"and raising posts."},{"startTime":2735.28,"endTime":2738.46,"body":"The rest is about ceremonies, symbolism,"},{"startTime":2738.46,"endTime":2742.333,"body":"ritual preparations, drinking"},{"startTime":2738.46,"endTime":2742.333,"body":"and sacrificing animals."},{"startTime":2743.472,"endTime":2748.09,"body":"This is not, of course, just"},{"startTime":2743.472,"endTime":2748.09,"body":"about a few people in India."},{"startTime":2748.09,"endTime":2751.45,"body":"Any construction of a ceremonial"},{"startTime":2748.09,"endTime":2751.45,"body":"or religious monument where"},{"startTime":2751.45,"endTime":2755.053,"body":"we have information is"},{"startTime":2751.45,"endTime":2755.053,"body":"a huge social event."},{"startTime":2756.28,"endTime":2759.22,"body":"We're seeing here, I think"},{"startTime":2756.28,"endTime":2759.22,"body":"one of those universals"},{"startTime":2759.22,"endTime":2761.32,"body":"that as archeologists we can bring in"},{"startTime":2761.32,"endTime":2764.68,"body":"as a working hypothesis"},{"startTime":2761.32,"endTime":2764.68,"body":"that entirely changes"},{"startTime":2764.68,"endTime":2767.443,"body":"the way we think about"},{"startTime":2764.68,"endTime":2767.443,"body":"how Stonehenge was built."},{"startTime":2768.52,"endTime":2770.563,"body":"It's about people, stupid."},{"startTime":2773.2,"endTime":2776.95,"body":"Another man who looked at living"},{"startTime":2773.2,"endTime":2776.95,"body":"peoples in the 19th century"},{"startTime":2776.95,"endTime":2780.22,"body":"and through them thought he"},{"startTime":2776.95,"endTime":2780.22,"body":"could see prehistoric times"},{"startTime":2780.22,"endTime":2781.633,"body":"was Edward Tyler."},{"startTime":2782.86,"endTime":2786.077,"body":"Inspired by John Lubbock, he"},{"startTime":2782.86,"endTime":2786.077,"body":"wrote an influential book,"},{"startTime":2786.077,"endTime":2790.633,"body":"\"Primitive Culture\""},{"startTime":2786.077,"endTime":2790.633,"body":"first published in 1871."},{"startTime":2791.98,"endTime":2794.86,"body":"Searching through, and"},{"startTime":2791.98,"endTime":2794.86,"body":"there's lots of quotes here,"},{"startTime":2794.86,"endTime":2798.25,"body":"records of the low races of mankind,"},{"startTime":2798.25,"endTime":2803.17,"body":"he contrasts lower tribes"},{"startTime":2798.25,"endTime":2803.17,"body":"and higher nations."},{"startTime":2803.17,"endTime":2806.453,"body":"He identifies progress and degradation"},{"startTime":2806.453,"endTime":2808.393,"body":"and he comes up with a scheme."},{"startTime":2809.44,"endTime":2814.36,"body":"Primitive culture steadily gets"},{"startTime":2809.44,"endTime":2814.36,"body":"better so that over time all"},{"startTime":2814.36,"endTime":2817.45,"body":"peoples might progress"},{"startTime":2814.36,"endTime":2817.45,"body":"from a stage of savagery"},{"startTime":2817.45,"endTime":2820.003,"body":"through barbarism to civilization."},{"startTime":2821.08,"endTime":2824.2,"body":"In the present, some"},{"startTime":2821.08,"endTime":2824.2,"body":"people remained primitive,"},{"startTime":2824.2,"endTime":2826.18,"body":"others had regressed."},{"startTime":2826.18,"endTime":2828.523,"body":"In the Mississippi Valley, writes Tyler,"},{"startTime":2829.48,"endTime":2832.72,"body":"native tribes in modern"},{"startTime":2829.48,"endTime":2832.72,"body":"times do not rank high"},{"startTime":2832.72,"endTime":2834.4,"body":"even as savages"},{"startTime":2834.4,"endTime":2838.033,"body":"though in the past they were"},{"startTime":2834.4,"endTime":2838.033,"body":"a somewhat advanced race."},{"startTime":2840.13,"endTime":2843.28,"body":"In the states, Louis Henry"},{"startTime":2840.13,"endTime":2843.28,"body":"Morgan did something similar"},{"startTime":2843.28,"endTime":2845.953,"body":"in his book published in 1877."