{"version":"1.0.0","segments":[{"startTime":0.221,"endTime":3.054,"body":"(whooshing music)"},{"startTime":5.04,"endTime":7.14,"body":"- The subject of this evening's lecture"},{"startTime":7.14,"endTime":10.05,"body":"is the medieval agricultural revolution,"},{"startTime":10.05,"endTime":11.1,"body":"traditionally referred to"},{"startTime":11.1,"endTime":13.23,"body":"as the medieval agricultural revolution,"},{"startTime":13.23,"endTime":15.15,"body":"and traditionally dated to the period"},{"startTime":15.15,"endTime":18.423,"body":"between about the 10th"},{"startTime":15.15,"endTime":18.423,"body":"and the 13th centuries."},{"startTime":19.92,"endTime":23.07,"body":"It involved a major"},{"startTime":19.92,"endTime":23.07,"body":"expansion of arable farming"},{"startTime":23.07,"endTime":26.88,"body":"and saw the cerealization"},{"startTime":23.07,"endTime":26.88,"body":"of large swathes of England,"},{"startTime":26.88,"endTime":28.35,"body":"and indeed of Europe,"},{"startTime":28.35,"endTime":30.03,"body":"so although I'm talking"},{"startTime":28.35,"endTime":30.03,"body":"about England tonight,"},{"startTime":30.03,"endTime":33.333,"body":"much of what I say could be"},{"startTime":30.03,"endTime":33.333,"body":"applied to many parts of Europe."},{"startTime":34.53,"endTime":38.43,"body":"It fed an exceptionally"},{"startTime":34.53,"endTime":38.43,"body":"rapidly growing population,"},{"startTime":38.43,"endTime":41.4,"body":"but also fueled wealth disparities."},{"startTime":41.4,"endTime":42.36,"body":"This is the period"},{"startTime":42.36,"endTime":45.63,"body":"that saw the emergence of"},{"startTime":42.36,"endTime":45.63,"body":"England's first landowners,"},{"startTime":45.63,"endTime":47.733,"body":"its first local lords."},{"startTime":48.96,"endTime":50.52,"body":"So, I'll begin by introducing"},{"startTime":50.52,"endTime":53.65,"body":"some of the key elements of the revolution"},{"startTime":54.69,"endTime":56.07,"body":"and some of the debates around it,"},{"startTime":56.07,"endTime":58.983,"body":"for example whether it should"},{"startTime":56.07,"endTime":58.983,"body":"be called a revolution,"},{"startTime":60.63,"endTime":63.27,"body":"then I'll present some"},{"startTime":60.63,"endTime":63.27,"body":"new archeological evidence"},{"startTime":63.27,"endTime":66.69,"body":"from a project called FeedSax,"},{"startTime":63.27,"endTime":66.69,"body":"Feeding Anglo-Saxon England,"},{"startTime":66.69,"endTime":67.743,"body":"FeedSax for short,"},{"startTime":68.76,"endTime":71.85,"body":"a project that I think is"},{"startTime":68.76,"endTime":71.85,"body":"transforming our understanding"},{"startTime":71.85,"endTime":72.683,"body":"of the conditions"},{"startTime":72.683,"endTime":75.45,"body":"in which early medieval"},{"startTime":72.683,"endTime":75.45,"body":"crops were grown in England"},{"startTime":75.45,"endTime":80.07,"body":"and the timing of key"},{"startTime":75.45,"endTime":80.07,"body":"agricultural innovations,"},{"startTime":80.07,"endTime":80.97,"body":"so for example,"},{"startTime":80.97,"endTime":84.85,"body":"were those innovations"},{"startTime":80.97,"endTime":84.85,"body":"already in place by 1066"},{"startTime":86.67,"endTime":90.57,"body":"or were they associated"},{"startTime":86.67,"endTime":90.57,"body":"with the Norman Conquest,"},{"startTime":90.57,"endTime":91.743,"body":"with the Norman yoke?"},{"startTime":92.79,"endTime":94.71,"body":"Finally, I'll conclude"},{"startTime":92.79,"endTime":94.71,"body":"with some reflections"},{"startTime":94.71,"endTime":98.25,"body":"on what brought this period of"},{"startTime":94.71,"endTime":98.25,"body":"growing agricultural outputs,"},{"startTime":98.25,"endTime":103.25,"body":"population expansion, and"},{"startTime":98.25,"endTime":103.25,"body":"relative prosperity to an end."},{"startTime":103.47,"endTime":104.43,"body":"So, let's start"},{"startTime":104.43,"endTime":108.423,"body":"with the cerealization of"},{"startTime":104.43,"endTime":108.423,"body":"the English countryside."},{"startTime":109.8,"endTime":111.75,"body":"So, as I just mentioned,"},{"startTime":111.75,"endTime":112.89,"body":"the period we're talking about"},{"startTime":112.89,"endTime":115.29,"body":"saw this exceptionally"},{"startTime":112.89,"endTime":115.29,"body":"rapid population growth,"},{"startTime":115.29,"endTime":117.36,"body":"and I'm going to show"},{"startTime":115.29,"endTime":117.36,"body":"you some figures here,"},{"startTime":117.36,"endTime":119.52,"body":"all of which are really"},{"startTime":117.36,"endTime":119.52,"body":"very rough approximations,"},{"startTime":119.52,"endTime":121.41,"body":"but they give you an idea"},{"startTime":121.41,"endTime":124.08,"body":"of the speed with which"},{"startTime":121.41,"endTime":124.08,"body":"the population was growing"},{"startTime":124.08,"endTime":125.55,"body":"in this period."},{"startTime":125.55,"endTime":128.55,"body":"So, we think that the population"},{"startTime":125.55,"endTime":128.55,"body":"of late Roman Britain,"},{"startTime":128.55,"endTime":130.83,"body":"and we're talking about"},{"startTime":128.55,"endTime":130.83,"body":"the 3rd, 4th century,"},{"startTime":130.83,"endTime":134.223,"body":"was somewhere on the order"},{"startTime":130.83,"endTime":134.223,"body":"of 2 1/2 to 3 million."},{"startTime":137.13,"endTime":138.764,"body":"In the post-Roman centuries,"},{"startTime":138.764,"endTime":141.3,"body":"the 5th, 6th, 7th centuries,"},{"startTime":141.3,"endTime":142.32,"body":"we're quite confident"},{"startTime":142.32,"endTime":145.68,"body":"that the population collapsed"},{"startTime":142.32,"endTime":145.68,"body":"really quite dramatically,"},{"startTime":145.68,"endTime":148.05,"body":"although how dramatically"},{"startTime":145.68,"endTime":148.05,"body":"is anyone's guess,"},{"startTime":148.05,"endTime":151.443,"body":"perhaps by as much as a"},{"startTime":148.05,"endTime":151.443,"body":"million, maybe even more."},{"startTime":153.87,"endTime":156.66,"body":"By the time of the \"Domesday Book,\""},{"startTime":156.66,"endTime":161.1,"body":"the population had more or"},{"startTime":156.66,"endTime":161.1,"body":"less recovered to Roman levels,"},{"startTime":161.1,"endTime":162.483,"body":"to late Roman levels,"},{"startTime":163.65,"endTime":165.84,"body":"and by 1300,"},{"startTime":165.84,"endTime":167.91,"body":"it had more or less doubled."},{"startTime":167.91,"endTime":170.43,"body":"And you can also see here some estimates"},{"startTime":170.43,"endTime":173.58,"body":"for the number of acres"},{"startTime":170.43,"endTime":173.58,"body":"that were under the plow"},{"startTime":173.58,"endTime":174.66,"body":"in these periods."},{"startTime":174.66,"endTime":175.53,"body":"So you can see, I think,"},{"startTime":175.53,"endTime":178.623,"body":"really very striking population growth."},{"startTime":181.74,"endTime":183.78,"body":"So, how did medieval farmers"},{"startTime":183.78,"endTime":188.04,"body":"manage to feed such a"},{"startTime":183.78,"endTime":188.04,"body":"rapidly growing population?"},{"startTime":188.04,"endTime":191.043,"body":"In many parts of the country, but not all,"},{"startTime":191.91,"endTime":196.05,"body":"this was achieved by various"},{"startTime":191.91,"endTime":196.05,"body":"forms of open field farming,"},{"startTime":196.05,"endTime":199.533,"body":"especially the type known as"},{"startTime":196.05,"endTime":199.533,"body":"two or three field farming."},{"startTime":200.61,"endTime":203.52,"body":"This is where most or all"},{"startTime":200.61,"endTime":203.52,"body":"of a community's arable"},{"startTime":203.52,"endTime":207.093,"body":"lay in two or more"},{"startTime":203.52,"endTime":207.093,"body":"large, unenclosed fields."},{"startTime":208.35,"endTime":210.24,"body":"The holdings of individual farmers"},{"startTime":210.24,"endTime":214.26,"body":"took the form of scattered"},{"startTime":210.24,"endTime":214.26,"body":"strips within those fields,"},{"startTime":214.26,"endTime":217.62,"body":"intermingled with those"},{"startTime":214.26,"endTime":217.62,"body":"of their neighbors."},{"startTime":217.62,"endTime":219.66,"body":"So, what you see on this slide"},{"startTime":219.66,"endTime":223.14,"body":"are the fossilized ridge"},{"startTime":219.66,"endTime":223.14,"body":"and furrow earthworks"},{"startTime":223.14,"endTime":224.85,"body":"of such a field system,"},{"startTime":224.85,"endTime":226.23,"body":"formed by the moldboard plow,"},{"startTime":226.23,"endTime":227.67,"body":"which I'll say more about later,"},{"startTime":227.67,"endTime":231.063,"body":"with a medieval village at its heart."},{"startTime":233.88,"endTime":234.75,"body":"Now, medieval farming"},{"startTime":234.75,"endTime":237.12,"body":"involved several"},{"startTime":234.75,"endTime":237.12,"body":"technological innovations,"},{"startTime":237.12,"endTime":240.06,"body":"including systematic crop"},{"startTime":237.12,"endTime":240.06,"body":"rotation and the moldboard plow,"},{"startTime":240.06,"endTime":242.21,"body":"and I'm going to talk"},{"startTime":240.06,"endTime":242.21,"body":"about those in a moment,"},{"startTime":243.57,"endTime":246.42,"body":"but according to the grand narrative"},{"startTime":246.42,"endTime":248.55,"body":"of the agricultural revolution,"},{"startTime":248.55,"endTime":252.66,"body":"these innovations led to a"},{"startTime":248.55,"endTime":252.66,"body":"sort of great leap forward"},{"startTime":252.66,"endTime":254.94,"body":"in terms of productivity,"},{"startTime":254.94,"endTime":257.49,"body":"ultimately shifting prosperity"},{"startTime":257.49,"endTime":259.743,"body":"from Southern to Northern Europe."},{"startTime":261.09,"endTime":263.79,"body":"Now, this narrative has"},{"startTime":261.09,"endTime":263.79,"body":"rightly been criticized,"},{"startTime":263.79,"endTime":266.04,"body":"it's been criticized for many decades,"},{"startTime":266.04,"endTime":267.99,"body":"as technological determinism,"},{"startTime":267.99,"endTime":270.15,"body":"and there are undoubtedly problems"},{"startTime":270.15,"endTime":272.79,"body":"of the very notion of an"},{"startTime":270.15,"endTime":272.79,"body":"agricultural revolution"},{"startTime":272.79,"endTime":274.44,"body":"in this period,"},{"startTime":274.44,"endTime":276.093,"body":"but there is no question, I think,"},{"startTime":276.093,"endTime":278.31,"body":"that the spread of open field farming"},{"startTime":278.31,"endTime":281.43,"body":"really was one of the"},{"startTime":278.31,"endTime":281.43,"body":"transformative changes"},{"startTime":281.43,"endTime":282.573,"body":"of the Middle Ages."},{"startTime":284.85,"endTime":286.53,"body":"Now, we're going to look"},{"startTime":284.85,"endTime":286.53,"body":"at some new evidence"},{"startTime":286.53,"endTime":288.09,"body":"that should definitely make us think again"},{"startTime":288.09,"endTime":290.22,"body":"about this narrative,"},{"startTime":290.22,"endTime":293.82,"body":"but first, I briefly want"},{"startTime":290.22,"endTime":293.82,"body":"to mention this book,"},{"startTime":293.82,"endTime":295.597,"body":"which was published in 2017,"},{"startTime":295.597,"endTime":296.907,"body":"\"Against the Grain,\""},{"startTime":298.23,"endTime":300.06,"body":"because the author,"},{"startTime":300.06,"endTime":302.22,"body":"who is not a historian,"},{"startTime":300.06,"endTime":302.22,"body":"he's not an archeologist,"},{"startTime":302.22,"endTime":304.53,"body":"he's a political scientist,"},{"startTime":304.53,"endTime":307.14,"body":"the author makes a direct link"},{"startTime":307.14,"endTime":311.85,"body":"between cereal farming"},{"startTime":307.14,"endTime":311.85,"body":"and wealth inequalities."},{"startTime":311.85,"endTime":315.27,"body":"So, Scott's focus is on the"},{"startTime":311.85,"endTime":315.27,"body":"prehistoric origins of farming,"},{"startTime":315.27,"endTime":317.58,"body":"he talks mostly about the Neolithic,"},{"startTime":317.58,"endTime":320.88,"body":"but his general thesis"},{"startTime":317.58,"endTime":320.88,"body":"is that, in the past,"},{"startTime":320.88,"endTime":322.95,"body":"as cereal farming increased,"},{"startTime":322.95,"endTime":325.89,"body":"so too did wealth disparities."},{"startTime":325.89,"endTime":327.81,"body":"That, by the way, isn't really a new idea,"},{"startTime":327.81,"endTime":330.21,"body":"but he has expressed"},{"startTime":327.81,"endTime":330.21,"body":"it maybe most recently,"},{"startTime":330.21,"endTime":332.64,"body":"and he expresses it in"},{"startTime":330.21,"endTime":332.64,"body":"a very engaging way,"},{"startTime":332.64,"endTime":333.783,"body":"so it's worth a read."},{"startTime":335.1,"endTime":337.74,"body":"Now, medieval Europe is an obvious example"},{"startTime":337.74,"endTime":338.76,"body":"of what he's talking about,"},{"startTime":338.76,"endTime":340.81,"body":"although, in fact, he doesn't mention it."},{"startTime":341.76,"endTime":344.76,"body":"The new forms of cereal"},{"startTime":341.76,"endTime":344.76,"body":"farming in the Middle Ages"},{"startTime":344.76,"endTime":346.65,"body":"that we're going to be talking about"},{"startTime":346.65,"endTime":351.3,"body":"generated substantial, regular surpluses,"},{"startTime":351.3,"endTime":352.773,"body":"and that is key."},{"startTime":354.51,"endTime":357.48,"body":"It allowed many more mouths"},{"startTime":354.51,"endTime":357.48,"body":"to be fed, of course,"},{"startTime":357.48,"endTime":360.06,"body":"but it also allowed landowners"},{"startTime":360.06,"endTime":363.27,"body":"to amass and mobilize these surpluses,"},{"startTime":363.27,"endTime":365.55,"body":"ultimately by exploiting"},{"startTime":363.27,"endTime":365.55,"body":"the labor of others,"},{"startTime":365.55,"endTime":366.54,"body":"by exploiting the labor"},{"startTime":366.54,"endTime":368.44,"body":"of those who actually worked the land."},{"startTime":369.48,"endTime":373.14,"body":"So in England, from the"},{"startTime":369.48,"endTime":373.14,"body":"10th century onwards,"},{"startTime":373.14,"endTime":378.14,"body":"kings granted units of"},{"startTime":373.14,"endTime":378.14,"body":"land to local lords,"},{"startTime":378.45,"endTime":381.24,"body":"and by the time of the"},{"startTime":378.45,"endTime":381.24,"body":"Norman Conquest in 1066,"},{"startTime":381.24,"endTime":383.94,"body":"there were thousands of such landowners,"},{"startTime":383.94,"endTime":385.38,"body":"each with their own estates,"},{"startTime":385.38,"endTime":386.76,"body":"prospering from rents"},{"startTime":386.76,"endTime":389.403,"body":"extracted from peasants"},{"startTime":386.76,"endTime":389.403,"body":"who worked the land."},{"startTime":390.51,"endTime":393.42,"body":"It is the expansion of cereal farming"},{"startTime":393.42,"endTime":395.49,"body":"that made this possible,"},{"startTime":395.49,"endTime":397.26,"body":"and that brings us back to Scott,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":398.467,"endTime":401.347,"body":"\"The key to the nexus"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":398.467,"endTime":401.347,"body":"between grains and states"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":401.347,"endTime":402.877,"body":"\"lies in the fact"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":402.877,"endTime":407.46,"body":"\"that only cereal grains can"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":402.877,"endTime":407.46,"body":"serve as a basis for taxation.\""},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":407.46,"endTime":408.963,"body":"What does he mean by that?"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":410.22,"endTime":411.27,"body":"I think what he's saying"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":411.27,"endTime":414.09,"body":"is that cereals, and uniquely cereals,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":414.09,"endTime":415.86,"body":"possess certain qualities"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":415.86,"endTime":418.77,"body":"that make them an ideal"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":415.86,"endTime":418.77,"body":"medium for tax collectors,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":418.77,"endTime":421.584,"body":"I should say cereals"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":418.77,"endTime":421.584,"body":"uniquely amongst crops,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":421.584,"endTime":424.95,"body":"make them an ideal medium"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":421.584,"endTime":424.95,"body":"for tax collectors."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":424.95,"endTime":427.47,"body":"So, they ripen and they are harvested"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":427.47,"endTime":429.453,"body":"at predictable points of the year,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":430.65,"endTime":434.463,"body":"they're easily stored, easily"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":430.65,"endTime":434.463,"body":"transported, easily measured."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":435.48,"endTime":436.71,"body":"This means that landowners"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":436.71,"endTime":438.63,"body":"could enrich themselves more readily"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":438.63,"endTime":441.573,"body":"from land sown with"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":438.63,"endTime":441.573,"body":"cereals than anything else."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":443.37,"endTime":446.22,"body":"Not only are cereals easily taxed,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":446.22,"endTime":448.08,"body":"but a land unit sown with cereals"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":448.08,"endTime":450.09,"body":"will of course feed many more mouths"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":450.09,"endTime":453.12,"body":"than the same land unit"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":450.09,"endTime":453.12,"body":"used to graze livestock,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":453.12,"endTime":455.87,"body":"that's something we're all"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":453.12,"endTime":455.87,"body":"very aware of at the moment,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":457.26,"endTime":459.75,"body":"hence the exceptionally"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":457.26,"endTime":459.75,"body":"steep population growth"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":459.75,"endTime":461.043,"body":"that we saw earlier."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":462.9,"endTime":465.42,"body":"The question of how early medieval farmers"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":465.42,"endTime":467.22,"body":"were able to grow enough cereals"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":467.22,"endTime":470.4,"body":"to supply this rapidly"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":467.22,"endTime":470.4,"body":"expanding population,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":470.4,"endTime":472.95,"body":"as well as the expanding"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":470.4,"endTime":472.95,"body":"markets of this period,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":472.95,"endTime":476.643,"body":"has generated a lot of"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":472.95,"endTime":476.643,"body":"debate for a long time."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":477.63,"endTime":480.72,"body":"So, when were innovations"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":477.63,"endTime":480.72,"body":"like the moldboard plow"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":480.72,"endTime":483.24,"body":"actually first introduced?"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":483.24,"endTime":484.29,"body":"Was there really"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":484.29,"endTime":488.25,"body":"a technologically driven"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":484.29,"endTime":488.25,"body":"transformative moment"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":488.25,"endTime":492.603,"body":"or was there instead a gradual"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":488.25,"endTime":492.603,"body":"process of cerealization?"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":494.34,"endTime":496.47,"body":"Was change driven by top-down pressure"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":496.47,"endTime":499.68,"body":"from greedy lords demanding"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":496.47,"endTime":499.68,"body":"ever larger surpluses"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":499.68,"endTime":502.62,"body":"or is it evidence of"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":499.68,"endTime":502.62,"body":"bottom-up peasant agency?"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":502.62,"endTime":503.529,"body":"And on and on,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":503.529,"endTime":505.95,"body":"there are many unresolved questions"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":505.95,"endTime":508.68,"body":"that have been argued over for decades."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":508.68,"endTime":509.7,"body":"But I think it's fair to say"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":509.7,"endTime":512.55,"body":"that the debate has, to a large extent,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":512.55,"endTime":514.23,"body":"reached a kind of impasse,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":514.23,"endTime":516.903,"body":"with no consensus being reached."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":519.33,"endTime":520.653,"body":"So why can't we agree?"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":521.85,"endTime":524.58,"body":"I think it's largely"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":521.85,"endTime":524.58,"body":"because, as I say here,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":524.58,"endTime":526.773,"body":"we lack direct, closely dated evidence"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":526.773,"endTime":529.17,"body":"from medieval fields themselves,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":529.17,"endTime":530.79,"body":"and we don't really know anything"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":530.79,"endTime":533.07,"body":"about the conditions in"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":530.79,"endTime":533.07,"body":"which crops were grown"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":533.07,"endTime":534.6,"body":"in this period,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":534.6,"endTime":537.15,"body":"and, well, related to this"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":537.15,"endTime":539.19,"body":"is the fact that researchers have to rely"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":539.19,"endTime":542.52,"body":"on a relatively small"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":539.19,"endTime":542.52,"body":"number of indirect sources,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":542.52,"endTime":544.17,"body":"like maps and charters,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":544.17,"endTime":546.21,"body":"documents recording land transactions,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":546.21,"endTime":548.85,"body":"that really don't tell"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":546.21,"endTime":548.85,"body":"you about farming as such,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":548.85,"endTime":551.52,"body":"and many of them were produced"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":551.52,"endTime":554.04,"body":"a great deal, centuries"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":554.04,"endTime":554.933,"body":"after the period we're talking about,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":554.933,"endTime":556.47,"body":"they're really quite late,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":556.47,"endTime":557.55,"body":"they're certainly written"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":557.55,"endTime":559.86,"body":"long after the main period of change."