{"version":"1.0.0","segments":[{"startTime":4.795,"endTime":5.765,"body":"Good evening everyone."},{"startTime":5.905,"endTime":6.765,"body":"Thanks for coming."},{"startTime":7.905,"endTime":12.911,"body":"Uh, I'm here to talk about 19th century eclipse expeditions and the forging of mathematical"},{"startTime":12.911,"endTime":13.245,"body":"community."},{"startTime":14.285,"endTime":20.397,"body":"A total, a total solar eclipse brings a certain transcendent awe, a special kind of"},{"startTime":20.397,"endTime":20.805,"body":"wonder."},{"startTime":21.555,"endTime":27.795,"body":"This rare celestial event happens when seasons and orbits align for the moon to pass"},{"startTime":27.795,"endTime":28.211,"body":"between the earth and the sun temporarily obscuring the full wattage, leaving visible, only the"},{"startTime":28.211,"endTime":35.285,"body":"spectacular solar corona."},{"startTime":36.555,"endTime":40.725,"body":"This phenomena comes with a chilly wind and an eerie hush."},{"startTime":41.225,"endTime":45.892,"body":"And just for a few minutes, it's safe to take off your eclipse glasses and"},{"startTime":45.892,"endTime":46.203,"body":"take in as much as you can to sort of gape at the awe of"},{"startTime":46.203,"endTime":51.805,"body":"this spell binding site."},{"startTime":52.275,"endTime":58.512,"body":"It's an incredible experience, uh, not remotely captured by looking, looking at a photograph, uh,"},{"startTime":58.512,"endTime":58.928,"body":"something I absolutely recommend if you have an opportunity and if you are in North"},{"startTime":58.928,"endTime":67.245,"body":"America or will be six months."},{"startTime":67.335,"endTime":72.275,"body":"Hence, uh, you have a tremendous opportunity to put yourself in the past of eclipse"},{"startTime":72.275,"endTime":72.605,"body":"totality."},{"startTime":72.785,"endTime":75.325,"body":"So just a travel tip for you there."},{"startTime":76.845,"endTime":81.405,"body":"I first experienced eclipse totality in August of 2017."},{"startTime":82.585,"endTime":84.565,"body":"Uh, it changed my life in many ways."},{"startTime":85.125,"endTime":91.088,"body":"I had no idea at that time either that Eclipse Expeditions would be almost as"},{"startTime":91.088,"endTime":91.486,"body":"relevant to my own work and experience of professional community as it was for 19th"},{"startTime":91.486,"endTime":98.245,"body":"century mathematical practitioners."},{"startTime":100.725,"endTime":106.063,"body":"There's a particular connective power of experiencing a total solar eclipse, something some authors say"},{"startTime":106.063,"endTime":110.335,"body":"that connect us to the past and the present and the future."},{"startTime":111.275,"endTime":117.835,"body":"Uh, and there there is a way in which, in fact, this experience does feel"},{"startTime":117.835,"endTime":118.272,"body":"transportive both to, to the past, particularly given my, uh, sort of scholarly interest and"},{"startTime":118.272,"endTime":127.895,"body":"the connection to modern, astronomical and mathematical community."},{"startTime":129.425,"endTime":134.175,"body":"Still, my story today begins with a decided lack of community."},{"startTime":135.155,"endTime":141.242,"body":"Uh, I'm gonna start in 1840, and I'm gonna start in the United States, in"},{"startTime":141.242,"endTime":141.647,"body":"particular in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where this guy, Benjamin per, was a professor of mathematics at"},{"startTime":141.647,"endTime":147.735,"body":"Harvard."},{"startTime":148.595,"endTime":154.228,"body":"It was a time when technical, mathematical and scientific training was rare in the United"},{"startTime":154.228,"endTime":158.735,"body":"States, and the educated elite was skeptical about science as a profession."},{"startTime":159.305,"endTime":165.919,"body":"There was no, well-formed identity, even for an American scientist, much less an American mathematician,"},{"startTime":165.919,"endTime":166.36,"body":"which is what he was per, nonetheless, had massive ambitions to develop and showcase American"},{"startTime":166.36,"endTime":173.415,"body":"mathematical talent."},{"startTime":174.795,"endTime":179.346,"body":"He went about this in lots of ways, but his effort to start the first"},{"startTime":179.346,"endTime":182.685,"body":"research mathematical publication in the United States failed within a year."