},{"startTime":2846.79,"endTime":2850.8,"body":"This was explicitly a"},{"startTime":2846.79,"endTime":2850.8,"body":"historical scheme that began"},{"startTime":2850.8,"endTime":2854.503,"body":"60,000 years ago with lower savagery."},{"startTime":2855.85,"endTime":2858.28,"body":"While Tyler was happy"},{"startTime":2855.85,"endTime":2858.28,"body":"to compare his stages"},{"startTime":2858.28,"endTime":2861.61,"body":"to the three archeological"},{"startTime":2858.28,"endTime":2861.61,"body":"ages of stone, bronze,"},{"startTime":2861.61,"endTime":2864.49,"body":"and iron and Morgan less so,"},{"startTime":2864.49,"endTime":2866.773,"body":"there are clear parallels."},{"startTime":2868.42,"endTime":2871.27,"body":"Here were schemes in which"},{"startTime":2868.42,"endTime":2871.27,"body":"the past and people in"},{"startTime":2871.27,"endTime":2873.46,"body":"the present assessed are somehow"},{"startTime":2873.46,"endTime":2876.283,"body":"still living in that past were judged."},{"startTime":2877.18,"endTime":2880.69,"body":"The further back in time,"},{"startTime":2877.18,"endTime":2880.69,"body":"the less sophisticated,"},{"startTime":2880.69,"endTime":2882.133,"body":"the less complete."},{"startTime":2883.33,"endTime":2886.6,"body":"Morgan and Tyler aren't"},{"startTime":2883.33,"endTime":2886.6,"body":"themselves now history,"},{"startTime":2886.6,"endTime":2890.02,"body":"but the three ages live"},{"startTime":2886.6,"endTime":2890.02,"body":"on in popular narratives"},{"startTime":2890.02,"endTime":2891.823,"body":"and in academic thinking."},{"startTime":2893.02,"endTime":2896.29,"body":"Nominally of course ages of stone,"},{"startTime":2896.29,"endTime":2899.89,"body":"bronze and iron are just"},{"startTime":2896.29,"endTime":2899.89,"body":"handy ways of dividing up"},{"startTime":2899.89,"endTime":2902.53,"body":"an immensely long past."},{"startTime":2902.53,"endTime":2905.98,"body":"Yet it's hard to escape the"},{"startTime":2902.53,"endTime":2905.98,"body":"impression that an element of"},{"startTime":2905.98,"endTime":2910.393,"body":"judgment remains even among archeologists."},{"startTime":2911.8,"endTime":2913.69,"body":"The further we go back into the past,"},{"startTime":2913.69,"endTime":2915.43,"body":"other things being equal,"},{"startTime":2915.43,"endTime":2917.773,"body":"the less there is for us to dig up."},{"startTime":2918.61,"endTime":2921.04,"body":"Early populations were smaller,"},{"startTime":2921.04,"endTime":2923.113,"body":"they had less of a physical impact."},{"startTime":2924.13,"endTime":2928.21,"body":"Early technologies"},{"startTime":2924.13,"endTime":2928.21,"body":"generated less varied waste,"},{"startTime":2928.21,"endTime":2932.833,"body":"age decays, less survives"},{"startTime":2928.21,"endTime":2932.833,"body":"from remote times."},{"startTime":2934.39,"endTime":2937.87,"body":"For the archeologist,"},{"startTime":2934.39,"endTime":2937.87,"body":"it's undeniable that this"},{"startTime":2937.87,"endTime":2941.71,"body":"has the effect of making"},{"startTime":2937.87,"endTime":2941.71,"body":"older records at once"},{"startTime":2941.71,"endTime":2945.613,"body":"less complicated and harder to read."},{"startTime":2946.84,"endTime":2951.28,"body":"That easily becomes a version"},{"startTime":2946.84,"endTime":2951.28,"body":"of lives were simpler then,"},{"startTime":2951.28,"endTime":2952.66,"body":"and when you're in the habit of thinking"},{"startTime":2952.66,"endTime":2955.036,"body":"about culture changes over millennia,"},{"startTime":2955.036,"endTime":2958.75,"body":"it is also easy to slip"},{"startTime":2955.036,"endTime":2958.75,"body":"into an unspoken version"},{"startTime":2958.75,"endTime":2961.123,"body":"of Morgan Tyler progression."