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":559.86,"endTime":561.54,"body":"I show you here a tiny image,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":561.54,"endTime":562.373,"body":"I'm sorry it's so tiny,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":562.373,"endTime":566.73,"body":"but an image of a very"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":562.373,"endTime":566.73,"body":"important map, the Laxton Map,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":566.73,"endTime":568.74,"body":"which is a wonderful depiction"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":568.74,"endTime":571.29,"body":"of a fully developed open field system,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":571.29,"endTime":572.97,"body":"but it dates the 1635,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":572.97,"endTime":575.703,"body":"it's really late for what"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":572.97,"endTime":575.703,"body":"we are talking about."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":576.72,"endTime":579.57,"body":"So what is needed, really,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":576.72,"endTime":579.57,"body":"to break this impasse"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":579.57,"endTime":582.873,"body":"is new, preferably direct evidence,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":583.74,"endTime":587.88,"body":"and thanks to the the project"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":583.74,"endTime":587.88,"body":"Feeding Anglo-Saxon England,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":587.88,"endTime":590.22,"body":"we now have such evidence,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":590.22,"endTime":593.913,"body":"and that is what we're"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":590.22,"endTime":593.913,"body":"going to look at next."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":595.35,"endTime":596.183,"body":"So, the project,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":596.183,"endTime":597.81,"body":"which is sort of finished,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":597.81,"endTime":601.53,"body":"but bits of it are still going on,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":601.53,"endTime":603.27,"body":"it was based at the University of Oxford,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":603.27,"endTime":606.45,"body":"with a collaboration with Leicester,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":606.45,"endTime":608.13,"body":"and it involved the work"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":608.13,"endTime":611.67,"body":"of really quite a large team of experts,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":611.67,"endTime":613.95,"body":"quite a diverse team of experts,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":613.95,"endTime":614.917,"body":"and here they are."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":614.917,"endTime":616.02,"body":"This is really just to make the point"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":616.02,"endTime":618.45,"body":"that this is the result of the work"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":618.45,"endTime":620.43,"body":"of an awful lot of different people,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":620.43,"endTime":621.68,"body":"what you're about to see."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":623.25,"endTime":625.26,"body":"Now, the aim of FeedSax"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":625.26,"endTime":628.53,"body":"was to generate direct"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":625.26,"endTime":628.53,"body":"evidence for medieval farming"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":628.53,"endTime":631.2,"body":"by analyzing plant and animal remains"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":631.2,"endTime":633.903,"body":"from archeological excavations."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":635.55,"endTime":637.8,"body":"Our primary source"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":635.55,"endTime":637.8,"body":"material was not documents,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":637.8,"endTime":639.57,"body":"was not written evidence,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":639.57,"endTime":642.12,"body":"but rather bio-archeological evidence,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":642.12,"endTime":644.34,"body":"so things like preserved plant remains,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":644.34,"endTime":646.683,"body":"preserved animal bones, and so on."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":647.55,"endTime":649.71,"body":"So, on the left there,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":649.71,"endTime":652.62,"body":"the rather unprepossessing"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":649.71,"endTime":652.62,"body":"little pile of burnt bits"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":652.62,"endTime":656.58,"body":"are actually medieval grains"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":652.62,"endTime":656.58,"body":"and associated weed seeds"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":656.58,"endTime":658.8,"body":"that have been preserved"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":656.58,"endTime":658.8,"body":"by accidental charring,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":658.8,"endTime":660.21,"body":"so it probably happened"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":660.21,"endTime":661.98,"body":"when they were trying to dry the grains"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":661.98,"endTime":663.6,"body":"or maybe a granary burned down,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":663.6,"endTime":667.38,"body":"but these charred plant remains"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":667.38,"endTime":669.96,"body":"are a really important"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":667.38,"endTime":669.96,"body":"source of information."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":669.96,"endTime":671.58,"body":"Then we have animal bones,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":671.58,"endTime":675.06,"body":"and these are in fact the"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":671.58,"endTime":675.06,"body":"bones from cattle feet,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":675.06,"endTime":675.893,"body":"which, as you'll see,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":675.893,"endTime":678.6,"body":"will become important"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":675.893,"endTime":678.6,"body":"later on to my story,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":678.6,"endTime":681.12,"body":"and then on the right,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":678.6,"endTime":681.12,"body":"we have a a pollen core,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":681.12,"endTime":684.12,"body":"so we did look at pollen"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":681.12,"endTime":684.12,"body":"evidence, pollen grains"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":684.12,"endTime":686.49,"body":"to understand questions"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":684.12,"endTime":686.49,"body":"about wider land use,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":686.49,"endTime":688.23,"body":"but I'm not going to talk about that today"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":688.23,"endTime":690.543,"body":"just because we don't"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":688.23,"endTime":690.543,"body":"really have the time."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":691.65,"endTime":694.863,"body":"So, where does our source"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":691.65,"endTime":694.863,"body":"material come from?"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":695.7,"endTime":698.82,"body":"Well, it comes from hundreds"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":695.7,"endTime":698.82,"body":"and hundreds of excavations"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":698.82,"endTime":700.47,"body":"from across the country."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":700.47,"endTime":703.08,"body":"I'm afraid you will have noticed"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":700.47,"endTime":703.08,"body":"that an awful lot of them"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":703.08,"endTime":705.75,"body":"come from Southern and Eastern England,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":705.75,"endTime":710.22,"body":"areas that were very much"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":705.75,"endTime":710.22,"body":"dominated by open field farming."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":710.22,"endTime":712.23,"body":"I'm afraid that's not"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":710.22,"endTime":712.23,"body":"at all what we wanted,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":712.23,"endTime":713.43,"body":"it's not for lack of trying"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":713.43,"endTime":715.35,"body":"to find material from the north and west,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":715.35,"endTime":716.183,"body":"but there is simply"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":716.183,"endTime":720.87,"body":"less well preserved"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":716.183,"endTime":720.87,"body":"bio-archeological material"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":720.87,"endTime":721.77,"body":"from the north and west,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":721.77,"endTime":723.42,"body":"it's harder to identify sites,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":723.42,"endTime":726.6,"body":"and so we've ended up"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":723.42,"endTime":726.6,"body":"with a reasonable spread,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":726.6,"endTime":729.453,"body":"but it's not perfectly representative."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":731.1,"endTime":734.94,"body":"I'm just going to quickly"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":731.1,"endTime":734.94,"body":"mention the main methods we use,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":734.94,"endTime":737.76,"body":"I'm not going to go into"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":734.94,"endTime":737.76,"body":"any technical detail,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":737.76,"endTime":739.68,"body":"don't worry about that,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":739.68,"endTime":741.27,"body":"but we really looked, first of all,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":741.27,"endTime":743.64,"body":"at weeds, at functional weed ecology,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":743.64,"endTime":746.16,"body":"this is a way of studying the weeds"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":746.16,"endTime":749.13,"body":"that grew in amongst the crops,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":749.13,"endTime":750.39,"body":"because, as you're about to hear,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":750.39,"endTime":752.76,"body":"these tell us about the soil conditions"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":752.76,"endTime":754.56,"body":"in which those weeds grew,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":754.56,"endTime":756.72,"body":"and therefore the soil conditions"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":756.72,"endTime":758.97,"body":"in which the associated crops grew,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":758.97,"endTime":761.853,"body":"different sorts of weeds"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":758.97,"endTime":761.853,"body":"grow in different conditions."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":763.14,"endTime":766.47,"body":"Then zoo-archeology is simply"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":763.14,"endTime":766.47,"body":"the study of animal bones"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":766.47,"endTime":768.243,"body":"from archeological excavations,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":769.35,"endTime":772.95,"body":"archeo-botany ditto, but"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":769.35,"endTime":772.95,"body":"looking at plant remains,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":772.95,"endTime":774.81,"body":"and finally, we undertook something"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":774.81,"endTime":778.53,"body":"called crop stable isotope"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":774.81,"endTime":778.53,"body":"analysis of medieval grains,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":778.53,"endTime":780.66,"body":"and that is just another way,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":780.66,"endTime":783.78,"body":"by looking at the"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":780.66,"endTime":783.78,"body":"chemistry of those grains,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":783.78,"endTime":787.35,"body":"it's another way of"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":783.78,"endTime":787.35,"body":"establishing the soil conditions"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":787.35,"endTime":789.0,"body":"in which those crops grew,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":789.0,"endTime":793.353,"body":"so we were quite novel"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":789.0,"endTime":793.353,"body":"in our approach, I think."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":795.12,"endTime":796.17,"body":"So now, finally,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":796.17,"endTime":798.3,"body":"we're going to look at some results,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":798.3,"endTime":799.74,"body":"and I'm going to present these"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":799.74,"endTime":802.11,"body":"according to a kind of framing device"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":802.11,"endTime":804.42,"body":"that I've called the"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":802.11,"endTime":804.42,"body":"moldboard plow package,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":804.42,"endTime":809.37,"body":"that consists of three key"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":804.42,"endTime":809.37,"body":"elements of medieval farming."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":809.37,"endTime":811.98,"body":"The first is extensification,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":811.98,"endTime":813.18,"body":"I'll explain that in a moment,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":813.18,"endTime":815.01,"body":"the second is crop rotation,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":815.01,"endTime":817.893,"body":"and the third is the use"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":815.01,"endTime":817.893,"body":"of the moldboard plow."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":820.2,"endTime":822.24,"body":"So, let's start with this,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":822.24,"endTime":825.66,"body":"the extensification of cereal farming."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":825.66,"endTime":827.55,"body":"First, I think I'd better explain"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":827.55,"endTime":829.923,"body":"what I mean by extensification."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":832.53,"endTime":835.65,"body":"So, here is a little diagram"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":835.65,"endTime":837.763,"body":"that my colleague Amy"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":835.65,"endTime":837.763,"body":"Bogaard has produced,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":837.763,"endTime":840.63,"body":"that I think is a useful"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":837.763,"endTime":840.63,"body":"way of explaining this."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":840.63,"endTime":841.8,"body":"If you're a farmer"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":841.8,"endTime":845.643,"body":"and you want to increase"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":841.8,"endTime":845.643,"body":"your overall crop yield,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":846.57,"endTime":848.19,"body":"at least if you're a pre-modern farmer,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":848.19,"endTime":849.843,"body":"you can do one of two things,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":850.8,"endTime":854.07,"body":"you can cultivate your"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":850.8,"endTime":854.07,"body":"land more intensively"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":854.07,"endTime":856.83,"body":"by investing more input per land unit,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":856.83,"endTime":857.663,"body":"and by input,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":857.663,"endTime":860.313,"body":"we're talking here about"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":857.663,"endTime":860.313,"body":"manure and human labor."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":861.36,"endTime":862.23,"body":"Now, you can do that,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":862.23,"endTime":865.11,"body":"but that tends to limit the amount of land"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":865.11,"endTime":866.43,"body":"that you can cultivate,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":866.43,"endTime":870.873,"body":"so intensive farming tends"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":866.43,"endTime":870.873,"body":"to be smaller in scale."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":872.4,"endTime":876.09,"body":"Alternatively, you could extensify,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":876.09,"endTime":878.49,"body":"that is you could cultivate more land"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":878.49,"endTime":881.4,"body":"while investing less input per land unit."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":881.4,"endTime":884.04,"body":"So you can see you have"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":881.4,"endTime":884.04,"body":"labor intensive methods,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":884.04,"endTime":885.51,"body":"which tend to be small scale,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":885.51,"endTime":887.61,"body":"or you have land extensive methods,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":887.61,"endTime":889.293,"body":"which are larger in scale."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":890.82,"endTime":894.3,"body":"As cereal farming expanded in scale,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":894.3,"endTime":896.7,"body":"we would therefore expect to see a trend"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":896.7,"endTime":898.38,"body":"towards lower input,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":898.38,"endTime":901.71,"body":"and therefore lower fertility systems,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":901.71,"endTime":904.86,"body":"the lower fertility is a"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":901.71,"endTime":904.86,"body":"really important point,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":904.86,"endTime":906.753,"body":"lower fertility soil conditions."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":908.195,"endTime":911.61,"body":"Medieval open field farming is an example"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":911.61,"endTime":915.873,"body":"of a super extensive, low"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":911.61,"endTime":915.873,"body":"input type of farming,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":916.71,"endTime":918.9,"body":"and that's because"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":916.71,"endTime":918.9,"body":"fertility wasn't maintained"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":918.9,"endTime":920.61,"body":"by really intensive manuring,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":920.61,"endTime":923.94,"body":"but rather by short,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":920.61,"endTime":923.94,"body":"regular fallow periods"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":923.94,"endTime":925.47,"body":"when the land rested"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":925.47,"endTime":927.06,"body":"and was grazed by sheep,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":927.06,"endTime":929.76,"body":"whose droppings topped"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":927.06,"endTime":929.76,"body":"up the soil fertility,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":929.76,"endTime":933.033,"body":"so it's a low input, low fertility system."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":934.65,"endTime":936.48,"body":"So, how can you tell"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":936.48,"endTime":941.48,"body":"how intensively or extensively"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":936.48,"endTime":941.48,"body":"cereals were farmed?"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":943.35,"endTime":945.27,"body":"Well, the key here is the weeds,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":945.27,"endTime":948.18,"body":"I'm going to be talking about"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":945.27,"endTime":948.18,"body":"weeds quite a lot tonight."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":948.18,"endTime":949.469,"body":"I don't know how many"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":948.18,"endTime":949.469,"body":"of you are gardeners,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":949.469,"endTime":952.863,"body":"but you'll be familiar with some of them."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":953.94,"endTime":956.4,"body":"So, arable weeds are the key."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":956.4,"endTime":958.23,"body":"The weed seeds that we analyzed"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":958.23,"endTime":960.33,"body":"come from weeds like cornflower"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":960.33,"endTime":963.39,"body":"that grew in amongst the"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":960.33,"endTime":963.39,"body":"medieval cereal crops"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":963.39,"endTime":965.733,"body":"and were harvested together with them."