},{"startTime":183.815,"endTime":187.845,"body":"There were only about 360 mathematical practitioners in the country."},{"startTime":188.475,"endTime":195.205,"body":"Most of those had been trained in law or theology, um, worked at rural colleges"},{"startTime":195.205,"endTime":195.653,"body":"or high schools, and there simply wasn't a community substantial enough to sustain a research"},{"startTime":195.653,"endTime":205.525,"body":"level mathematical publication in the four measly journals."},{"startTime":205.585,"endTime":210.325,"body":"Uh, the measly issues of this journal, he had nonetheless set forth a vision."},{"startTime":210.745,"endTime":218.258,"body":"He had published a manifesto about how mathematical astronomy was going to be the way"},{"startTime":218.258,"endTime":221.765,"body":"for American science to establish itself internationally."},{"startTime":222.545,"endTime":228.005,"body":"So that was, that was his plan, and he had a big chance in 1846."},{"startTime":228.825,"endTime":232.485,"body":"So this is an image, a beautiful image, uh, of the planet, Neptune."},{"startTime":235.145,"endTime":239.045,"body":"And that's the, the planet that was first observed in 1846."},{"startTime":239.535,"endTime":245.598,"body":"There was a huge international priority controversy surrounding that discovery, and that's exactly what provided"},{"startTime":245.598,"endTime":246.002,"body":"an opportunity for per and his fellow Americans to stake a claim for national mathematical"},{"startTime":246.002,"endTime":257.725,"body":"practitioners in the US on the global stage, it's a big drama of astronomical rivalry."},{"startTime":257.725,"endTime":261.925,"body":"There's controversy between Britain and France and the US comes sailing in on the tail"},{"startTime":261.925,"endTime":262.765,"body":"end of things."},{"startTime":263.225,"endTime":268.631,"body":"So we only have a tiny bit of that story for you today, but it's"},{"startTime":268.631,"endTime":268.991,"body":"a, it's a riveting tale, and it starts in 1781 with, we've already seen this"},{"startTime":268.991,"endTime":269.351,"body":"image today earlier of Caroline Herschel and her brother, and they're the two who observed"},{"startTime":269.351,"endTime":280.885,"body":"this new planet Uranus."},{"startTime":281.825,"endTime":285.141,"body":"And once you observe a new planet, the first thing you wanna do is to"},{"startTime":285.141,"endTime":285.805,"body":"compute its orbit."},{"startTime":286.425,"endTime":290.725,"body":"And so this happened, they computed the orbit and then watched what happened."},{"startTime":290.865,"endTime":297.18,"body":"And what happened was that the planet Uranus began to deviate pretty dramatically from where"},{"startTime":297.18,"endTime":299.285,"body":"astronomers expected it to go."},{"startTime":300.745,"endTime":307.058,"body":"And as the planet went further and further, apparently off track, astronomers puzzled over the"},{"startTime":307.058,"endTime":310.005,"body":"explanation what could possibly be causing this."},{"startTime":311.505,"endTime":316.923,"body":"And John Cooch Adams, who was kind of a young upstart, recently graduated from Cambridge"},{"startTime":316.923,"endTime":317.285,"body":"University."},{"startTime":317.305,"endTime":321.821,"body":"He was a senior Wrangler, which meant he had scored the best on the mathematics,"},{"startTime":321.821,"endTime":322.725,"body":"uh, trip posts."},{"startTime":322.945,"endTime":324.485,"body":"He won the Smith Prize."},{"startTime":325.065,"endTime":328.365,"body":"He was kind of the, the top of the heap of undergraduates at Cambridge."},{"startTime":328.825,"endTime":334.285,"body":"Uh, but that was nothing compared to Laer, who was an established French astronomer."},{"startTime":334.345,"endTime":340.491,"body":"He had done extensive study of emotion of mercury, uh, and these two independently predicted"},{"startTime":340.491,"endTime":340.901,"body":"the existence of a never before scene planet that could split, oh, a never before"},{"startTime":340.901,"endTime":351.965,"body":"seen planet that could explain the apparent disruption of the orbit of Uranus."