},{"startTime":2962.35,"endTime":2965.11,"body":"And all that happens in the"},{"startTime":2962.35,"endTime":2965.11,"body":"context of the archeological"},{"startTime":2965.11,"endTime":2969.64,"body":"profession that began with"},{"startTime":2965.11,"endTime":2969.64,"body":"judgments about modern peoples,"},{"startTime":2969.64,"endTime":2972.61,"body":"which is we've seen at"},{"startTime":2969.64,"endTime":2972.61,"body":"Stonehenge remain embedded"},{"startTime":2972.61,"endTime":2974.503,"body":"in popular imaginations."},{"startTime":2975.82,"endTime":2979.03,"body":"And of course it's not"},{"startTime":2975.82,"endTime":2979.03,"body":"just about Stonehenge."},{"startTime":2979.03,"endTime":2981.97,"body":"In 1911, the Illustrated London News"},{"startTime":2981.97,"endTime":2985.15,"body":"ran a feature about a newly"},{"startTime":2981.97,"endTime":2985.15,"body":"excavated R and H village"},{"startTime":2985.15,"endTime":2988.87,"body":"at Glastonbury, very important site."},{"startTime":2988.87,"endTime":2992.74,"body":"It was headlined, not"},{"startTime":2988.87,"endTime":2992.74,"body":"the word dobbed savage of"},{"startTime":2992.74,"endTime":2995.983,"body":"the old history books, the"},{"startTime":2992.74,"endTime":2995.983,"body":"civilized ancient Britain."},{"startTime":2997.09,"endTime":2999.07,"body":"After more than a century of research,"},{"startTime":2999.07,"endTime":3001.98,"body":"which has transformed"},{"startTime":2999.07,"endTime":3001.98,"body":"understanding of the past,"},{"startTime":3001.98,"endTime":3005.28,"body":"that line is still being used."},{"startTime":3005.28,"endTime":3008.22,"body":"Every week something"},{"startTime":3005.28,"endTime":3008.22,"body":"turns up to show us that"},{"startTime":3008.22,"endTime":3011.17,"body":"ancient 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ours."},{"startTime":3040.35,"endTime":3042.9,"body":"On at least two occasions,"},{"startTime":3042.9,"endTime":3046.48,"body":"men from Africa turned the argument around"},{"startTime":3047.37,"endTime":3049.683,"body":"and in doing so, exposed its nonsense."},{"startTime":3053.64,"endTime":3058.47,"body":"Olaudah Equiano in his"},{"startTime":3053.64,"endTime":3058.47,"body":"memoir, published in 1789,"},{"startTime":3058.47,"endTime":3060.723,"body":"used it to counter slavery."},{"startTime":3061.654,"endTime":3063.93,"body":"And I have no doubt he"},{"startTime":3061.654,"endTime":3063.93,"body":"would've been able to deliver"},{"startTime":3063.93,"endTime":3065.53,"body":"this line better than I can but,"},{"startTime":3066.87,"endTime":3070.898,"body":"let the polished and"},{"startTime":3066.87,"endTime":3070.898,"body":"haughty a European recollect"},{"startTime":3070.898,"endTime":3075.898,"body":"that his ancestors were once"},{"startTime":3070.898,"endTime":3075.898,"body":"like the Africans uncivilized"},{"startTime":3076.503,"endTime":3078.453,"body":"and even barbaras."},{"startTime":3079.59,"endTime":3083.46,"body":"Did nature make them"},{"startTime":3079.59,"endTime":3083.46,"body":"inferior to their sons"},{"startTime":3083.46,"endTime":3087.18,"body":"and should they too have been made slaves?"},{"startTime":3087.18,"endTime":3090.573,"body":"Every rational mind answers no."},{"startTime":3093.36,"endTime":3095.58,"body":"Nearly two centuries"},{"startTime":3093.36,"endTime":3095.58,"body":"later, primitive Britains"},{"startTime":3095.58,"endTime":3099.153,"body":"were again invoked to admonish"},{"startTime":3095.58,"endTime":3099.153,"body":"the patronizing British."},{"startTime":3100.14,"endTime":3102.33,"body":"In this case it was Hastings Banda,"},{"startTime":3102.33,"endTime":3105.093,"body":"premier of what is now"},{"startTime":3102.33,"endTime":3105.093,"body":"Malawi, then Niceland."