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":966.75,"endTime":968.85,"body":"Why are they useful?"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":968.85,"endTime":969.683,"body":"Well, again,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":969.683,"endTime":972.483,"body":"as you gardeners and"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":969.683,"endTime":972.483,"body":"allotment holders will know,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":973.32,"endTime":974.61,"body":"some weeds, like nettles,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":974.61,"endTime":975.81,"body":"these are nettles,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":975.81,"endTime":978.9,"body":"thrive in high fertility conditions,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":978.9,"endTime":981.42,"body":"while others will not do"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":978.9,"endTime":981.42,"body":"well in those conditions,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":981.42,"endTime":983.553,"body":"they prefer poorer soils."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":984.54,"endTime":985.68,"body":"Because arable weeds"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":985.68,"endTime":987.69,"body":"reflect the soil conditions"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":985.68,"endTime":987.69,"body":"in which they grew,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":987.69,"endTime":990.66,"body":"so different conditions produce"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":987.69,"endTime":990.66,"body":"different types of weeds,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":990.66,"endTime":993.21,"body":"they also provide us with direct evidence"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":993.21,"endTime":996.06,"body":"for the soil conditions"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":993.21,"endTime":996.06,"body":"in which crops grew,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":996.06,"endTime":998.85,"body":"that's the underlying principle,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":998.85,"endTime":1000.233,"body":"it's quite simple."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1002.06,"endTime":1004.64,"body":"Now, in order to interpret"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1004.64,"endTime":1006.29,"body":"the medieval weed seeds accurately,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1006.29,"endTime":1008.99,"body":"what sort of soil conditions"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1006.29,"endTime":1008.99,"body":"do they represent,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1008.99,"endTime":1010.73,"body":"we need some modern baseline data."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1010.73,"endTime":1012.68,"body":"This is about as technical"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1010.73,"endTime":1012.68,"body":"as it's going to get,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1012.68,"endTime":1015.023,"body":"so bear with me briefly, this one slide."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1015.98,"endTime":1019.05,"body":"This represents the work"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1015.98,"endTime":1019.05,"body":"of my colleague Amy Bogaard"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1020.0,"endTime":1022.91,"body":"in comparing the weeds"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1022.91,"endTime":1026.81,"body":"from tiny, intensively"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1022.91,"endTime":1026.81,"body":"manured cereal fields"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1026.81,"endTime":1029.24,"body":"in Northwest Spain, in Asturias,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1029.24,"endTime":1032.27,"body":"and you see that in the"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1029.24,"endTime":1032.27,"body":"top-right of this slide,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1032.27,"endTime":1035.36,"body":"to very low input, low fertility fields"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1035.36,"endTime":1037.43,"body":"in Haute Provence in the South of France,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1037.43,"endTime":1039.32,"body":"which you see in the top-left."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1039.32,"endTime":1040.4,"body":"So, in the top-right,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1040.4,"endTime":1043.73,"body":"these tiny fields are used"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1040.4,"endTime":1043.73,"body":"to grow some sort of special,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1043.73,"endTime":1045.56,"body":"I think it might be a type of wheat"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1045.56,"endTime":1047.9,"body":"that is used to bake a"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1045.56,"endTime":1047.9,"body":"special cake or bread"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1047.9,"endTime":1049.01,"body":"that they only eat once a year,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1049.01,"endTime":1049.85,"body":"so they're really tiny,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1049.85,"endTime":1051.05,"body":"they're almost like kitchen gardens,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1051.05,"endTime":1054.5,"body":"but they're using them to grow cereals."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1054.5,"endTime":1055.333,"body":"In Haute Provence,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1055.333,"endTime":1057.95,"body":"you can see they look"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1055.333,"endTime":1057.95,"body":"like regular wheat fields,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1057.95,"endTime":1059.063,"body":"very extensive."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1060.2,"endTime":1062.84,"body":"So she conducted a botanical"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1060.2,"endTime":1062.84,"body":"survey of the arable weeds"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1062.84,"endTime":1063.673,"body":"from both systems,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1063.673,"endTime":1066.801,"body":"and found that the results produced,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1066.801,"endTime":1070.04,"body":"she then produced a"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1066.801,"endTime":1070.04,"body":"discriminate function analysis"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1070.04,"endTime":1071.99,"body":"that you can see at the top of the slide,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1071.99,"endTime":1075.29,"body":"and she found that the weed"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1071.99,"endTime":1075.29,"body":"floras found in the two systems,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1075.29,"endTime":1077.72,"body":"the very intensive and the very extensive,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1077.72,"endTime":1081.26,"body":"formed two quite distinct groups,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1081.26,"endTime":1083.51,"body":"so it is possible, readily,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1083.51,"endTime":1085.82,"body":"to distinguish between the types of weeds"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1085.82,"endTime":1088.85,"body":"that grew in small,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1085.82,"endTime":1088.85,"body":"intensively cultivated fields"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1088.85,"endTime":1092.36,"body":"and those that grew in large,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1088.85,"endTime":1092.36,"body":"extensively cultivated fields,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1092.36,"endTime":1094.34,"body":"so that was kind of a test."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1094.34,"endTime":1096.26,"body":"And if you want to try this yourself,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1096.26,"endTime":1097.34,"body":"and I'm not a botanist,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1097.34,"endTime":1100.763,"body":"so I'm only going to"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1097.34,"endTime":1100.763,"body":"present this very simply,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1102.26,"endTime":1105.11,"body":"low growing, slow growing weeds,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1105.11,"endTime":1107.9,"body":"like the one you see there on the left,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1107.9,"endTime":1110.66,"body":"with almost needle-like leaves,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1110.66,"endTime":1115.13,"body":"tend to be associated with"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1110.66,"endTime":1115.13,"body":"very poor, low input soils,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1115.13,"endTime":1116.36,"body":"whereas the sorts of weeds"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1116.36,"endTime":1119.63,"body":"that would grow in most people's"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1116.36,"endTime":1119.63,"body":"gardens in this country,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1119.63,"endTime":1123.47,"body":"which are moderately fertile,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1123.47,"endTime":1125.24,"body":"grow like nettles,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1125.24,"endTime":1129.68,"body":"relatively fast, relatively"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1125.24,"endTime":1129.68,"body":"tall, with broad leaves."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1129.68,"endTime":1131.21,"body":"And these are the functional traits,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1131.21,"endTime":1132.32,"body":"I'm not sure if you can see them,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1132.32,"endTime":1135.17,"body":"but she looks at things"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1132.32,"endTime":1135.17,"body":"like canopy height,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1135.17,"endTime":1137.9,"body":"flowering duration,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1135.17,"endTime":1137.9,"body":"the area of the leaves,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1137.9,"endTime":1140.15,"body":"all these things tell"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1137.9,"endTime":1140.15,"body":"you whether that weed"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1140.15,"endTime":1143.033,"body":"likes low fertility or"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1140.15,"endTime":1143.033,"body":"high fertility conditions."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1144.5,"endTime":1147.26,"body":"So, I've spent a little"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1144.5,"endTime":1147.26,"body":"bit of time reviewing that"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1147.26,"endTime":1150.02,"body":"so that you kind of can"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1147.26,"endTime":1150.02,"body":"understand the results,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1150.02,"endTime":1151.7,"body":"which I'm now going to show you,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1151.7,"endTime":1156.7,"body":"when we apply this model"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1151.7,"endTime":1156.7,"body":"to medieval weed seeds."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1158.03,"endTime":1159.17,"body":"So, here are the results,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1159.17,"endTime":1161.15,"body":"they're just for the central zone"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1161.15,"endTime":1162.8,"body":"because it was the central zone,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1162.8,"endTime":1164.0,"body":"the bread basket of England,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1164.0,"endTime":1166.25,"body":"that really produced the most samples,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1166.25,"endTime":1169.253,"body":"so produced, really, the"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1166.25,"endTime":1169.253,"body":"best results, basically."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1171.05,"endTime":1172.64,"body":"Each of the dots that you see"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1172.64,"endTime":1176.36,"body":"represents one archeo-botanical sample,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1176.36,"endTime":1178.313,"body":"one sample of weed seeds,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1179.78,"endTime":1184.4,"body":"and you can see the date runs"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1179.78,"endTime":1184.4,"body":"along the horizontal axis"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1184.4,"endTime":1186.56,"body":"at the bottom of the slide,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1186.56,"endTime":1188.0,"body":"and along the vertical axis,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1188.0,"endTime":1192.62,"body":"you see scores from 6 down to -10."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1196.25,"endTime":1200.12,"body":"So, scores that are below zero,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1200.12,"endTime":1202.28,"body":"so dots that are plotting below zero"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1202.28,"endTime":1204.5,"body":"represent low fertility conditions,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1204.5,"endTime":1209.063,"body":"those plotting above zero equal"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1204.5,"endTime":1209.063,"body":"higher fertility conditions."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1210.02,"endTime":1213.23,"body":"And essentially, what"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1210.02,"endTime":1213.23,"body":"the graph shows, clearly,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1213.23,"endTime":1215.0,"body":"is diminishing scores,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1215.0,"endTime":1218.09,"body":"and so decreasing fertility over time,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1218.09,"endTime":1220.01,"body":"that's what this dotted"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1218.09,"endTime":1220.01,"body":"line is showing you,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1220.01,"endTime":1221.153,"body":"it's going down,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1222.11,"endTime":1225.923,"body":"soil conditions are becoming"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1222.11,"endTime":1225.923,"body":"less fertile over time."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1227.57,"endTime":1229.04,"body":"Now, there is a hint, I think,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1229.04,"endTime":1233.06,"body":"of a bit of a step change"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1229.04,"endTime":1233.06,"body":"round about the 8th century."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1233.06,"endTime":1235.043,"body":"So, in these earliest phases,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1236.03,"endTime":1239.27,"body":"you can see the samples are"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1236.03,"endTime":1239.27,"body":"plotting relatively high."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1239.27,"endTime":1240.47,"body":"Now, we don't have many samples"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1240.47,"endTime":1242.84,"body":"but they have relatively high scores,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1242.84,"endTime":1244.91,"body":"but after about 700,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1244.91,"endTime":1247.88,"body":"pretty much everything is below zero,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1247.88,"endTime":1251.363,"body":"it all counts as extensive,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1247.88,"endTime":1251.363,"body":"low fertility farming."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1253.19,"endTime":1254.023,"body":"Now, what's interesting"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1254.023,"endTime":1255.89,"body":"is that we know from written sources,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1255.89,"endTime":1258.11,"body":"of the 12th and 13th century mostly,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1258.11,"endTime":1260.03,"body":"that farmers were working really hard"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1260.03,"endTime":1261.86,"body":"to maintain soil fertility,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1261.86,"endTime":1264.26,"body":"through manuring, through hand weeding,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1264.26,"endTime":1266.6,"body":"through planting legumes"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1264.26,"endTime":1266.6,"body":"and other green manures,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1266.6,"endTime":1268.49,"body":"and I've had historians"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1266.6,"endTime":1268.49,"body":"argue with me and say,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1268.49,"endTime":1272.18,"body":"but they were working so"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1268.49,"endTime":1272.18,"body":"hard to maintain fertility."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1272.18,"endTime":1274.61,"body":"Well, they undoubtedly were,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1274.61,"endTime":1276.05,"body":"but the weeds tell us that,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1276.05,"endTime":1278.03,"body":"whatever farmers were doing,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1278.03,"endTime":1281.75,"body":"it just wasn't enough to"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1278.03,"endTime":1281.75,"body":"reverse that downward trend,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1281.75,"endTime":1283.55,"body":"that is just an ecological fact,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1283.55,"endTime":1286.49,"body":"that is what the weeds tell us,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1286.49,"endTime":1287.663,"body":"so that's interesting."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1288.56,"endTime":1289.82,"body":"So that's extensification,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1289.82,"endTime":1292.31,"body":"that's all I want to"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1289.82,"endTime":1292.31,"body":"say about that for now,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1292.31,"endTime":1295.553,"body":"let's move on to talk about crop rotation."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1297.59,"endTime":1299.06,"body":"Now, collective decision making"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1299.06,"endTime":1301.61,"body":"about crop rotation and fallow grazing"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1301.61,"endTime":1303.18,"body":"was a fundamental feature"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1304.07,"endTime":1307.853,"body":"of the two and three field systems."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1308.72,"endTime":1309.65,"body":"Rotation, of course,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1309.65,"endTime":1313.25,"body":"allowed a higher proportion"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1309.65,"endTime":1313.25,"body":"of a village's arable"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1313.25,"endTime":1315.833,"body":"to be under crop at any one time."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1317.69,"endTime":1320.84,"body":"Now, farmers had to agree"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1317.69,"endTime":1320.84,"body":"in a system like this"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1320.84,"endTime":1323.57,"body":"when and in which field"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1320.84,"endTime":1323.57,"body":"to sow different cereals,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1323.57,"endTime":1326.33,"body":"and which field to leave fallow."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1326.33,"endTime":1327.163,"body":"I mean, obviously,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1327.163,"endTime":1331.76,"body":"you can't have your sheep"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1327.163,"endTime":1331.76,"body":"grazing in a fallow field"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1331.76,"endTime":1334.1,"body":"immediately next to a crop field,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1334.1,"endTime":1335.42,"body":"you have to keep them separate,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1335.42,"endTime":1336.83,"body":"so you have to agree"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1335.42,"endTime":1336.83,"body":"what you're going to do,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1336.83,"endTime":1339.713,"body":"farmers had to cooperate and had to agree."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1340.91,"endTime":1343.19,"body":"And they might, in a typical system,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1343.19,"endTime":1345.17,"body":"have autumn-sown wheat in one field,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1345.17,"endTime":1346.64,"body":"spring-sown barley in another,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1346.64,"endTime":1349.4,"body":"and then the third field left fallow,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1349.4,"endTime":1351.44,"body":"that's the kind of classical model,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1351.44,"endTime":1353.24,"body":"and then the next year you rotate"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1353.24,"endTime":1357.263,"body":"and you have barley in what"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1353.24,"endTime":1357.263,"body":"was the wheat field, and so on."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1360.41,"endTime":1361.43,"body":"So what we did"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1361.43,"endTime":1364.58,"body":"was to look at the crop"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1361.43,"endTime":1364.58,"body":"stable isotope values"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1364.58,"endTime":1366.2,"body":"in cereal grains,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1366.2,"endTime":1368.33,"body":"specifically it was the nitrogen values"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1368.33,"endTime":1369.773,"body":"that we were interested in,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1370.79,"endTime":1372.62,"body":"to see whether different cereals"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1372.62,"endTime":1375.08,"body":"had grown in the same soil conditions,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1375.08,"endTime":1377.813,"body":"and therefore potentially in rotation."