},{"startTime":352.025,"endTime":354.365,"body":"So this is Uranus, it's going off track."},{"startTime":355.105,"endTime":361.546,"body":"And they, both Lavere and Adams, they used Newton's gravitational theory, right, developed in the"},{"startTime":361.546,"endTime":361.976,"body":"wake of the calculus and Kepler's law as a planetary motion to predict the mass"},{"startTime":361.976,"endTime":370.565,"body":"and position of this hypothetical body."},{"startTime":372.185,"endTime":377.605,"body":"And the new planet was finally observed from an observatory in Berlin of all places."},{"startTime":377.945,"endTime":383.813,"body":"And when that happened, the scientific administrators in both France and in Britain, they felt"},{"startTime":383.813,"endTime":384.205,"body":"robbed."},{"startTime":384.955,"endTime":390.214,"body":"They thought, we have the people who predicted this, we should get the credit you"},{"startTime":390.214,"endTime":390.565,"body":"can."},{"startTime":390.635,"endTime":391.245,"body":"It's understandable."},{"startTime":393.145,"endTime":399.102,"body":"But the squabble that ensued meant that Benjamin per had an opportunity, and he and"},{"startTime":399.102,"endTime":399.499,"body":"the Americans quickly calculated the orbit of Neptune to salvage some scrap of the success,"},{"startTime":399.499,"endTime":407.045,"body":"the glory of planetary discovery."},{"startTime":408.385,"endTime":415.12,"body":"But in this whole story, the biggest winner actually turns out to be Newton's theory"},{"startTime":415.12,"endTime":417.365,"body":"of gravitation by mathematics alone."},{"startTime":417.885,"endTime":422.085,"body":"A new planet had been predicted to exist without ever having been seen."},{"startTime":422.585,"endTime":429.47,"body":"And then it was discovered, this raised tantalizing questions about what other big questions mathematics"},{"startTime":429.47,"endTime":431.765,"body":"might be able to solve."},{"startTime":432.705,"endTime":435.125,"body":"And in particular, this problem."},{"startTime":436.305,"endTime":440.531,"body":"So there was an unexplained shift that had been observed in the orbit of Mercury,"},{"startTime":440.531,"endTime":440.813,"body":"something that gets called the procession of the parhelion of Mercury, if you want to"},{"startTime":440.813,"endTime":445.885,"body":"be fancy about it."},{"startTime":446.265,"endTime":450.791,"body":"But there's just a, a sort of a shift that's happening as Mercury gets close"},{"startTime":450.791,"endTime":453.205,"body":"to the sun in its orbit, orbital path."},{"startTime":455.455,"endTime":456.965,"body":"Liber had thought a lot about this."},{"startTime":457.025,"endTime":458.805,"body":"He thought a lot about the motion of Mercury."},{"startTime":459.385,"endTime":466.189,"body":"And after this triumph, this triumphant discovery of Neptune, his prediction of Neptune by mathematics,"},{"startTime":466.189,"endTime":470.725,"body":"Liberi thought maybe, maybe the same trick will work again."},{"startTime":471.545,"endTime":477.055,"body":"Is it possible that there's another new planet out there that's causing this disruption to"},{"startTime":477.055,"endTime":478.525,"body":"the orbit of mercury?"},{"startTime":479.175,"endTime":480.245,"body":"Maybe this is possible."},{"startTime":483.345,"endTime":485.205,"body":"And so excitement ran high."},{"startTime":486.075,"endTime":488.045,"body":"This is a, a beautiful image of mercury."},{"startTime":488.045,"endTime":488.925,"body":"It doesn't really look like that."},{"startTime":489.115,"endTime":492.845,"body":"This \u003claugh\u003e just seems exciting because it's an exciting question."},{"startTime":493.345,"endTime":498.95,"body":"Uh, but this is a, an overlay of data from a spectrometer along with, um,"},{"startTime":498.95,"endTime":500.445,"body":"the NASA Messenger spacecraft."},{"startTime":500.505,"endTime":502.645,"body":"So it doesn't actually look like that if you go up to space."},{"startTime":502.645,"endTime":504.525,"body":"It's just a picture I really like of Mercury."},{"startTime":507.105,"endTime":511.811,"body":"So the question is, is there another new planet out there that can solve this"},{"startTime":511.811,"endTime":512.125,"body":"mystery?"},{"startTime":512.145,"endTime":515.525,"body":"Is there something else that's disrupting the orbit of mercury?"