},{"startTime":3106.11,"endTime":3108.002,"body":"Addressing his parliament,"},{"startTime":3108.002,"endTime":3111.84,"body":"he criticized white missionaries"},{"startTime":3108.002,"endTime":3111.84,"body":"for calling out dancing"},{"startTime":3111.84,"endTime":3116.84,"body":"as savage and sinful and"},{"startTime":3111.84,"endTime":3116.84,"body":"wonderfully, he names Stonehenge."},{"startTime":3118.087,"endTime":3123.087,"body":"\"I wish\" he said, \"I could"},{"startTime":3118.087,"endTime":3123.087,"body":"bring Stonehenge Niceland"},{"startTime":3124.23,"endTime":3127.92,"body":"to show there was a time"},{"startTime":3124.23,"endTime":3127.92,"body":"when Britain had a culture"},{"startTime":3127.92,"endTime":3129.237,"body":"that was savage.\""},{"startTime":3132.33,"endTime":3134.82,"body":"We are back with John"},{"startTime":3132.33,"endTime":3134.82,"body":"White and is Elizabeth"},{"startTime":3134.82,"endTime":3138.21,"body":"and counterparts imagining the inhabitants"},{"startTime":3138.21,"endTime":3140.07,"body":"of ancient Britain to be as savage"},{"startTime":3140.07,"endTime":3141.933,"body":"as the people of Virginia."},{"startTime":3142.98,"endTime":3147.21,"body":"But the solution to this is"},{"startTime":3142.98,"endTime":3147.21,"body":"not a primitive shouting match."},{"startTime":3147.21,"endTime":3150.36,"body":"It is to drop such terms altogether"},{"startTime":3150.36,"endTime":3152.04,"body":"and not just the vocabulary,"},{"startTime":3152.04,"endTime":3156.273,"body":"but most importantly to escape"},{"startTime":3152.04,"endTime":3156.273,"body":"the whole judgmental thing."},{"startTime":3158.25,"endTime":3161.82,"body":"The world of Stonehenge was"},{"startTime":3158.25,"endTime":3161.82,"body":"very different from our own"},{"startTime":3161.82,"endTime":3165.12,"body":"or from that of any other people today,"},{"startTime":3165.12,"endTime":3168.137,"body":"including the appearance"},{"startTime":3165.12,"endTime":3168.137,"body":"and the genetic makeup"},{"startTime":3168.137,"endTime":3170.883,"body":"of the Stonehenge people themselves."},{"startTime":3171.9,"endTime":3173.94,"body":"But here is my key point."},{"startTime":3173.94,"endTime":3178.44,"body":"We must recognize that"},{"startTime":3173.94,"endTime":3178.44,"body":"those differences were down"},{"startTime":3178.44,"endTime":3181.02,"body":"to history and choice."},{"startTime":3181.02,"endTime":3186.02,"body":"The particularities of time and"},{"startTime":3181.02,"endTime":3186.02,"body":"place not to any qualitative"},{"startTime":3186.39,"endTime":3191.39,"body":"failings either in culture or"},{"startTime":3186.39,"endTime":3191.39,"body":"individuals in Britain then,"},{"startTime":3192.99,"endTime":3195.72,"body":"or I need to add in view"},{"startTime":3192.99,"endTime":3195.72,"body":"of the way some people"},{"startTime":3195.72,"endTime":3197.61,"body":"approach Stonehenge today."},{"startTime":3197.61,"endTime":3202.61,"body":"Now, if we can achieve that open curiosity"},{"startTime":3204.33,"endTime":3208.65,"body":"that wonder for such alien"},{"startTime":3204.33,"endTime":3208.65,"body":"differences in our midst,"},{"startTime":3208.65,"endTime":3210.093,"body":"bereft of judgment,"},{"startTime":3210.99,"endTime":3213.51,"body":"then we can claim Stonehenge to be part of"},{"startTime":3213.51,"endTime":3217.173,"body":"the past of everyone, anywhere."},{"startTime":3219.12,"endTime":3220.404,"body":"- Thank you."},{"startTime":3220.404,"endTime":3223.404,"body":"(audience clapping)"},{"startTime":3231.63,"endTime":3234.33,"body":"- We have time for one or two questions"},{"startTime":3234.33,"endTime":3236.55,"body":"depending on the length of the answers."},{"startTime":3236.55,"endTime":3238.77,"body":"According to tradition,"},{"startTime":3238.77,"endTime":3243.0,"body":"we always give the first"},{"startTime":3238.77,"endTime":3243.0,"body":"question to our online community."