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1378.83,"endTime":1380.9,"body":"So if barley and wheat, for example,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1380.9,"endTime":1383.54,"body":"are grown in rotation, in"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1380.9,"endTime":1383.54,"body":"the same sets of fields,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1383.54,"endTime":1386.34,"body":"they'll have isotope values"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1383.54,"endTime":1386.34,"body":"that are basically the same."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1387.47,"endTime":1388.303,"body":"If they're different,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1388.303,"endTime":1389.72,"body":"if those values are different,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1389.72,"endTime":1392.27,"body":"they couldn't possibly have"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1389.72,"endTime":1392.27,"body":"been grown in rotation."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1393.62,"endTime":1395.033,"body":"So what did we find?"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1396.26,"endTime":1397.093,"body":"We found,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1397.093,"endTime":1400.97,"body":"when we normalized our results"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1397.093,"endTime":1400.97,"body":"across all of our sites,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1400.97,"endTime":1402.5,"body":"well, we found this."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1402.5,"endTime":1405.08,"body":"So, in the earliest phase,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1405.08,"endTime":1409.43,"body":"which takes us right back"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1405.08,"endTime":1409.43,"body":"to the 7th to 9th centuries,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1409.43,"endTime":1411.92,"body":"you can see the values"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1409.43,"endTime":1411.92,"body":"are really widespread,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1411.92,"endTime":1413.09,"body":"they're all over the place,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1413.09,"endTime":1416.0,"body":"there's very little"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1413.09,"endTime":1416.0,"body":"evidence here of rotation."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1416.0,"endTime":1417.41,"body":"The different colored dots, by the way,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1417.41,"endTime":1418.73,"body":"are different types of cereals,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1418.73,"endTime":1420.263,"body":"oats, rye, wheat, and barley."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1421.28,"endTime":1424.7,"body":"So the earliest phase, very widespread,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1424.7,"endTime":1425.96,"body":"you can can see, in the next phase,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1425.96,"endTime":1428.84,"body":"which takes us to the late 9th century"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1428.84,"endTime":1432.462,"body":"up to the first quarter"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1428.84,"endTime":1432.462,"body":"of the 11th century,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1432.462,"endTime":1436.85,"body":"that variability's a little bit reduced,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1436.85,"endTime":1438.32,"body":"and then in the last phase,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1438.32,"endTime":1441.53,"body":"which is the 11th to 13th centuries,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1441.53,"endTime":1443.48,"body":"it really reduces a lot,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1443.48,"endTime":1445.007,"body":"so we think that it is in that period,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1445.007,"endTime":1446.96,"body":"the 11th to 13th centuries,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1446.96,"endTime":1449.27,"body":"that crop rotation,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1446.96,"endTime":1449.27,"body":"systematic crop rotation,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1449.27,"endTime":1451.58,"body":"is really being quite widely practiced,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1451.58,"endTime":1453.8,"body":"but this is the first sort"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1451.58,"endTime":1453.8,"body":"of direct scientific evidence"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1453.8,"endTime":1455.513,"body":"we've ever had for that,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1456.71,"endTime":1458.15,"body":"we've had to rely entirely, really,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1458.15,"endTime":1460.04,"body":"on written sources"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1460.04,"endTime":1460.973,"body":"until now."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1464.03,"endTime":1465.593,"body":"So that's crop rotation,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1466.79,"endTime":1468.77,"body":"and we can now look at this question"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1468.77,"endTime":1470.21,"body":"about the moldboard plow,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1470.21,"endTime":1473.813,"body":"when did it come into widespread use,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1475.28,"endTime":1480.17,"body":"this really disruptive"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1475.28,"endTime":1480.17,"body":"technology of the Middle Ages."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1481.58,"endTime":1483.08,"body":"So, what was the moldboard plow,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1483.08,"endTime":1484.853,"body":"what made it so important?"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1486.38,"endTime":1490.22,"body":"Well, the main tillage"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1486.38,"endTime":1490.22,"body":"implement of the Roman period"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1490.22,"endTime":1491.053,"body":"in the west"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1491.053,"endTime":1493.31,"body":"was the scratch plow, or ard,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1493.31,"endTime":1495.323,"body":"which you see at the top here."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1498.47,"endTime":1501.05,"body":"The ard, or scratch plow,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1501.05,"endTime":1501.89,"body":"as the name suggests,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1501.89,"endTime":1506.093,"body":"really just scratches a furrow"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1501.89,"endTime":1506.093,"body":"into the surface of the soil."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1507.2,"endTime":1508.88,"body":"What the moldboard allows you to do"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1508.88,"endTime":1510.68,"body":"is actually turn the soil over,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1510.68,"endTime":1512.81,"body":"as I hope you can see in this diagram,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1512.81,"endTime":1516.443,"body":"this is a nice early medieval"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1512.81,"endTime":1516.443,"body":"image of a moldboard plow."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1517.7,"endTime":1518.66,"body":"So, you have a colter"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1518.66,"endTime":1521.57,"body":"that cuts vertically down into the soil"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1521.57,"endTime":1524.453,"body":"and then a moldboard that turns it over."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1525.47,"endTime":1530.047,"body":"And that ability, that complexity"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1532.55,"endTime":1533.48,"body":"in the moldboard plow"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1533.48,"endTime":1535.94,"body":"allowed farmers to expand more readily"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1535.94,"endTime":1540.94,"body":"onto heavier, more fertile,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1535.94,"endTime":1540.94,"body":"more productive soils,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1540.95,"endTime":1543.05,"body":"and that's a really key feature"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1543.05,"endTime":1546.0,"body":"of this medieval arable expansion"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1543.05,"endTime":1546.0,"body":"that we're talking about."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1547.7,"endTime":1551.78,"body":"Now, we know that the moldboard"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1547.7,"endTime":1551.78,"body":"plow was around in England"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1551.78,"endTime":1553.997,"body":"quite early, already in the 7th century,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1553.997,"endTime":1556.1,"body":"and the reason we know that"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1556.1,"endTime":1557.21,"body":"is that archeologists"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1557.21,"endTime":1559.95,"body":"have excavated a piece of a moldboard plow"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1561.44,"endTime":1562.273,"body":"in Kent,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1562.273,"endTime":1566.27,"body":"associated with a royal monastery"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1562.273,"endTime":1566.27,"body":"at a place called Lyminge,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1566.27,"endTime":1567.71,"body":"so we know it existed,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1567.71,"endTime":1569.78,"body":"they knew of the moldboard plow,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1569.78,"endTime":1571.31,"body":"so the real question is"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1571.31,"endTime":1572.6,"body":"when did it change"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1572.6,"endTime":1575.27,"body":"from being a rarefied,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1572.6,"endTime":1575.27,"body":"high status piece of kit"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1575.27,"endTime":1577.4,"body":"that you might use in a royal monastery"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1577.4,"endTime":1581.36,"body":"to being something that"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1577.4,"endTime":1581.36,"body":"most farmers had access to?"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1581.36,"endTime":1582.193,"body":"And we know that,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1582.193,"endTime":1583.67,"body":"by the time of \"Domesday Book,\""},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1583.67,"endTime":1586.43,"body":"an awful lot of farmers were"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1583.67,"endTime":1586.43,"body":"using the moldboard plow,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1586.43,"endTime":1587.51,"body":"so when did that happen,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1587.51,"endTime":1590.9,"body":"when was that tipping point?"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1590.9,"endTime":1592.07,"body":"Or indeed was there a tipping point,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1592.07,"endTime":1595.223,"body":"was it just a gradual increase over time?"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1597.02,"endTime":1600.443,"body":"So again, weeds are key."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1602.66,"endTime":1606.05,"body":"Again, you may know that"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1602.66,"endTime":1606.05,"body":"some weeds absolutely thrive"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1606.05,"endTime":1608.39,"body":"in highly disturbed soil conditions,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1608.39,"endTime":1611.003,"body":"like those produced by moldboard plow,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1612.32,"endTime":1614.36,"body":"so for example thistles,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1614.36,"endTime":1618.05,"body":"which you see on this slide,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1618.05,"endTime":1619.01,"body":"or ground elder,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1619.01,"endTime":1620.3,"body":"if we're talking about my garden,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1620.3,"endTime":1622.49,"body":"my garden's absolutely"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1620.3,"endTime":1622.49,"body":"infested with ground elder."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1622.49,"endTime":1624.26,"body":"Thistles and other weeds like that"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1624.26,"endTime":1628.1,"body":"positively love being"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1624.26,"endTime":1628.1,"body":"chopped up into little pieces"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1628.1,"endTime":1630.8,"body":"because they regenerate very readily"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1630.8,"endTime":1633.02,"body":"from tiny bits of root,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1633.02,"endTime":1635.54,"body":"if you leave even a tiny bit behind,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1635.54,"endTime":1636.803,"body":"a new plant will grow."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1638.0,"endTime":1639.77,"body":"Medieval writers like Walter of Henley"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1639.77,"endTime":1640.73,"body":"knew all about this,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1640.73,"endTime":1644.123,"body":"and thistles are much complained"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1640.73,"endTime":1644.123,"body":"about in medieval texts."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1645.11,"endTime":1646.047,"body":"As he says here,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1646.047,"endTime":1648.057,"body":"\"If thistles are plowed"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1646.047,"endTime":1648.057,"body":"up before midsummer,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1648.057,"endTime":1651.83,"body":"\"for each one shall come up two or three,\""},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1651.83,"endTime":1655.31,"body":"so he said thistles are"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1651.83,"endTime":1655.31,"body":"difficult to kill off"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1655.31,"endTime":1656.45,"body":"even with a moldboard plow,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1656.45,"endTime":1658.65,"body":"in fact they really"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1656.45,"endTime":1658.65,"body":"like the moldboard plow."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1659.9,"endTime":1663.5,"body":"So ards and plows, ard"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1659.9,"endTime":1663.5,"body":"and plow cultivation"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1663.5,"endTime":1665.307,"body":"produced types of weeds,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1665.307,"endTime":1667.31,"body":"'cause there are lots of weeds"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1665.307,"endTime":1667.31,"body":"that don't like this at all,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1667.31,"endTime":1671.66,"body":"there are weeds that require"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1667.31,"endTime":1671.66,"body":"low disturbance to survive,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1671.66,"endTime":1673.79,"body":"so they would cope with ard cultivation,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1673.79,"endTime":1675.08,"body":"others, like thistles,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1675.08,"endTime":1678.653,"body":"prefer high disturbance conditions."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1679.97,"endTime":1682.91,"body":"So again, we needed some"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1679.97,"endTime":1682.91,"body":"modern baseline data"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1682.91,"endTime":1684.83,"body":"with which to compare"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1682.91,"endTime":1684.83,"body":"our medieval samples,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1684.83,"endTime":1687.32,"body":"and this came from two sources,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1687.32,"endTime":1689.57,"body":"the first is Highgrove Home Farm,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1689.57,"endTime":1692.813,"body":"home of Duchy Originals, you"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1689.57,"endTime":1692.813,"body":"biscuit lovers out there."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1693.68,"endTime":1694.513,"body":"As you may know,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1694.513,"endTime":1697.28,"body":"they grow heritage cereal varieties,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1697.28,"endTime":1699.2,"body":"and they grow them organically,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1699.2,"endTime":1700.913,"body":"they practice crop rotation."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1702.08,"endTime":1705.83,"body":"And our second source was"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1702.08,"endTime":1705.83,"body":"a village called Laxton,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1705.83,"endTime":1707.06,"body":"in Nottinghamshire,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1707.06,"endTime":1710.81,"body":"which refers to itself as"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1707.06,"endTime":1710.81,"body":"England's last open field village,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1710.81,"endTime":1711.83,"body":"and indeed"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1711.83,"endTime":1716.003,"body":"there is a still functioning"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1711.83,"endTime":1716.003,"body":"open field system there."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1716.84,"endTime":1718.82,"body":"And here you see the FeedSax team"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1718.82,"endTime":1721.16,"body":"conducting a botanical survey at Laxton,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1721.16,"endTime":1722.84,"body":"so we went out and actually looked,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1722.84,"endTime":1726.833,"body":"well, what kinds of weeds"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1722.84,"endTime":1726.833,"body":"grow in these systems?"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1728.39,"endTime":1729.223,"body":"And again,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1729.223,"endTime":1732.8,"body":"Amy Bogaard produced a"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1729.223,"endTime":1732.8,"body":"discriminate function analysis,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1732.8,"endTime":1734.75,"body":"don't worry about this slide too much,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1734.75,"endTime":1738.77,"body":"the point is that it was quite easy"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1738.77,"endTime":1740.57,"body":"to separate out the sorts of weeds"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1740.57,"endTime":1743.42,"body":"that grew in the really"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1740.57,"endTime":1743.42,"body":"low disturbance conditions"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1743.42,"endTime":1745.7,"body":"in the hay meadows at Laxton"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1745.7,"endTime":1747.53,"body":"from those on the right here"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1747.53,"endTime":1748.49,"body":"that grew, actually,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1748.49,"endTime":1750.05,"body":"in the arable fields"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1750.05,"endTime":1753.32,"body":"that underwent the"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1750.05,"endTime":1753.32,"body":"disturbance of modern plows."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1753.32,"endTime":1754.97,"body":"Of course, they use modern plows"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1754.97,"endTime":1759.62,"body":"at both Laxton and Highgrove."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1759.62,"endTime":1760.58,"body":"So it was possible"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1760.58,"endTime":1763.73,"body":"to separate out high disturbance"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1760.58,"endTime":1763.73,"body":"and low disturbance weeds"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1763.73,"endTime":1765.653,"body":"quite readily."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1768.77,"endTime":1773.12,"body":"We refined the picture using"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1768.77,"endTime":1773.12,"body":"some really remarkable data,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1773.12,"endTime":1774.26,"body":"'cause we thought it was important"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1774.26,"endTime":1775.22,"body":"to look at some fields"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1775.22,"endTime":1778.34,"body":"that are actually being"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1775.22,"endTime":1778.34,"body":"plowed with a moldboard plow,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1778.34,"endTime":1780.383,"body":"and we found such a place in Germany,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1782.274,"endTime":1783.92,"body":"at an experimental farm"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1783.92,"endTime":1786.32,"body":"at the World Heritage"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1783.92,"endTime":1786.32,"body":"site of Lorsch Abbey,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1786.32,"endTime":1789.023,"body":"which is near Frankfurt,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1786.32,"endTime":1789.023,"body":"or south of Frankfurt."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1791.24,"endTime":1793.01,"body":"So, this is a working farm"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1793.01,"endTime":1795.74,"body":"where they carry out"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1793.01,"endTime":1795.74,"body":"cultivation experiments"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1795.74,"endTime":1800.74,"body":"using really high quality"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1795.74,"endTime":1800.74,"body":"archeological replicas,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1801.17,"endTime":1805.07,"body":"like the moldboard plow in this image,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1805.07,"endTime":1808.13,"body":"and they very kindly"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1805.07,"endTime":1808.13,"body":"supplied us with weed data"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1808.13,"endTime":1811.193,"body":"so that we were able to"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1808.13,"endTime":1811.193,"body":"introduce this into our model."