},{"startTime":515.865,"endTime":517.085,"body":"So excitement ran high."},{"startTime":517.183,"endTime":520.205,"body":"You can imagine we found one new planet, maybe there's another new planet."},{"startTime":520.914,"endTime":521.965,"body":"They gave it a name."},{"startTime":522.355,"endTime":526.085,"body":"It's called what's called Vulcan, and people sent out to look for it."},{"startTime":526.745,"endTime":531.232,"body":"But one challenge, if you're looking for something that's near the sun, is that much"},{"startTime":531.232,"endTime":533.925,"body":"like being in front of the lights up here."},{"startTime":534.065,"endTime":540.0,"body":"The sun is bright and it's difficult to see things very close to the sun,"},{"startTime":540.0,"endTime":540.396,"body":"but astronomers knew it would be easiest to observe in the area, the vicinity of"},{"startTime":540.396,"endTime":550.685,"body":"the sun during those precious few minutes of a total solar eclipse."},{"startTime":551.745,"endTime":557.595,"body":"And so this became one of the outstanding scientific questions pursued by eclipse expeditioners in"},{"startTime":557.595,"endTime":560.325,"body":"the second half of the 19th century."},{"startTime":561.345,"endTime":566.085,"body":"Is there some unknown planet between mercury and the sun?"},{"startTime":568.545,"endTime":572.287,"body":"So this is one question on the table for Eclipse expeditions in the second half"},{"startTime":572.287,"endTime":573.285,"body":"of the 19th century."},{"startTime":574.075,"endTime":578.645,"body":"They also want to test models of the motion of the moon."},{"startTime":579.505,"endTime":584.045,"body":"The the moon's motion is sort of notoriously tricky to describe among astronomers."},{"startTime":584.545,"endTime":591.241,"body":"And lunar theory also relates to navigational accuracy by this point, and therefore is connected"},{"startTime":591.241,"endTime":597.045,"body":"to national concerns, military trade commerce, right, things national governments are concerned about."},{"startTime":597.905,"endTime":605.515,"body":"And in 1849, the United States Naval Appropriations Act, a congressional act, authorized an official"},{"startTime":605.515,"endTime":613.125,"body":"American Almanac because the Americans wanted to avoid dependence on foreign sources for astronomical data."},{"startTime":613.315,"endTime":618.572,"body":"This was part of the plan to establish independent science of a kind of international"},{"startTime":618.572,"endTime":620.325,"body":"level in the United States."},{"startTime":621.625,"endTime":626.605,"body":"And in 1851, they had a chance to check how well their work was going."},{"startTime":627.335,"endTime":633.627,"body":"There was a solar eclipse on the 28th of July, and it brought triumphant vindication,"},{"startTime":633.627,"endTime":635.725,"body":"the US nautical almanac offices'."},{"startTime":635.745,"endTime":641.276,"body":"New tables of the moon's positions were significantly more accurate than those of its British"},{"startTime":641.276,"endTime":641.645,"body":"counterpart."},{"startTime":642.555,"endTime":643.445,"body":"They were thrilled."},{"startTime":644.305,"endTime":649.31,"body":"The the Britts, based on all the material that I've seen, do not seem to"},{"startTime":649.31,"endTime":650.645,"body":"have cared at all."},{"startTime":652.385,"endTime":656.205,"body":"But the, the same year, the Americans are celebrating the triumph of their lunar table."},{"startTime":656.495,"endTime":664.548,"body":"There is another huge milestone for astronomical observation, and that is the developing technology of"},{"startTime":664.548,"endTime":665.085,"body":"photography."},{"startTime":665.425,"endTime":667.045,"body":"So we heard a little bit about this earlier."},{"startTime":667.475,"endTime":671.346,"body":"This is a huge change in astronomy in the, over the course of the 19th"},{"startTime":671.346,"endTime":671.605,"body":"century."},{"startTime":672.505,"endTime":676.967,"body":"The first photograph of the moon had been displayed in New York City in 1840,"},{"startTime":676.967,"endTime":677.265,"body":"but if you wanna take a picture of the sun, your shutter needs to be"},{"startTime":677.265,"endTime":684.405,"body":"significantly faster than to take a picture of the moon."