},{"startTime":3243.0,"endTime":3245.67,"body":"And I'm going to take the"},{"startTime":3243.0,"endTime":3245.67,"body":"biggest one from that,"},{"startTime":3245.67,"endTime":3248.25,"body":"which is in a few sentences, Mike."},{"startTime":3248.25,"endTime":3253.012,"body":"Now what do we know and don't"},{"startTime":3248.25,"endTime":3253.012,"body":"we know about Stonehenge?"},{"startTime":3253.012,"endTime":3255.39,"body":"(all laughing)"},{"startTime":3255.39,"endTime":3256.59,"body":"- That was the question?"},{"startTime":3258.619,"endTime":3259.74,"body":"Well, what do we know?"},{"startTime":3259.74,"endTime":3260.89,"body":"God, for goodness sake,"},{"startTime":3262.53,"endTime":3264.933,"body":"we know a great deal about Stonehenge."},{"startTime":3266.1,"endTime":3270.33,"body":"We know a lot about the"},{"startTime":3266.1,"endTime":3270.33,"body":"materials, about the chronology,"},{"startTime":3270.33,"endTime":3272.52,"body":"the complex history of the"},{"startTime":3270.33,"endTime":3272.52,"body":"structures that were built"},{"startTime":3272.52,"endTime":3273.36,"body":"at Stonehenge,"},{"startTime":3273.36,"endTime":3275.637,"body":"the people who lived in the"},{"startTime":3273.36,"endTime":3275.637,"body":"area and where they lived"},{"startTime":3275.637,"endTime":3277.023,"body":"and what they were doing."},{"startTime":3279.03,"endTime":3283.86,"body":"What we don't know is what we"},{"startTime":3279.03,"endTime":3283.86,"body":"would learn were we to conduct"},{"startTime":3283.86,"endTime":3286.35,"body":"new excavations actually out the monument."},{"startTime":3286.35,"endTime":3287.97,"body":"There are a lot of details in that history"},{"startTime":3287.97,"endTime":3290.76,"body":"that are completely mysterious to us,"},{"startTime":3290.76,"endTime":3293.01,"body":"but there is an extraordinary amount."},{"startTime":3293.01,"endTime":3297.0,"body":"I mean, give one example,"},{"startTime":3293.01,"endTime":3297.0,"body":"DNA is a really ancient,"},{"startTime":3297.0,"endTime":3299.1,"body":"DNA is a really new field"},{"startTime":3297.0,"endTime":3299.1,"body":"and so we're still feeling"},{"startTime":3299.1,"endTime":3299.933,"body":"our way with it."},{"startTime":3299.933,"endTime":3303.6,"body":"But already we've discovered"},{"startTime":3299.933,"endTime":3303.6,"body":"that under burials in"},{"startTime":3303.6,"endTime":3305.85,"body":"the Stonehenge landscape"},{"startTime":3303.6,"endTime":3305.85,"body":"that are are contemporary"},{"startTime":3305.85,"endTime":3308.37,"body":"with a later history of the monument,"},{"startTime":3308.37,"endTime":3310.35,"body":"we've actually been able"},{"startTime":3308.37,"endTime":3310.35,"body":"to identify individuals"},{"startTime":3310.35,"endTime":3311.61,"body":"who are related to each other."},{"startTime":3311.61,"endTime":3313.41,"body":"So here in one part of Wilshire,"},{"startTime":3313.41,"endTime":3315.455,"body":"there's somebody who is"},{"startTime":3313.41,"endTime":3315.455,"body":"an uncle of somebody else"},{"startTime":3315.455,"endTime":3318.69,"body":"who was a cousin of somebody"},{"startTime":3315.455,"endTime":3318.69,"body":"else in a different burial."},{"startTime":3318.69,"endTime":3320.1,"body":"I mean, it's just utterly extraordinary."},{"startTime":3320.1,"endTime":3321.843,"body":"And we've just begun this."},{"startTime":3323.13,"endTime":3327.57,"body":"- [Member] Napoleon has"},{"startTime":3323.13,"endTime":3327.57,"body":"been suggested as being"},{"startTime":3327.57,"endTime":3330.3,"body":"the father of modern archeology."},{"startTime":3330.3,"endTime":3332.913,"body":"Is that something you"},{"startTime":3330.3,"endTime":3332.913,"body":"agree with or don't agree?"