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1812.36,"endTime":1817.36,"body":"So, we applied that model then"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1812.36,"endTime":1817.36,"body":"to our archeological samples,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1817.91,"endTime":1821.99,"body":"and here again we see the weed"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1817.91,"endTime":1821.99,"body":"samples for the central zone,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1821.99,"endTime":1825.68,"body":"but this time in relation"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1821.99,"endTime":1825.68,"body":"to soil disturbance."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1825.68,"endTime":1827.36,"body":"Before it was fertility,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1827.36,"endTime":1829.853,"body":"now we're looking at soil disturbance."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1832.79,"endTime":1836.03,"body":"So, the arrow on the"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1832.79,"endTime":1836.03,"body":"right, that blue arrow,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1836.03,"endTime":1836.9,"body":"I hope you can see it,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1836.9,"endTime":1838.79,"body":"I probably should have"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1836.9,"endTime":1838.79,"body":"made it a different color,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1838.79,"endTime":1840.95,"body":"but the arrow indicates"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1840.95,"endTime":1843.86,"body":"what you might call our"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1840.95,"endTime":1843.86,"body":"moldboard plow line,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1843.86,"endTime":1844.693,"body":"in other words,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1844.693,"endTime":1847.25,"body":"samples plotting below that line"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1847.25,"endTime":1850.22,"body":"grew in low disturbance conditions"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1850.22,"endTime":1852.92,"body":"consistent with the use of an ard,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1852.92,"endTime":1854.58,"body":"the samples above the line"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1855.44,"endTime":1857.45,"body":"grew in high disturbance conditions"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1857.45,"endTime":1861.02,"body":"consistent with the use"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1857.45,"endTime":1861.02,"body":"of a moldboard plow."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1861.02,"endTime":1862.07,"body":"And here you can see,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1862.07,"endTime":1864.74,"body":"whereas soil fertility was"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1862.07,"endTime":1864.74,"body":"going down through time,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1864.74,"endTime":1866.69,"body":"you can see, I hope,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1866.69,"endTime":1869.93,"body":"that disturbance is going up through time,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1869.93,"endTime":1871.94,"body":"it is increasing through time,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1871.94,"endTime":1872.99,"body":"although we do see,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1872.99,"endTime":1875.03,"body":"and you can see this quite readily,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1875.03,"endTime":1878.57,"body":"some continuation of low"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1875.03,"endTime":1878.57,"body":"disturbance cultivation,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1878.57,"endTime":1880.19,"body":"which suggests, as we would expect,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1880.19,"endTime":1882.14,"body":"that some farmers were still using an ard,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1882.14,"endTime":1884.81,"body":"and we know that the"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1882.14,"endTime":1884.81,"body":"ard continued to be used"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1884.81,"endTime":1886.07,"body":"throughout the Middle Ages,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1886.07,"endTime":1887.06,"body":"but the moldboard plow"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1887.06,"endTime":1891.533,"body":"is clearly becoming more and"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1887.06,"endTime":1891.533,"body":"more prominent through time."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1897.11,"endTime":1898.73,"body":"So, we'll leave plant remains behind"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1898.73,"endTime":1901.19,"body":"and look at the animal bone evidence,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1901.19,"endTime":1903.713,"body":"the evidence from cattle"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1901.19,"endTime":1903.713,"body":"bones specifically,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1905.6,"endTime":1906.86,"body":"and what they tell us"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1906.86,"endTime":1909.563,"body":"about the spread of the"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1906.86,"endTime":1909.563,"body":"heavy moldboard plow."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1910.43,"endTime":1911.69,"body":"Now, the first thing we did"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1911.69,"endTime":1915.71,"body":"was to identify a trend"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1911.69,"endTime":1915.71,"body":"towards more male animals"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1915.71,"endTime":1918.47,"body":"and towards older animals,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1918.47,"endTime":1920.54,"body":"and this trend,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1920.54,"endTime":1921.44,"body":"I think you can see,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1921.44,"endTime":1923.87,"body":"peaked in the 10th and 11th centuries,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1923.87,"endTime":1924.98,"body":"so we're looking, really, here"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1924.98,"endTime":1928.37,"body":"at the darker part of the bar,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1928.37,"endTime":1930.71,"body":"that is the proportion of animals"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1930.71,"endTime":1933.77,"body":"that were used for what's what's"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1930.71,"endTime":1933.77,"body":"called secondary products,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1933.77,"endTime":1935.12,"body":"that is dairy and traction,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1935.12,"endTime":1936.83,"body":"but probably, in this early period,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1936.83,"endTime":1938.09,"body":"mostly traction,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1938.09,"endTime":1940.79,"body":"and you can see there's"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1938.09,"endTime":1940.79,"body":"more, and more, and more"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1940.79,"endTime":1945.79,"body":"until it peaks in that period 850 to 1066."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1945.83,"endTime":1948.83,"body":"You might wonder why it seems"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1945.83,"endTime":1948.83,"body":"to reduce again after that,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1948.83,"endTime":1950.99,"body":"and we think that is because"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1950.99,"endTime":1953.72,"body":"people are increasingly"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1950.99,"endTime":1953.72,"body":"using horses for traction"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1953.72,"endTime":1956.45,"body":"once you get to that later period."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1956.45,"endTime":1958.88,"body":"But they're definitely increasing,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1958.88,"endTime":1962.58,"body":"cattle are increasingly"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1958.88,"endTime":1962.58,"body":"being used for traction"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1964.19,"endTime":1965.843,"body":"up until 1066."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1967.1,"endTime":1970.13,"body":"We then also looked at these foot bones"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1970.13,"endTime":1972.29,"body":"that I mentioned earlier on,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1972.29,"endTime":1973.58,"body":"and the reason for that"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1973.58,"endTime":1977.9,"body":"is that the strain of pulling a heavy,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1977.9,"endTime":1979.16,"body":"well, a heavy anything,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1979.16,"endTime":1981.15,"body":"but a heavy moldboard plow"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1982.13,"endTime":1986.09,"body":"would cause pathological"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1982.13,"endTime":1986.09,"body":"changes to the feet of cattle,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1986.09,"endTime":1989.873,"body":"basically, they develop a"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1986.09,"endTime":1989.873,"body":"kind of arthritis over time."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1990.92,"endTime":1994.94,"body":"And these pathologies allowed us to define"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1994.94,"endTime":1997.22,"body":"what we call a draft cattle's signature"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1997.22,"endTime":1999.11,"body":"for some sites,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":1999.11,"endTime":2002.35,"body":"and the sites that you see on these maps"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2002.35,"endTime":2003.82,"body":"with a draft cattle signature,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2003.82,"endTime":2004.653,"body":"I hope you can see this,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2004.653,"endTime":2007.3,"body":"are marked with a little ox,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2007.3,"endTime":2009.703,"body":"so those are the ones with this signature."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2011.32,"endTime":2012.7,"body":"So, the maps show"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2012.7,"endTime":2016.27,"body":"how the proportion of settlements,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2012.7,"endTime":2016.27,"body":"excavated settlements,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2016.27,"endTime":2018.1,"body":"with this draft cattle signature"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2018.1,"endTime":2019.42,"body":"increases over time."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2019.42,"endTime":2021.04,"body":"So here on the left,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2021.04,"endTime":2024.727,"body":"you have the period 400-700"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2021.04,"endTime":2024.727,"body":"and then 600 to 900,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2024.727,"endTime":2027.07,"body":"and it's really quite a"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2024.727,"endTime":2027.07,"body":"low proportion of sites"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2027.07,"endTime":2028.9,"body":"have this signature,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2028.9,"endTime":2033.9,"body":"but when we move to later"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2028.9,"endTime":2033.9,"body":"centuries, 800 to 1100,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2035.02,"endTime":2037.12,"body":"the proportion goes right up,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2037.12,"endTime":2039.46,"body":"and for 1000 to 1200,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2039.46,"endTime":2041.11,"body":"all the sites we looked at"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2041.11,"endTime":2042.52,"body":"produced a really pronounced,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2042.52,"endTime":2045.88,"body":"a really clear draft cattle signature,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2045.88,"endTime":2049.723,"body":"so something is clearly going on."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2053.26,"endTime":2055.27,"body":"So, having looked at the evidence"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2055.27,"endTime":2060.27,"body":"for extensification, for crop rotation,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2060.37,"endTime":2062.533,"body":"and for the use of the moldboard plow,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2063.67,"endTime":2068.35,"body":"we can now compare the timing"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2063.67,"endTime":2068.35,"body":"of their appearance and spread"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2068.35,"endTime":2070.21,"body":"to changes in rural settlement,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2070.21,"endTime":2071.41,"body":"and we say rural settlement,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2071.41,"endTime":2075.01,"body":"but really, we're talking"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2071.41,"endTime":2075.01,"body":"here about farms and villages,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2075.01,"endTime":2077.11,"body":"actual farms and villages"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2077.11,"endTime":2080.05,"body":"of this first part of the Middle Ages,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2080.05,"endTime":2083.173,"body":"so that's what I want to do next."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2085.66,"endTime":2089.182,"body":"Now, rural settlements in"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2085.66,"endTime":2089.182,"body":"early medieval England,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2089.182,"endTime":2090.25,"body":"and when I say early medieval,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2090.25,"endTime":2093.61,"body":"really, I'm going"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2090.25,"endTime":2093.61,"body":"actually right up to 1200"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2093.61,"endTime":2094.903,"body":"in the discussion today,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2094.903,"endTime":2098.29,"body":"but anyway, rural settlement"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2094.903,"endTime":2098.29,"body":"underwent, I would say,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2098.29,"endTime":2103.24,"body":"three distinct episodes of change,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2103.24,"endTime":2104.503,"body":"in those centuries,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2106.03,"endTime":2108.43,"body":"and these, I think, can best be understood"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2108.43,"endTime":2112.12,"body":"when viewed against the backdrop"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2108.43,"endTime":2112.12,"body":"of the changes in farming"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2112.12,"endTime":2113.89,"body":"that we just looked at."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2113.89,"endTime":2116.29,"body":"So, the first of these episodes"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2116.29,"endTime":2121.03,"body":"is what historians have come"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2116.29,"endTime":2121.03,"body":"to call the long 8th century,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2121.03,"endTime":2121.9,"body":"so, in fact,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2121.9,"endTime":2126.493,"body":"the period from more or less"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2121.9,"endTime":2126.493,"body":"680 to more or less 830."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2127.69,"endTime":2130.51,"body":"What makes that period different,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2130.51,"endTime":2133.75,"body":"what sort of changes do"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2130.51,"endTime":2133.75,"body":"we see, what innovations?"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2133.75,"endTime":2136.483,"body":"And we see quite a lot of"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2133.75,"endTime":2136.483,"body":"changes in this period,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2137.47,"endTime":2139.27,"body":"mostly in Central and Eastern England,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2139.27,"endTime":2140.923,"body":"but the changes are clear."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2141.79,"endTime":2144.67,"body":"So, we start to see settlements"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2144.67,"endTime":2149.05,"body":"become associated with the"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2144.67,"endTime":2149.05,"body":"first post-Roman droveways,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2149.05,"endTime":2150.97,"body":"the first livestock enclosures,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2150.97,"endTime":2153.22,"body":"the first hay meadows, and so on."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2153.22,"endTime":2154.053,"body":"Prior to this,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2154.053,"endTime":2155.98,"body":"we don't have evidence for any of that."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2155.98,"endTime":2158.35,"body":"They had it in the Roman period,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2158.35,"endTime":2160.09,"body":"and then it all disappears"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2160.09,"endTime":2162.19,"body":"in the 5th, 6th, 7th centuries,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2162.19,"endTime":2163.66,"body":"and then, in the late 7th century,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2163.66,"endTime":2165.823,"body":"you start to get these features again."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2167.23,"endTime":2169.36,"body":"Why is that interesting,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2169.36,"endTime":2170.71,"body":"or why is it important?"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2170.71,"endTime":2171.73,"body":"Because, I think,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2171.73,"endTime":2176.73,"body":"there are two really significant,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2171.73,"endTime":2176.73,"body":"I think, implications"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2176.95,"endTime":2180.1,"body":"for the appearance again of"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2176.95,"endTime":2180.1,"body":"things like livestock enclosures"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2180.1,"endTime":2181.06,"body":"and droveways, and so on,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2181.06,"endTime":2182.39,"body":"'cause it tells us"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2183.31,"endTime":2186.49,"body":"that livestock were"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2183.31,"endTime":2186.49,"body":"being managed in new ways"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2186.49,"endTime":2189.28,"body":"that required their"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2186.49,"endTime":2189.28,"body":"movement to be controlled"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2189.28,"endTime":2192.25,"body":"so that they didn't just"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2189.28,"endTime":2192.25,"body":"stray off into fields"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2192.25,"endTime":2193.87,"body":"or stray off into farmsteads"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2193.87,"endTime":2196.9,"body":"and start nibbling on"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2193.87,"endTime":2196.9,"body":"the thatch, or whatever,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2196.9,"endTime":2200.38,"body":"so somehow, they must be being"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2196.9,"endTime":2200.38,"body":"kept close to the settlements"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2200.38,"endTime":2203.02,"body":"and so you have to really"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2200.38,"endTime":2203.02,"body":"manage their movements"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2203.02,"endTime":2205.87,"body":"and make sure they don't get into trouble."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2205.87,"endTime":2207.67,"body":"So that's the first implication,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2207.67,"endTime":2208.503,"body":"and the second one,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2208.503,"endTime":2211.03,"body":"which is equally important, I think,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2211.03,"endTime":2213.7,"body":"is that farmers must"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2211.03,"endTime":2213.7,"body":"have been cooperating,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2213.7,"endTime":2215.53,"body":"they must have been pooling their labor"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2215.53,"endTime":2219.73,"body":"in order to construct these droveways"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2219.73,"endTime":2222.85,"body":"and these very extensive complexes"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2222.85,"endTime":2226.0,"body":"of paddocks, corrals, whatever they are,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2226.0,"endTime":2227.26,"body":"these livestock enclosures,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2227.26,"endTime":2229.57,"body":"because they are quite extensive,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2229.57,"endTime":2231.94,"body":"they involve quite deep ditches and banks,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2231.94,"endTime":2233.68,"body":"they would have involved a lot of work,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2233.68,"endTime":2236.8,"body":"much more than could be"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2233.68,"endTime":2236.8,"body":"done by just one household,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2236.8,"endTime":2239.17,"body":"or even two households,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2239.17,"endTime":2240.97,"body":"so these were large scale undertakings,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2240.97,"endTime":2243.853,"body":"and I think those two implications"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2240.97,"endTime":2243.853,"body":"are quite significant."