},{"startTime":685.065,"endTime":688.085,"body":"And such a shutter was developed in 1845."},{"startTime":688.745,"endTime":694.713,"body":"And this paved the way for this photograph here by Johan Bofski, the first photograph"},{"startTime":694.713,"endTime":700.285,"body":"of the solar Corona taken during Eclipse totality in Konigsberg in July of 1851."},{"startTime":701.425,"endTime":709.243,"body":"And with the success kicked off a new debate, could photography become a reliable, astronomical"},{"startTime":709.243,"endTime":709.765,"body":"tool?"},{"startTime":710.255,"endTime":710.605,"body":"Right?"},{"startTime":710.955,"endTime":713.005,"body":"Spoiler, I just showed you some NASA photos."},{"startTime":713.745,"endTime":716.245,"body":"The answer is yes, but they didn't."},{"startTime":716.995,"endTime":722.117,"body":"This was up for debate in, in the 19th century and the golden age of"},{"startTime":722.117,"endTime":722.458,"body":"eclipse, eclipse expeditions, which is what the second half of the 19th century gets called"},{"startTime":722.458,"endTime":728.605,"body":"if you're into eclipses,"},{"startTime":734.675,"endTime":737.045,"body":"Brought many opportunities to find out."},{"startTime":738.745,"endTime":743.165,"body":"So there was a new mathematical approach to calculating the path of eclipse totality."},{"startTime":743.315,"endTime":745.805,"body":"This was determined by vessel in 1824."},{"startTime":745.805,"endTime":750.325,"body":"It's what still gets used to eclipse, to compute the path of totality today."},{"startTime":751.065,"endTime":756.325,"body":"And what it meant was that astronomers had plenty of time, they had a lot"},{"startTime":756.325,"endTime":756.676,"body":"of advanced notice to plan and organize eclipse expeditions and how they would get themselves"},{"startTime":756.676,"endTime":765.445,"body":"and their prodigious amount of equipment to the zone of totality."},{"startTime":766.555,"endTime":771.286,"body":"They could now predict specific locations on the globe where you would need to be"},{"startTime":771.286,"endTime":774.125,"body":"to experience totality, well in advance of the event."},{"startTime":775.825,"endTime":782.896,"body":"And mid-century astronomers were especially keen to use their eclipse expeditions to as practice to"},{"startTime":782.896,"endTime":785.725,"body":"observe an even rarer predictable occurrence."},{"startTime":786.225,"endTime":790.689,"body":"So you can see this sort of cluster of eclipses over there, 68, 69, 70,"},{"startTime":790.689,"endTime":791.285,"body":"and 71."},{"startTime":792.065,"endTime":796.925,"body":"That's four eclipses, which are all accessible in accessible locations."},{"startTime":796.945,"endTime":798.885,"body":"So the ones, um, highlighted in, in green."},{"startTime":798.885,"endTime":806.165,"body":"There are, um, well, not in Antarctica or anywhere else, that's extremely difficult to reach."},{"startTime":806.225,"endTime":811.275,"body":"So these were eclipses that, um, astronomers were fairly confident they could reach the zones"},{"startTime":811.275,"endTime":812.285,"body":"of to totality."},{"startTime":812.665,"endTime":818.215,"body":"And that particular clump of four there were of special interest because they wanted to"},{"startTime":818.215,"endTime":820.805,"body":"practice up for the transit of Venus."},{"startTime":821.985,"endTime":826.725,"body":"So the transitive Venus happens even less frequently than a total solar eclipse."},{"startTime":827.175,"endTime":832.865,"body":"Venus passes between the sun and the earth twice, eight years apart, about every 125"},{"startTime":832.865,"endTime":833.245,"body":"years."},{"startTime":836.225,"endTime":842.055,"body":"And from the earth it's possible to watch Venus Transit the sun, as in as"},{"startTime":842.055,"endTime":845.165,"body":"beautiful image from the 2012 transit of Venus."},{"startTime":845.165,"endTime":850.011,"body":"So you can see this tiny little black dot up there, that's Venus, and it's"},{"startTime":850.011,"endTime":853.565,"body":"traversing across the surface of the sun as seen from Earth."},{"startTime":854.475,"endTime":862.072,"body":"This has only been observed seven times, first in 1639, and most recently in 2004"},{"startTime":862.072,"endTime":863.085,"body":"and 2012."