},{"startTime":3334.2,"endTime":3335.76,"body":"- I think I sort of, yes and no."},{"startTime":3335.76,"endTime":3339.873,"body":"I mean certainly if you're"},{"startTime":3335.76,"endTime":3339.873,"body":"French, you probably say yes."},{"startTime":3342.03,"endTime":3345.78,"body":"I don't think there's really"},{"startTime":3342.03,"endTime":3345.78,"body":"a father or a single person."},{"startTime":3345.78,"endTime":3349.11,"body":"I think archeology it's"},{"startTime":3345.78,"endTime":3349.11,"body":"such a huge, complex thing"},{"startTime":3349.11,"endTime":3350.91,"body":"and he embraces just"},{"startTime":3349.11,"endTime":3350.91,"body":"absolutely everything."},{"startTime":3350.91,"endTime":3353.34,"body":"I was talking to the man who"},{"startTime":3350.91,"endTime":3353.34,"body":"taught me a-level archeology"},{"startTime":3353.34,"endTime":3354.66,"body":"when I was at school the other day,"},{"startTime":3354.66,"endTime":3357.51,"body":"and he said what he liked"},{"startTime":3354.66,"endTime":3357.51,"body":"about archeology was that"},{"startTime":3357.51,"endTime":3359.91,"body":"it was multidisciplinary"},{"startTime":3357.51,"endTime":3359.91,"body":"teaching it at school."},{"startTime":3359.91,"endTime":3362.4,"body":"It was geography,"},{"startTime":3359.91,"endTime":3362.4,"body":"anthropology, math, physics,"},{"startTime":3362.4,"endTime":3363.99,"body":"science, statistics,"},{"startTime":3363.99,"endTime":3366.54,"body":"anything you call geography,"},{"startTime":3363.99,"endTime":3366.54,"body":"anything to think of."},{"startTime":3366.54,"endTime":3369.33,"body":"And so archeology emerged from"},{"startTime":3366.54,"endTime":3369.33,"body":"all these different fields"},{"startTime":3369.33,"endTime":3373.11,"body":"of study and it worked best even today"},{"startTime":3373.11,"endTime":3375.3,"body":"when you have dozens of people coming from"},{"startTime":3375.3,"endTime":3376.29,"body":"different backgrounds,"},{"startTime":3376.29,"endTime":3379.47,"body":"bringing their different"},{"startTime":3376.29,"endTime":3379.47,"body":"perspectives working together."},{"startTime":3379.47,"endTime":3381.45,"body":"But yeah, Napoleon was"},{"startTime":3379.47,"endTime":3381.45,"body":"a big figure, not Lisa."},{"startTime":3381.45,"endTime":3382.8,"body":"Of course it's a collector."},{"startTime":3384.12,"endTime":3384.953,"body":"- Thank you."},{"startTime":3384.953,"endTime":3386.76,"body":"I wonder if you got any"},{"startTime":3384.953,"endTime":3386.76,"body":"comment on the way in which"},{"startTime":3386.76,"endTime":3390.21,"body":"Stonehenge is kind of"},{"startTime":3386.76,"endTime":3390.21,"body":"appropriated by people now"},{"startTime":3390.21,"endTime":3394.5,"body":"ranging from sort of new age"},{"startTime":3390.21,"endTime":3394.5,"body":"equal warriors on the one hand"},{"startTime":3394.5,"endTime":3395.85,"body":"to kind of far right,"},{"startTime":3395.85,"endTime":3397.89,"body":"this is part of our white heritage"},{"startTime":3397.89,"endTime":3398.97,"body":"kind of on the other side."},{"startTime":3398.97,"endTime":3401.49,"body":"And you can sort of seemingly"},{"startTime":3398.97,"endTime":3401.49,"body":"read anything you like"},{"startTime":3401.49,"endTime":3402.323,"body":"into Stonehenge."},{"startTime":3402.323,"endTime":3404.433,"body":"And I wonder what you think about that?"},{"startTime":3406.68,"endTime":3408.84,"body":"- I'm often unhappy with"},{"startTime":3406.68,"endTime":3408.84,"body":"the way that that's done"},{"startTime":3408.84,"endTime":3411.27,"body":"because I think Stonehenge"},{"startTime":3408.84,"endTime":3411.27,"body":"belongs to all of us."