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2244.9,"endTime":2245.733,"body":"So, we see the droveways,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2245.733,"endTime":2248.2,"body":"the enclosures, and the hay meadows,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2248.2,"endTime":2251.17,"body":"but we also see"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2248.2,"endTime":2251.17,"body":"investment, in this period,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2251.17,"endTime":2252.49,"body":"in the first centralized"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2252.49,"endTime":2254.62,"body":"crop processing and storage facilities"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2254.62,"endTime":2256.003,"body":"since the Roman period,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2257.32,"endTime":2260.59,"body":"the first medieval grain"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2257.32,"endTime":2260.59,"body":"drying ovens and malting ovens,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2260.59,"endTime":2263.56,"body":"like this wonderful malting"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2260.59,"endTime":2263.56,"body":"oven from Northamptonshire,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2263.56,"endTime":2264.733,"body":"from Higham Ferrers,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2266.02,"endTime":2268.57,"body":"they appear for the first time."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2268.57,"endTime":2273.19,"body":"The first medieval water"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2268.57,"endTime":2273.19,"body":"mills also date this period,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2273.19,"endTime":2276.31,"body":"here's a really early one from Kent."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2276.31,"endTime":2279.49,"body":"We even have a few barns"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2276.31,"endTime":2279.49,"body":"known from this period."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2279.49,"endTime":2280.57,"body":"I don't want to exaggerate,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2280.57,"endTime":2281.403,"body":"I don't want to say"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2281.403,"endTime":2283.87,"body":"that they're appearing"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2281.403,"endTime":2283.87,"body":"absolutely everywhere,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2283.87,"endTime":2285.91,"body":"but it is a clear phenomenon"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2285.91,"endTime":2288.16,"body":"and they are popping up increasingly"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2288.16,"endTime":2290.563,"body":"as there is more excavation."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2292.15,"endTime":2294.7,"body":"So, these features,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2294.7,"endTime":2298.21,"body":"like the malting ovens, the"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2294.7,"endTime":2298.21,"body":"water mills, barns, and so on,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2298.21,"endTime":2301.54,"body":"I think could be seen as"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2298.21,"endTime":2301.54,"body":"sort of capital projects,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2301.54,"endTime":2303.01,"body":"associated, invariably,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2303.01,"endTime":2305.26,"body":"with high status settlements,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2305.26,"endTime":2307.333,"body":"royal sites, royal monasteries,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2308.53,"endTime":2309.4,"body":"and they are, of course,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2309.4,"endTime":2314.26,"body":"tangible signs of the wealth"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2309.4,"endTime":2314.26,"body":"generated by cereal surpluses,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2314.26,"endTime":2315.82,"body":"the very cereal surpluses"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2315.82,"endTime":2318.163,"body":"that they were designed"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2315.82,"endTime":2318.163,"body":"to store and process."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2322.18,"endTime":2323.56,"body":"This is also when the first"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2323.56,"endTime":2327.37,"body":"large archeological deposits"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2323.56,"endTime":2327.37,"body":"of charred grains appear,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2327.37,"endTime":2329.89,"body":"probably reflecting larger harvests"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2329.89,"endTime":2332.557,"body":"that are being processed"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2329.89,"endTime":2332.557,"body":"and stored in new ways,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2332.557,"endTime":2334.66,"body":"and so they're occasionally"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2332.557,"endTime":2334.66,"body":"catching on fire"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2334.66,"endTime":2335.51,"body":"and being dumped."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2336.64,"endTime":2337.66,"body":"And I think all of this,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2337.66,"endTime":2339.25,"body":"when you put it together,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2339.25,"endTime":2340.36,"body":"reflects a shift"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2340.36,"endTime":2344.35,"body":"from relatively small"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2340.36,"endTime":2344.35,"body":"scale, intensive farming"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2344.35,"endTime":2347.05,"body":"that is not leaving much of"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2344.35,"endTime":2347.05,"body":"an archeological footprint"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2347.92,"endTime":2351.46,"body":"to larger scale, low input regimes"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2351.46,"endTime":2354.373,"body":"and a new emphasis on surplus production."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2358.96,"endTime":2360.883,"body":"So that's the long 8th century."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2362.05,"endTime":2365.71,"body":"The second key change"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2362.05,"endTime":2365.71,"body":"happens in the 10th century,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2365.71,"endTime":2367.36,"body":"you might even be able to argue"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2367.36,"endTime":2369.583,"body":"it's kind of the middle"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2367.36,"endTime":2369.583,"body":"of the 10th century,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2370.63,"endTime":2371.8,"body":"with the appearance"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2371.8,"endTime":2375.4,"body":"of the first distinctively"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2371.8,"endTime":2375.4,"body":"aristocratic settlements,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2375.4,"endTime":2378.073,"body":"sometimes people call them proto-manors."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2380.29,"endTime":2381.46,"body":"These, by the way,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2381.46,"endTime":2382.66,"body":"these are just reconstructions,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2382.66,"endTime":2384.94,"body":"on the left, you see"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2382.66,"endTime":2384.94,"body":"a site called Cheddar,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2384.94,"endTime":2387.91,"body":"on the right, you see another"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2384.94,"endTime":2387.91,"body":"one called Faccombe Netherton,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2387.91,"endTime":2389.173,"body":"in Hampshire."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2390.49,"endTime":2393.01,"body":"These were the residences of local lords"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2393.01,"endTime":2394.3,"body":"who had been granted land"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2394.3,"endTime":2397.48,"body":"and who mobilized the cereal"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2394.3,"endTime":2397.48,"body":"surpluses it generated"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2397.48,"endTime":2400.0,"body":"to fund elite lifestyles,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2400.0,"endTime":2401.893,"body":"for considerable comfort."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2403.63,"endTime":2404.86,"body":"The evidence indicates"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2404.86,"endTime":2408.01,"body":"that systematic crop rotation"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2404.86,"endTime":2408.01,"body":"and use of the moldboard plow,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2408.01,"endTime":2408.97,"body":"as we saw,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2408.97,"endTime":2413.353,"body":"first became widespread in"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2408.97,"endTime":2413.353,"body":"the 10th and 11th centuries."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2415.18,"endTime":2419.56,"body":"A study of preserved cereal"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2415.18,"endTime":2419.56,"body":"grains from the same period"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2419.56,"endTime":2422.08,"body":"indicates the development"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2419.56,"endTime":2422.08,"body":"of regional trends"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2422.08,"endTime":2423.91,"body":"in crop specialization,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2423.91,"endTime":2427.06,"body":"for example bread wheat in"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2423.91,"endTime":2427.06,"body":"the Upper Thames Valley,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2427.06,"endTime":2429.25,"body":"or oat in the Southwest,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2429.25,"endTime":2430.09,"body":"and also, actually,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2430.09,"endTime":2431.713,"body":"in Staffordshire, as it happens."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2433.36,"endTime":2437.11,"body":"So, the timing of those"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2433.36,"endTime":2437.11,"body":"developments does suggest"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2437.11,"endTime":2438.1,"body":"that, if you like,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2438.1,"endTime":2440.5,"body":"top-down decisions by local landowners"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2440.5,"endTime":2441.49,"body":"did play a role"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2441.49,"endTime":2444.4,"body":"in promoting the spread"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2441.49,"endTime":2444.4,"body":"of the moldboard plow"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2444.4,"endTime":2446.233,"body":"and of systematic crop rotation,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2447.73,"endTime":2450.055,"body":"even if the earlier developments,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2450.055,"endTime":2451.39,"body":"the extensification,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2451.39,"endTime":2452.47,"body":"really came too early"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2452.47,"endTime":2456.133,"body":"to have anything to do"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2452.47,"endTime":2456.133,"body":"with local lordship."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2460.96,"endTime":2463.12,"body":"The third and final change"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2463.12,"endTime":2466.513,"body":"took place during the"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2463.12,"endTime":2466.513,"body":"12th and 13th centuries."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2468.13,"endTime":2470.53,"body":"This is when nucleated villages,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2470.53,"endTime":2472.51,"body":"so-called nucleated villages,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2472.51,"endTime":2474.91,"body":"began to appear in parts of the country,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2474.91,"endTime":2477.253,"body":"again mostly in that central zone,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2478.15,"endTime":2479.02,"body":"and these villages"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2479.02,"endTime":2482.77,"body":"have these very distinctive"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2479.02,"endTime":2482.77,"body":"planned arrangements"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2482.77,"endTime":2486.433,"body":"of contiguous, clearly"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2482.77,"endTime":2486.433,"body":"defined house plots."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2487.48,"endTime":2488.98,"body":"So, these villages,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2488.98,"endTime":2490.39,"body":"I think we can now be quite sure,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2490.39,"endTime":2492.55,"body":"were associated with the Norman Conquest,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2492.55,"endTime":2496.0,"body":"we don't have any pre-conquest examples,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2496.0,"endTime":2498.61,"body":"and John Blair has described"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2496.0,"endTime":2498.61,"body":"their impact on the landscape"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2498.61,"endTime":2499.907,"body":"as, I quote,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2499.907,"endTime":2502.247,"body":"\"Weightier and more permanent"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2502.247,"endTime":2505.51,"body":"\"than any since the Roman occupation.\""},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2505.51,"endTime":2506.343,"body":"And indeed, of course,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2506.343,"endTime":2509.293,"body":"we can still walk through"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2506.343,"endTime":2509.293,"body":"villages like this today."},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2511.63,"endTime":2514.723,"body":"Even so, as dramatic as this change is,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2515.71,"endTime":2519.996,"body":"there is nothing in the"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2515.71,"endTime":2519.996,"body":"archeological record"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2519.996,"endTime":2522.85,"body":"to suggest that there"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2519.996,"endTime":2522.85,"body":"were any major innovations"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2522.85,"endTime":2524.02,"body":"in farming systems"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2524.02,"endTime":2524.853,"body":"in this period,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2524.853,"endTime":2527.98,"body":"the main innovations had already happened,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2527.98,"endTime":2529.93,"body":"crop rotation was widespread,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2529.93,"endTime":2532.63,"body":"use of the moldboard plow was widespread,"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2532.63,"endTime":2535.453,"body":"extensification had"},{"speaker":"and here's a little quotation","startTime":2532.63,"endTime":2535.453,"body":"happened centuries earlier."},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2539.26,"endTime":2541.42,"body":"the density of charred grains per sample"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2541.42,"endTime":2543.13,"body":"does increase sharply,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2543.13,"endTime":2543.963,"body":"and you might think"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2543.963,"endTime":2546.91,"body":"that's a slightly niche"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2543.963,"endTime":2546.91,"body":"observation to make,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2546.91,"endTime":2550.48,"body":"but it does imply a"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2546.91,"endTime":2550.48,"body":"scaling up of production."},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2550.48,"endTime":2551.35,"body":"And similarly,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2551.35,"endTime":2553.09,"body":"analysis of sheep and cattle bones"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2553.09,"endTime":2555.04,"body":"has suggested to some researchers"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2555.04,"endTime":2557.803,"body":"an increased number of livestock overall."},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2559.72,"endTime":2562.12,"body":"Written sources and"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2559.72,"endTime":2562.12,"body":"scatters of pottery sherds"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2562.12,"endTime":2564.37,"body":"associated with manuring"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2564.37,"endTime":2566.598,"body":"also indicate that, in this period,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2566.598,"endTime":2568.27,"body":"the 12th and 13th centuries,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2568.27,"endTime":2572.65,"body":"farmers, landowners were"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2568.27,"endTime":2572.65,"body":"going to considerable lengths"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2572.65,"endTime":2574.93,"body":"to boost soil fertility"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2574.93,"endTime":2578.29,"body":"by manuring, by planting"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2574.93,"endTime":2578.29,"body":"legumes, by hand weeding,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2578.29,"endTime":2580.06,"body":"this sort of thing."},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2580.06,"endTime":2582.22,"body":"Now, whether this was driven primarily"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2582.22,"endTime":2585.37,"body":"by a desire to maximize outputs"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2585.37,"endTime":2588.7,"body":"or by concern over"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2585.37,"endTime":2588.7,"body":"declining soil fertility"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2588.7,"endTime":2589.96,"body":"is impossible to note,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2589.96,"endTime":2592.063,"body":"nobody explains why they're doing it."},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2593.59,"endTime":2596.95,"body":"Regardless, the weed"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2593.59,"endTime":2596.95,"body":"ecology of those fields"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2596.95,"endTime":2599.11,"body":"demonstrates that these efforts"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2599.11,"endTime":2601.96,"body":"failed to halt an overall trend,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2601.96,"endTime":2605.11,"body":"albeit a fairly subtle one, as we saw,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2605.11,"endTime":2607.513,"body":"towards diminishing levels of fertility."},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2608.92,"endTime":2613.39,"body":"The weeds also reflect higher"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2608.92,"endTime":2613.39,"body":"levels of soil disturbance,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2613.39,"endTime":2614.86,"body":"which we think reflects"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2614.86,"endTime":2617.44,"body":"a more systematic use"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2614.86,"endTime":2617.44,"body":"of the moldboard plow"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2617.44,"endTime":2619.48,"body":"within two and three field systems."},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2619.48,"endTime":2622.27,"body":"In some places, they were"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2619.48,"endTime":2622.27,"body":"even plowing the fallow"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2622.27,"endTime":2625.3,"body":"two, three, four times in a cycle,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2625.3,"endTime":2627.88,"body":"so they're really churning up the soil."},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2627.88,"endTime":2629.47,"body":"Indeed, the levels of disturbance,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2629.47,"endTime":2631.66,"body":"from a weeds point of view,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2631.66,"endTime":2634.0,"body":"is comparable to modern arable fields,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2634.0,"endTime":2635.98,"body":"there's really no distinction,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2635.98,"endTime":2637.15,"body":"I thought that was remarkable,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2637.15,"endTime":2638.14,"body":"they were able to achieve"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2638.14,"endTime":2640.81,"body":"really high levels of"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2638.14,"endTime":2640.81,"body":"disturbance and tillage"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2640.81,"endTime":2642.193,"body":"using a moldboard plow."},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2644.02,"endTime":2645.46,"body":"So, the 12th and 13th centuries"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2645.46,"endTime":2649.03,"body":"saw a really broad continuity"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2645.46,"endTime":2649.03,"body":"of agricultural regimes"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2649.03,"endTime":2650.2,"body":"against the backdrop"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2650.2,"endTime":2654.463,"body":"of an increase in the overall"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2650.2,"endTime":2654.463,"body":"scale of arable farming."},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2657.79,"endTime":2661.183,"body":"So, I'm going to bring"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2657.79,"endTime":2661.183,"body":"things gradually to an end."},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2663.76,"endTime":2665.533,"body":"So, first of all,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2668.65,"endTime":2670.21,"body":"we cannot see,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2670.21,"endTime":2672.52,"body":"from the evidence that"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2670.21,"endTime":2672.52,"body":"FeedSax has produced,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2672.52,"endTime":2675.88,"body":"any single moment of revolutionary change."