},{"startTime":863.985,"endTime":868.325,"body":"So I'm sorry to tell you, it won't happen again until 2117."},{"startTime":872.665,"endTime":876.325,"body":"But for 19th century scientists, timing the phases of Venus."},{"startTime":876.665,"endTime":880.921,"body":"So in other words, when does Venus make first contact with the boundary of the"},{"startTime":880.921,"endTime":881.205,"body":"sun?"},{"startTime":881.465,"endTime":884.565,"body":"And when does it go off the edge of the other side of the sun?"},{"startTime":884.915,"endTime":886.645,"body":"When has it completed the transit"},{"startTime":889.545,"endTime":897.415,"body":"In 1874 and 1882 is when the, the key transitive Venus are scheduled to happen,"},{"startTime":897.415,"endTime":905.285,"body":"or would provide essential data for determining the distance between the sun and the earth."},{"startTime":906.625,"endTime":911.753,"body":"So what they hope to do, astronomers wanted to answer one of the great basic"},{"startTime":911.753,"endTime":913.805,"body":"science open questions of the time."},{"startTime":914.465,"endTime":915.725,"body":"How big is the solar system?"},{"startTime":917.025,"endTime":922.467,"body":"And this piece of data, this timing, they were gonna use solar paragraphs and determine"},{"startTime":922.467,"endTime":924.645,"body":"the size of the astronomical unit."},{"startTime":925.385,"endTime":933.133,"body":"And this run of accessible eclipses, 18 68, 69, 70, 71, leading up to 1874,"},{"startTime":933.133,"endTime":940.365,"body":"gave them invaluable practice with observational tools and techniques for even higher stakes astronomy."},{"startTime":941.305,"endTime":946.142,"body":"So as exciting as an eclipse is, if what you're really after is the transit"},{"startTime":946.142,"endTime":949.045,"body":"of Venus, it's a warm act, warmup act, right?"},{"startTime":951.185,"endTime":957.768,"body":"And so I'm gonna talk about a few of these eclipse expeditions, and I wanna"},{"startTime":957.768,"endTime":959.085,"body":"start with 1860."},{"startTime":960.105,"endTime":965.133,"body":"So this is a nice picture from Harper's Weekly, and it gives you a sense"},{"startTime":965.133,"endTime":968.485,"body":"of the level of interest surrounding some of these events."},{"startTime":968.935,"endTime":976.036,"body":"There was wide newspaper coverage around the world, in fact, um, and it's sort of"},{"startTime":976.036,"endTime":981.245,"body":"a general interest in what might come of these eclipse expeditions."},{"startTime":982.705,"endTime":989.525,"body":"And I wanna focus in 1860 on particularly the American observations in 1860."},{"startTime":989.665,"endTime":994.685,"body":"So just a word about what the United States looked like at that point."},{"startTime":995.425,"endTime":996.485,"body":"So what's in orange?"},{"startTime":996.635,"endTime":997.805,"body":"Here are states."},{"startTime":998.385,"endTime":1002.975,"body":"So it's just, whoops, I've gone off mic."},{"startTime":1004.195,"endTime":1006.095,"body":"Am I, it's just after the gold rush."},{"startTime":1006.595,"endTime":1011.175,"body":"Uh, so California has recently become quite populated due to the Gold Rush."},{"startTime":1011.245,"endTime":1012.495,"body":"It's recently become a state."},{"startTime":1012.995,"endTime":1018.413,"body":"Uh, and you can see that in between sort of Ohio, Missouri, Texas, and so"},{"startTime":1018.413,"endTime":1018.775,"body":"on."},{"startTime":1018.775,"endTime":1022.455,"body":"There's this kind of vast blue zone, blue and green."},{"startTime":1022.535,"endTime":1024.214,"body":"Those are territories at that point."},{"startTime":1024.395,"endTime":1027.775,"body":"So not part of the official United States of America."},{"startTime":1028.395,"endTime":1033.905,"body":"Uh, however, there is an enormous amount of activity going on there, not all of"},{"startTime":1033.905,"endTime":1035.375,"body":"which is, uh, commendable."},{"startTime":1035.993,"endTime":1040.015,"body":"Uh, so there just a note about the context of those territories."},{"startTime":1040.625,"endTime":1046.56,"body":"There is, um, decimation of indigenous populations that's happening, uh, at, at exactly this point"},{"startTime":1046.56,"endTime":1048.935,"body":"in time in the United States."