},{"startTime":3411.27,"endTime":3414.6,"body":"So when you have a"},{"startTime":3411.27,"endTime":3414.6,"body":"particular narrow group,"},{"startTime":3414.6,"endTime":3416.4,"body":"whatever it is, whether"},{"startTime":3414.6,"endTime":3416.4,"body":"it's in the far right"},{"startTime":3416.4,"endTime":3418.45,"body":"or the loony left or anything in between,"},{"startTime":3419.88,"endTime":3422.28,"body":"you feel this is actually"},{"startTime":3419.88,"endTime":3422.28,"body":"taking something away"},{"startTime":3422.28,"endTime":3423.113,"body":"from the place"},{"startTime":3423.113,"endTime":3425.07,"body":"'cause it's so much bigger"},{"startTime":3423.113,"endTime":3425.07,"body":"than these narrow fields."},{"startTime":3425.07,"endTime":3427.397,"body":"But you're never going to stop it."},{"startTime":3427.397,"endTime":3428.25,"body":"It's always been the case and always."},{"startTime":3428.25,"endTime":3430.35,"body":"But I mean, as an"},{"startTime":3428.25,"endTime":3430.35,"body":"archeologist, I'm conscious"},{"startTime":3430.35,"endTime":3433.8,"body":"that some people may feel"},{"startTime":3430.35,"endTime":3433.8,"body":"that archeologists claims"},{"startTime":3433.8,"endTime":3435.51,"body":"don't hinges their own,"},{"startTime":3435.51,"endTime":3438.81,"body":"they have a particular perspective"},{"startTime":3435.51,"endTime":3438.81,"body":"on what's going on there."},{"startTime":3438.81,"endTime":3441.39,"body":"I do find, I mean like"},{"startTime":3438.81,"endTime":3441.39,"body":"the stuff that happened,"},{"startTime":3441.39,"endTime":3443.37,"body":"I'm really pleased that there's"},{"startTime":3441.39,"endTime":3443.37,"body":"no longer a festival there."},{"startTime":3443.37,"endTime":3446.52,"body":"I think when in the '80s"},{"startTime":3443.37,"endTime":3446.52,"body":"when the festival was going,"},{"startTime":3446.52,"endTime":3448.8,"body":"I think that was a huge distraction."},{"startTime":3448.8,"endTime":3451.86,"body":"Although it was very popular"},{"startTime":3448.8,"endTime":3451.86,"body":"with a lot of people,"},{"startTime":3451.86,"endTime":3453.453,"body":"not least academics,"},{"startTime":3454.65,"endTime":3458.94,"body":"it was a huge, it made visiting"},{"startTime":3454.65,"endTime":3458.94,"body":"for the ordinary visitors,"},{"startTime":3458.94,"endTime":3461.55,"body":"tourists, and so it made it"},{"startTime":3458.94,"endTime":3461.55,"body":"almost impossible to get near"},{"startTime":3461.55,"endTime":3462.447,"body":"the place to appreciate it."},{"startTime":3462.447,"endTime":3464.91,"body":"And I think me the most important thing is"},{"startTime":3464.91,"endTime":3467.31,"body":"that we should all be able"},{"startTime":3464.91,"endTime":3467.31,"body":"just to go and experience"},{"startTime":3467.31,"endTime":3472.2,"body":"Stonehenge in our own"},{"startTime":3467.31,"endTime":3472.2,"body":"imagination and take the whatever"},{"startTime":3472.2,"endTime":3474.12,"body":"we like and come away"},{"startTime":3472.2,"endTime":3474.12,"body":"with whatever we like"},{"startTime":3474.12,"endTime":3476.463,"body":"without having that disturbed too much."},{"startTime":3477.57,"endTime":3479.94,"body":"- A wonderfully uplifting"},{"startTime":3477.57,"endTime":3479.94,"body":"notion on which to end."},{"speaker":"We need to end at 7","startTime":3479.94,"endTime":3483.72,"body":"00"},{"speaker":"We need to end at 7","startTime":3479.94,"endTime":3483.72,"body":"and the iron hand of time"},{"speaker":"We need to end at 7","startTime":3483.72,"endTime":3485.34,"body":"is upon that hour."},{"speaker":"We need to end at 7","startTime":3485.34,"endTime":3486.51,"body":"So I shall Thank you, Mike."},{"speaker":"We need to end at 7","startTime":3486.51,"endTime":3488.983,"body":"- Thank."},{"speaker":"We need to end at 7","startTime":3486.51,"endTime":3488.983,"body":"(all clapping)"}]}