},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2675.88,"endTime":2677.74,"body":"I don't suppose we were"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2675.88,"endTime":2677.74,"body":"necessarily expecting to,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2677.74,"endTime":2679.39,"body":"but I mean we might have come out saying,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2679.39,"endTime":2681.94,"body":"oh, it's the 10th century,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2679.39,"endTime":2681.94,"body":"it's the 11th century."},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2681.94,"endTime":2683.92,"body":"Instead, what we see could be described,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2683.92,"endTime":2685.06,"body":"slightly tongue in cheek,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2685.06,"endTime":2687.733,"body":"as a long agricultural revolution."},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2688.72,"endTime":2692.593,"body":"It began in the 8th century"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2688.72,"endTime":2692.593,"body":"with several innovations,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2693.52,"endTime":2697.12,"body":"the shift to low input,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2693.52,"endTime":2697.12,"body":"large scale cereal,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2697.12,"endTime":2699.13,"body":"or larger scale cereal farming"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2699.13,"endTime":2702.13,"body":"is arguably the most significant,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2702.13,"endTime":2703.39,"body":"but it began too early"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2703.39,"endTime":2706.24,"body":"to have been the"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2703.39,"endTime":2706.24,"body":"initiative of local lords,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2706.24,"endTime":2707.533,"body":"local landowners."},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2709.33,"endTime":2710.95,"body":"So, where did this impulse"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2710.95,"endTime":2713.98,"body":"towards extensification originate?"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2713.98,"endTime":2715.39,"body":"Of course, we don't know for sure,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2715.39,"endTime":2716.8,"body":"we can't know for sure,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2716.8,"endTime":2720.61,"body":"it may have originated in"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2716.8,"endTime":2720.61,"body":"royal monasteries like Lyminge,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2720.61,"endTime":2723.55,"body":"or other royal centers,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2723.55,"endTime":2726.73,"body":"it may have been driven in"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2723.55,"endTime":2726.73,"body":"part by population growth,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2726.73,"endTime":2729.7,"body":"and indeed the emergence"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2726.73,"endTime":2729.7,"body":"of the first formal markets"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2729.7,"endTime":2730.87,"body":"since the Roman period,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2730.87,"endTime":2731.71,"body":"I haven't mentioned those,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2731.71,"endTime":2732.55,"body":"but they are there,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2732.55,"endTime":2737.55,"body":"and the first widespread coin"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2732.55,"endTime":2737.55,"body":"use since the Roman period"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2737.86,"endTime":2739.063,"body":"dates to this period."},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2740.47,"endTime":2742.36,"body":"In the 10th and 11th centuries,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2742.36,"endTime":2744.85,"body":"the spread of systematic crop rotation"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2744.85,"endTime":2746.44,"body":"and the moldboard plow"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2746.44,"endTime":2750.07,"body":"is, I think, consistent with"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2746.44,"endTime":2750.07,"body":"a degree of top-down pressure"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2750.07,"endTime":2751.12,"body":"from local landowners"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2751.12,"endTime":2753.253,"body":"to increase outputs."},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2754.27,"endTime":2756.1,"body":"And then the 12th and 13th centuries,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2756.1,"endTime":2757.51,"body":"as we've just seen,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2757.51,"endTime":2760.75,"body":"saw a sort of scaling up of production,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2760.75,"endTime":2765.4,"body":"further regional fine"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2760.75,"endTime":2765.4,"body":"tuning of cropping regimes,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2765.4,"endTime":2767.92,"body":"and a new emphasis on bread wheat,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2767.92,"endTime":2769.78,"body":"the highest value cereal crop,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2769.78,"endTime":2773.947,"body":"you can get the most for that at market."},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2776.2,"endTime":2778.87,"body":"But we didn't see evidence"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2776.2,"endTime":2778.87,"body":"of any major innovations"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2778.87,"endTime":2780.193,"body":"dating to this period."},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2781.12,"endTime":2782.68,"body":"And throughout the whole period,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2782.68,"endTime":2786.043,"body":"soil fertility continued to decline."},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2788.95,"endTime":2792.313,"body":"So was there a medieval"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2788.95,"endTime":2792.313,"body":"agricultural revolution?"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2793.93,"endTime":2796.36,"body":"Well, the evidence from FeedSax"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2796.36,"endTime":2797.98,"body":"suggests that the different elements"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2797.98,"endTime":2799.54,"body":"of the moldboard plow package,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2799.54,"endTime":2801.52,"body":"so crop rotation, extensification,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2801.52,"endTime":2803.71,"body":"use of the moldboard plow,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2803.71,"endTime":2807.82,"body":"did not come together in a sort"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2803.71,"endTime":2807.82,"body":"of single great leap forward"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2807.82,"endTime":2810.043,"body":"impelled by new technologies,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2812.5,"endTime":2816.16,"body":"instead, what we see is"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2812.5,"endTime":2816.16,"body":"a series of innovations,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2816.16,"endTime":2819.04,"body":"some of which had really"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2816.16,"endTime":2819.04,"body":"quite a long gestation."},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2819.04,"endTime":2820.54,"body":"So, if you think of the moldboard plow,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2820.54,"endTime":2823.45,"body":"we know it was there in"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2820.54,"endTime":2823.45,"body":"England in the 7th century,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2823.45,"endTime":2827.41,"body":"but it didn't really"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2823.45,"endTime":2827.41,"body":"see widespread adoption"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2827.41,"endTime":2829.57,"body":"for about 300 years,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2829.57,"endTime":2832.24,"body":"so it doesn't become a widespread practice"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2832.24,"endTime":2833.923,"body":"for several centuries,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2835.96,"endTime":2837.643,"body":"crop rotation, probably the same."},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2839.29,"endTime":2842.62,"body":"Nevertheless, the cumulative"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2839.29,"endTime":2842.62,"body":"impact of these changes"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2842.62,"endTime":2845.68,"body":"over 200, 300 years"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2845.68,"endTime":2847.06,"body":"was transformative,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2847.06,"endTime":2849.523,"body":"or, if you prefer, it was revolutionary."},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2852.19,"endTime":2855.1,"body":"Now, where did these"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2852.19,"endTime":2855.1,"body":"transformative changes"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2855.1,"endTime":2856.18,"body":"in arable farming"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2856.18,"endTime":2857.773,"body":"ultimately lead?"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2859.09,"endTime":2861.55,"body":"Well, just over 700 years ago,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2861.55,"endTime":2862.93,"body":"Europe was emerging"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2862.93,"endTime":2865.72,"body":"from a subsistence"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2862.93,"endTime":2865.72,"body":"crisis of such magnitude"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2865.72,"endTime":2869.053,"body":"that it is still referred to"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2865.72,"endTime":2869.053,"body":"today as the Great Famine."},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2873.73,"endTime":2875.71,"body":"Countless people perished,"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2875.71,"endTime":2877.63,"body":"and it marked the end of the period"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2877.63,"endTime":2880.15,"body":"of population growth"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2877.63,"endTime":2880.15,"body":"and relative prosperity"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2880.15,"endTime":2881.9,"body":"that we've just been talking about."},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2883.93,"endTime":2887.17,"body":"The triggers of the Great"},{"speaker":"There are some changes, of course","startTime":2883.93,"endTime":2887.17,"body":"Famine are clear enough,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2888.55,"endTime":2890.56,"body":"it began in 1315"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2890.56,"endTime":2895.27,"body":"with a whole series of"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2890.56,"endTime":2895.27,"body":"extreme adverse weather events"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2895.27,"endTime":2897.643,"body":"that caused a series of crop failures."},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2899.14,"endTime":2899.973,"body":"On top of that,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2899.973,"endTime":2902.11,"body":"there was an outbreak of"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2899.973,"endTime":2902.11,"body":"something called rinderpest,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2902.11,"endTime":2904.45,"body":"it's a highly contagious disease"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2904.45,"endTime":2905.95,"body":"that affects cattle and sheep,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2907.54,"endTime":2910.03,"body":"leading to a really catastrophic decline"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2910.03,"endTime":2911.383,"body":"in livestock numbers."},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2913.45,"endTime":2915.61,"body":"So, all that is undoubted,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2915.61,"endTime":2917.323,"body":"but is it the whole story?"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2918.28,"endTime":2921.73,"body":"After all, there had been"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2918.28,"endTime":2921.73,"body":"adverse weather events"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2921.73,"endTime":2924.257,"body":"and indeed famines and"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2921.73,"endTime":2924.257,"body":"outbreaks of rinderpest before,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2924.257,"endTime":2926.407,"body":"\"The Anglo-Saxon"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2924.257,"endTime":2926.407,"body":"Chronicle's\" full of them,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2927.31,"endTime":2929.983,"body":"so what made this one so much worse?"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2931.09,"endTime":2934.51,"body":"Was it exacerbated not only by"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2931.09,"endTime":2934.51,"body":"growing wealth inequalities,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2934.51,"endTime":2937.18,"body":"many historians have made that point,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2937.18,"endTime":2938.29,"body":"wealth inequalities"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2938.29,"endTime":2941.26,"body":"that of course were"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2938.29,"endTime":2941.26,"body":"sustained by cereal farming,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2941.26,"endTime":2943.12,"body":"cereal surpluses,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2943.12,"endTime":2948.12,"body":"but also exacerbated by"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2943.12,"endTime":2948.12,"body":"deterioration in soil fertility,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2948.34,"endTime":2950.62,"body":"the longterm net effect"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2950.62,"endTime":2954.703,"body":"of low input, high"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2950.62,"endTime":2954.703,"body":"disturbance farming regimes?"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2955.81,"endTime":2958.093,"body":"Was this the endgame of extensification?"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2960.85,"endTime":2962.23,"body":"Experimental work is ongoing"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2962.23,"endTime":2964.18,"body":"to try and answer these questions"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2964.18,"endTime":2966.82,"body":"and to establish how a farming system"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2966.82,"endTime":2970.72,"body":"that had fed a rapidly growing"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2966.82,"endTime":2970.72,"body":"population for centuries,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2970.72,"endTime":2972.46,"body":"seemingly sustainably,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2972.46,"endTime":2973.663,"body":"suddenly crashed."},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2974.92,"endTime":2977.14,"body":"Those are questions, of"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2974.92,"endTime":2977.14,"body":"course, for another day,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2977.14,"endTime":2978.91,"body":"but I thought I would end"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2978.91,"endTime":2982.72,"body":"by showing you this replica moldboard plow"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2982.72,"endTime":2983.92,"body":"being pulled by oxen"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2983.92,"endTime":2986.17,"body":"at the experimental farm"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2983.92,"endTime":2986.17,"body":"I mentioned earlier,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2986.17,"endTime":2988.68,"body":"this farm called Lauresham, at Lorsch."},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2990.138,"endTime":2991.45,"body":"At Lauresham,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2991.45,"endTime":2993.67,"body":"they've basically built a replica"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2993.67,"endTime":2995.77,"body":"of an early medieval village,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2995.77,"endTime":2997.963,"body":"complete with fields and livestock,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":2998.83,"endTime":3000.78,"body":"and they grow a range of crops"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3000.78,"endTime":3003.81,"body":"using a variety of plows"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3003.81,"endTime":3005.22,"body":"and a variety of ards,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3005.22,"endTime":3007.83,"body":"prehistoric, medieval, everything,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3007.83,"endTime":3009.93,"body":"and they record absolutely everything,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3009.93,"endTime":3011.55,"body":"they record weeds,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3011.55,"endTime":3014.79,"body":"they record yields,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3011.55,"endTime":3014.79,"body":"moisture levels, fertility,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3014.79,"endTime":3015.87,"body":"everything, you name it."},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3015.87,"endTime":3017.52,"body":"It's a great site, you can visit it,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3017.52,"endTime":3018.54,"body":"it's open to the public,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3018.54,"endTime":3019.86,"body":"I highly recommend it,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3019.86,"endTime":3021.81,"body":"maybe not on a very hot day, as I did,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3021.81,"endTime":3023.79,"body":"but still, it's remarkable, really,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3023.79,"endTime":3026.07,"body":"what they're doing there."},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3026.07,"endTime":3028.41,"body":"And we're developing a"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3026.07,"endTime":3028.41,"body":"collaboration with them"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3028.41,"endTime":3031.2,"body":"that we hope is going to yield more data"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3031.2,"endTime":3034.44,"body":"that can be used to address"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3031.2,"endTime":3034.44,"body":"some of these questions"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3034.44,"endTime":3037.08,"body":"we've been considering this evening."},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3037.08,"endTime":3040.32,"body":"And I thought I would just"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3037.08,"endTime":3040.32,"body":"leave you with a short clip"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3040.32,"endTime":3043.71,"body":"of one of their fields being"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3040.32,"endTime":3043.71,"body":"plowed for the first time"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3043.71,"endTime":3045.759,"body":"using a moldboard plow."},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3045.759,"endTime":3050.759,"body":"(plow creaks)"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3045.759,"endTime":3050.759,"body":"(shrubbery rustles)"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3062.585,"endTime":3066.93,"body":"So they're really now"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3062.585,"endTime":3066.93,"body":"trying to address the need"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3066.93,"endTime":3068.1,"body":"for more data"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3068.1,"endTime":3071.28,"body":"to really understand the"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3068.1,"endTime":3071.28,"body":"functional weed ecology"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3071.28,"endTime":3072.78,"body":"in fields that have been plowed"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3072.78,"endTime":3074.67,"body":"using a moldboard plow, using an ard,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3074.67,"endTime":3077.37,"body":"ridge and furrow, no ridge and furrow,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3077.37,"endTime":3078.203,"body":"and so on."},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3079.14,"endTime":3080.22,"body":"So I'll leave it there,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3080.22,"endTime":3081.483,"body":"happy to take questions."},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3082.357,"endTime":3085.357,"body":"(audience applauds)"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3087.997,"endTime":3089.88,"body":"- Thank you, Professor Hamerow."},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3089.88,"endTime":3091.26,"body":"We do have time for some questions,"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3091.26,"endTime":3094.17,"body":"so I'll start off with some"},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3091.26,"endTime":3094.17,"body":"from the online audience."},{"speaker":"there's really no question about them","startTime":3094.17,"endTime":3096.24,"body":"The first one actually leads in quite well"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3097.807,"endTime":3099.847,"body":"\"What is the next stage of your research,"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3099.847,"endTime":3101.647,"body":"\"and what kinds of other questions"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3101.647,"endTime":3103.98,"body":"\"do you hope to maybe answer?\""},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3103.98,"endTime":3105.99,"body":"- Well, we hope,"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3105.99,"endTime":3107.64,"body":"I sort of touched on it at the end,"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3107.64,"endTime":3109.68,"body":"I think this question of what happens"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3109.68,"endTime":3112.815,"body":"when you extensify, and"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3109.68,"endTime":3112.815,"body":"extensify, and extensify,"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3112.815,"endTime":3114.66,"body":"and the soil fertility goes down and down,"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3114.66,"endTime":3118.47,"body":"and the soil disturbance goes up and up,"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3118.47,"endTime":3121.08,"body":"can we model what actually"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3118.47,"endTime":3121.08,"body":"would have happened"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3121.08,"endTime":3125.058,"body":"after 200 or 300 years"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3121.08,"endTime":3125.058,"body":"of that sort of farming?"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3125.058,"endTime":3126.57,"body":"Of course, it does have relevance today"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3126.57,"endTime":3128.34,"body":"because there is this trend, you may know,"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3128.34,"endTime":3131.16,"body":"towards what they call no-till farming,"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3131.16,"endTime":3132.15,"body":"and this idea now"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3132.15,"endTime":3135.0,"body":"that this high disturbance type of farming"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3135.0,"endTime":3137.19,"body":"that we've been doing,"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3135.0,"endTime":3137.19,"body":"of course, for centuries,"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3137.19,"endTime":3138.21,"body":"and mechanized now,"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3138.21,"endTime":3140.1,"body":"but for centuries,"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3140.1,"endTime":3141.54,"body":"is not ideal"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3141.54,"endTime":3144.96,"body":"and actually does damage"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3141.54,"endTime":3144.96,"body":"underlying soil fertility"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3144.96,"endTime":3146.73,"body":"in a variety of ways."},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3146.73,"endTime":3148.65,"body":"So it would be really interesting to see,"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3148.65,"endTime":3152.253,"body":"well, what would that impact"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3148.65,"endTime":3152.253,"body":"have been on the soil?"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3153.355,"endTime":3155.28,"body":"So that's a big one."},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3155.28,"endTime":3156.9,"body":"- So, we've got a couple of questions"},{"speaker":"with your last point","startTime":3156.9,"endTime":3158.55,"body":"that are sheep related,"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3160.207,"endTime":3161.587,"body":"\"Were you able to take account"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3161.587,"endTime":3163.537,"body":"\"of the impact of the sheepfold system"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3163.537,"endTime":3164.797,"body":"\"on the fertility of soil,"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3164.797,"endTime":3167.677,"body":"\"or did the use of sheepfold"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3164.797,"endTime":3167.677,"body":"to manure the arable land"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3167.677,"endTime":3169.797,"body":"\"fall outside the period of your study?\""},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3170.85,"endTime":3174.69,"body":"- Well, it almost falls"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3170.85,"endTime":3174.69,"body":"outside the period of study."},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3174.69,"endTime":3176.73,"body":"I mean, folding of sheep almost certainly,"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3176.73,"endTime":3177.69,"body":"I mean, it certainly took place"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3177.69,"endTime":3179.16,"body":"in the 12th and 13th centuries,"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3179.16,"endTime":3181.08,"body":"they undoubtedly did it,"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3181.08,"endTime":3183.66,"body":"and quite right to raise that,"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3183.66,"endTime":3186.87,"body":"so it wasn't just spreading manure"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3186.87,"endTime":3189.36,"body":"from byres and from middens onto fields,"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3189.36,"endTime":3191.763,"body":"but of course sheep were"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3189.36,"endTime":3191.763,"body":"folded onto the fields."},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3194.01,"endTime":3196.92,"body":"That undoubtedly made the"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3194.01,"endTime":3196.92,"body":"decline in soil fertility"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3196.92,"endTime":3198.81,"body":"less than it would otherwise have been,"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3198.81,"endTime":3201.54,"body":"but overall, the problem is"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3201.54,"endTime":3205.62,"body":"perceptibly to raise"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3201.54,"endTime":3205.62,"body":"fertility, soil fertility,"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3205.62,"endTime":3209.76,"body":"requires a great deal"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3205.62,"endTime":3209.76,"body":"of manure per land unit,"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3209.76,"endTime":3210.813,"body":"a huge amount,"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3211.83,"endTime":3214.47,"body":"and so sheepfolding will have helped,"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3214.47,"endTime":3216.16,"body":"but clearly it wasn't enough"},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3217.14,"endTime":3220.683,"body":"completely to halt or reverse the trend."},{"speaker":"so I'll start off with the first one","startTime":3222.18,"endTime":3224.13,"body":"- Sorry, another sheep related one"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3226.177,"endTime":3229.717,"body":"\"Is the lack of findings in"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3226.177,"endTime":3229.717,"body":"the north and possibly Wales"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3229.717,"endTime":3231.217,"body":"\"due to the topography,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3231.217,"endTime":3234.127,"body":"\"which was more suited to"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3231.217,"endTime":3234.127,"body":"sheep farming, for example,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3234.127,"endTime":3239.127,"body":"\"and did you look for sheep"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3234.127,"endTime":3239.127,"body":"or other non-bovine remains?\""},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3239.61,"endTime":3241.8,"body":"- We did, and we actually"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3239.61,"endTime":3241.8,"body":"did a little study of sheep,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3241.8,"endTime":3243.85,"body":"I just didn't have time to talk about it."},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3245.035,"endTime":3250.035,"body":"So, the lack of remains"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3245.035,"endTime":3250.035,"body":"in the north and west,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3250.41,"endTime":3251.88,"body":"we do have some animal bones,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3251.88,"endTime":3253.68,"body":"but on the whole,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3253.68,"endTime":3255.747,"body":"the more acidic soils"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3253.68,"endTime":3255.747,"body":"in the north and west,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3255.747,"endTime":3257.61,"body":"the soil conditions in the north and west"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3257.61,"endTime":3260.793,"body":"are less conducive to the"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3257.61,"endTime":3260.793,"body":"preservation of animal bone."},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3261.69,"endTime":3263.67,"body":"We didn't have great plant remains either"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3263.67,"endTime":3265.833,"body":"from the north and west, to be honest,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3266.88,"endTime":3267.9,"body":"but it's also more difficult"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3267.9,"endTime":3271.08,"body":"to identify early medieval"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3267.9,"endTime":3271.08,"body":"settlements in those regions."},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3271.08,"endTime":3273.03,"body":"So I think for all those reasons,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3273.03,"endTime":3274.14,"body":"we had less,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3274.14,"endTime":3277.95,"body":"but undoubtedly, there would"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3274.14,"endTime":3277.95,"body":"have been hefting of sheep,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3277.95,"endTime":3278.783,"body":"and this sort of thing,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3278.783,"endTime":3279.843,"body":"in the north and west."},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3282.78,"endTime":3285.42,"body":"The things that we looked"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3282.78,"endTime":3285.42,"body":"at with the sheep bones"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3285.42,"endTime":3287.73,"body":"was to see whether or"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3285.42,"endTime":3287.73,"body":"not there was evidence,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3287.73,"endTime":3289.71,"body":"this is going to sound even more niche"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3289.71,"endTime":3291.69,"body":"than what I was talking about before,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3291.69,"endTime":3296.1,"body":"actually looked at the calculus"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3291.69,"endTime":3296.1,"body":"on the teeth of the sheep"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3296.1,"endTime":3298.92,"body":"to see whether or not they"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3296.1,"endTime":3298.92,"body":"were spending more time"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3298.92,"endTime":3300.81,"body":"grazing on stubble fields,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3300.81,"endTime":3303.6,"body":"because that's a very"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3300.81,"endTime":3303.6,"body":"high carbohydrate diet,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3303.6,"endTime":3308.1,"body":"and it would result in"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3303.6,"endTime":3308.1,"body":"increasing amounts of calculus"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3308.1,"endTime":3308.933,"body":"on the teeth,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3308.933,"endTime":3311.64,"body":"so we did get some"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3308.933,"endTime":3311.64,"body":"interesting results on that."},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3311.64,"endTime":3312.75,"body":"- [Moderator] Thank you."},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3312.75,"endTime":3314.85,"body":"- We love sheep at FeedSax, we love sheep."},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3315.697,"endTime":3318.66,"body":"- [Questioner] After extensification,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3318.66,"endTime":3321.933,"body":"did they reverse the"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3318.66,"endTime":3321.933,"body":"decline in soil fertility?"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3323.22,"endTime":3325.83,"body":"- Well, we didn't check,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3325.83,"endTime":3328.83,"body":"we only had a few weeds"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3325.83,"endTime":3328.83,"body":"for the 14th century,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3328.83,"endTime":3330.81,"body":"and we didn't look later at all,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3330.81,"endTime":3333.72,"body":"so that would be another"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3330.81,"endTime":3333.72,"body":"project, in a way,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3333.72,"endTime":3336.64,"body":"to look at what does"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3333.72,"endTime":3336.64,"body":"happen to soil fertility"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3337.62,"endTime":3341.28,"body":"in the 14th, 15th, 16th centuries."},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3341.28,"endTime":3342.42,"body":"There certainly is,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3342.42,"endTime":3345.943,"body":"as a result of the catastrophes"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3342.42,"endTime":3345.943,"body":"of the 14th century,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3345.943,"endTime":3350.943,"body":"a very dramatic implosion,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3345.943,"endTime":3350.943,"body":"decline in population,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3351.06,"endTime":3352.11,"body":"as you probably know,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3352.11,"endTime":3353.31,"body":"all over Europe,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3353.31,"endTime":3355.14,"body":"and as a result, of course,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3355.14,"endTime":3358.02,"body":"the demand for cereal farming, for cereals"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3358.02,"endTime":3359.22,"body":"decreased dramatically,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3359.22,"endTime":3361.5,"body":"the labor force decreased dramatically."},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3361.5,"endTime":3364.23,"body":"And so yes, I think we would have seen,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3364.23,"endTime":3368.187,"body":"I would guess we would see a"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3364.23,"endTime":3368.187,"body":"reversal of extensification,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3368.187,"endTime":3369.693,"body":"or at least a halting,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3369.693,"endTime":3372.24,"body":"but nobody's actually"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3369.693,"endTime":3372.24,"body":"looked at the weed floras"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3372.24,"endTime":3373.073,"body":"for those periods,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3373.073,"endTime":3374.79,"body":"so it would be a really"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3373.073,"endTime":3374.79,"body":"interesting thing to do,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3374.79,"endTime":3376.53,"body":"it's an important question."},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3376.53,"endTime":3379.29,"body":"- [Questioner] Thanks for"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3376.53,"endTime":3379.29,"body":"a really interesting talk."},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3379.29,"endTime":3382.11,"body":"I'm fascinated with the people who said,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3382.11,"endTime":3383.01,"body":"oh, but they were doing all these things"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3383.01,"endTime":3384.24,"body":"to keep up soil fertility,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3384.24,"endTime":3386.73,"body":"and I'm just fascinated about how,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3386.73,"endTime":3387.84,"body":"'cause your evidence seems so compelling,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3387.84,"endTime":3390.0,"body":"you can square that with"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3387.84,"endTime":3390.0,"body":"the increase in population,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3390.0,"endTime":3391.83,"body":"but also the densification of population"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3391.83,"endTime":3393.87,"body":"implied by the creation"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3391.83,"endTime":3393.87,"body":"of nuclear villages,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3393.87,"endTime":3395.64,"body":"so it's not just the population"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3393.87,"endTime":3395.64,"body":"of England's going up,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3395.64,"endTime":3396.57,"body":"it's also getting dense enough"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3396.57,"endTime":3398.31,"body":"that they're forming"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3396.57,"endTime":3398.31,"body":"these little nucleus cores"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3398.31,"endTime":3399.48,"body":"in the countryside."},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3399.48,"endTime":3400.5,"body":"How do those two things,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3400.5,"endTime":3401.64,"body":"the decline in soil fertility"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3401.64,"endTime":3403.17,"body":"and yet this rapidly increasing"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3403.17,"endTime":3405.15,"body":"and densification of"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3403.17,"endTime":3405.15,"body":"population go together,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3405.15,"endTime":3407.31,"body":"is there something else"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3405.15,"endTime":3407.31,"body":"going on in the background?"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3407.31,"endTime":3409.26,"body":"'Cause it's such a fascinating paradox."},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3410.1,"endTime":3413.41,"body":"- So, I think the increasing population"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3415.2,"endTime":3417.75,"body":"would have made labor relatively cheap,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3417.75,"endTime":3419.85,"body":"so I think that absolutely is in keeping"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3419.85,"endTime":3422.28,"body":"with the written sources that record"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3422.28,"endTime":3423.99,"body":"peasants out there spreading manure,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3423.99,"endTime":3426.15,"body":"hand weeding, marling,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3426.15,"endTime":3428.43,"body":"all sorts of really"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3426.15,"endTime":3428.43,"body":"quite, on the face of it,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3428.43,"endTime":3431.22,"body":"quite labor intensive activities."},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3431.22,"endTime":3432.27,"body":"But the problem is, I think,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3432.27,"endTime":3435.69,"body":"these fields had become"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3432.27,"endTime":3435.69,"body":"so extensive, so large,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3435.69,"endTime":3438.3,"body":"they covered so much of the landscape"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3438.3,"endTime":3441.9,"body":"that there just wasn't"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3438.3,"endTime":3441.9,"body":"enough, in particular, manure"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3441.9,"endTime":3443.91,"body":"to maintain fertility"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3443.91,"endTime":3448.91,"body":"given the rotations, and so on,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3449.097,"endTime":3451.32,"body":"and the methods being used."},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3451.32,"endTime":3452.85,"body":"So as I said,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3452.85,"endTime":3454.05,"body":"whatever they were doing,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3454.05,"endTime":3459.05,"body":"it wasn't enough to reverse"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3454.05,"endTime":3459.05,"body":"the decline in soil fertility."},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3460.02,"endTime":3462.42,"body":"The nucleated villages"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3460.02,"endTime":3462.42,"body":"in and of themselves,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3462.42,"endTime":3463.467,"body":"I don't think,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3463.467,"endTime":3465.33,"body":"are the sign of increasing population,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3465.33,"endTime":3466.92,"body":"population did increase,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3466.92,"endTime":3468.39,"body":"I think the nucleated villages"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3468.39,"endTime":3472.96,"body":"are really a sign of"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3468.39,"endTime":3472.96,"body":"gathering rural populations"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3474.57,"endTime":3477.0,"body":"into a type of village"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3477.0,"endTime":3479.52,"body":"that makes it much easier to"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3477.0,"endTime":3479.52,"body":"extract surplus from them,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3479.52,"endTime":3480.81,"body":"to put it bluntly,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3480.81,"endTime":3485.31,"body":"it represents a much"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3480.81,"endTime":3485.31,"body":"more systematic method"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3485.31,"endTime":3487.17,"body":"of surplus extraction,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3487.17,"endTime":3488.91,"body":"of taxation, and so on."},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3488.91,"endTime":3491.49,"body":"I don't think it represents,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3488.91,"endTime":3491.49,"body":"in and of itself,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3491.49,"endTime":3494.49,"body":"or was the result of"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3491.49,"endTime":3494.49,"body":"there being so many people"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3494.49,"endTime":3497.61,"body":"that they had to group"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3494.49,"endTime":3497.61,"body":"together in that way,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3497.61,"endTime":3500.73,"body":"I think it was a deliberate strategy."},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3500.73,"endTime":3501.78,"body":"- [Moderator] Thank you"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3500.73,"endTime":3501.78,"body":"all for your questions,"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3501.78,"endTime":3502.613,"body":"and please join me"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3502.613,"endTime":3504.48,"body":"in thanking Professor"},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3502.613,"endTime":3504.48,"body":"Hamerow one more time."},{"speaker":"before we open up to the floor","startTime":3504.48,"endTime":3507.48,"body":"(audience applauds)"}]}