},{"startTime":1052.025,"endTime":1058.522,"body":"And as the nation is taking shape in a way, quite literally, you can see,"},{"startTime":1058.522,"endTime":1058.955,"body":"but also in terms of its institutions and um, kind of governmental bodies, there is"},{"startTime":1058.955,"endTime":1068.485,"body":"increasing interest in solar, ex solar eclipse observations."},{"startTime":1070.905,"endTime":1075.165,"body":"And in 1860, they think this is a great, this is great for us."},{"startTime":1075.225,"endTime":1076.485,"body":"We don't have to go very far."},{"startTime":1077.125,"endTime":1078.885,"body":"Totality is going to come to us."},{"startTime":1079.945,"endTime":1088.071,"body":"And so there, there are three US Eclipse observing parties that attempt to, I will"},{"startTime":1088.071,"endTime":1092.405,"body":"say that attempt to make observations in 1860."},{"startTime":1093.785,"endTime":1096.805,"body":"Uh, the first one is the US Navy Lieutenant."},{"startTime":1096.945,"endTime":1098.285,"body":"His name is James Gillis."},{"startTime":1098.665,"endTime":1102.448,"body":"He took a few boxes of kind of second rate equipment, leftover stuff he could"},{"startTime":1102.448,"endTime":1103.205,"body":"borrow from anybody."},{"startTime":1103.205,"endTime":1107.687,"body":"He would give him a telescope, a chronometer, you know, he was writing letters to"},{"startTime":1107.687,"endTime":1108.285,"body":"various places."},{"startTime":1108.505,"endTime":1109.965,"body":"Hey, do you have anything I can take?"},{"startTime":1110.185,"endTime":1114.205,"body":"I'm going to go to Oregon to observe the eclipse."},{"startTime":1114.945,"endTime":1122.276,"body":"And everybody said, Oregon, it's always cloudy in Oregon, so nobody would give him a"},{"startTime":1122.276,"endTime":1122.765,"body":"camera."},{"startTime":1123.425,"endTime":1127.917,"body":"So James Gillis did not have a camera, but he took telescopes and kilometers, and"},{"startTime":1127.917,"endTime":1128.217,"body":"he took a steamer from New York over here, all the way down around and"},{"startTime":1128.217,"endTime":1135.405,"body":"up to San Francisco where he picked up his son."},{"startTime":1135.465,"endTime":1136.725,"body":"He was working on the Coast survey."},{"startTime":1137.305,"endTime":1142.207,"body":"Uh, it took three weeks on a steamer, and then they traveled another two weeks"},{"startTime":1142.207,"endTime":1142.534,"body":"to reach that red star on the left side of the map and a camp"},{"startTime":1142.534,"endTime":1149.725,"body":"near the Cascade Mountains and Wonder of Wonders."},{"startTime":1150.035,"endTime":1152.245,"body":"They had a clear view of the Corona."},{"startTime":1153.185,"endTime":1158.572,"body":"Uh, they did not have a camera, however, uh, but the other thing, and this"},{"startTime":1158.572,"endTime":1161.805,"body":"is a very, very relatable sentiment from Jane Gillis."},{"startTime":1162.185,"endTime":1165.725,"body":"He found the sunrise eclipse so spectacular."},{"startTime":1166.145,"endTime":1172.887,"body":"And this is his quote, I was irresistibly drawn to its contemplation, and he neglected"},{"startTime":1172.887,"endTime":1174.685,"body":"his scientific observations, \u003claugh\u003e."},{"startTime":1175.625,"endTime":1180.228,"body":"So he had a kind of recollection that he reported after the fact of what"},{"startTime":1180.228,"endTime":1183.605,"body":"he had seen, but didn't have any kind of scientific data."},{"startTime":1184.145,"endTime":1189.725,"body":"And this is certainly a relatable sentiment, I think, for anyone who's experienced eclipse totality."},{"startTime":1190.265,"endTime":1198.045,"body":"And it is also a great reason why Eclipse expeditions always wanted experienced observers."},{"startTime":1198.945,"endTime":1203.817,"body":"So there's this sort of collection of people who sort of recur on these eclipse"},{"startTime":1203.817,"endTime":1208.365,"body":"strips because, well, they, they know a little bit what what they're in for."},{"startTime":1210.225,"endTime":1214.301,"body":"And that in fact was the best of the outcomes for these three American parties"},{"startTime":1214.301,"endTime":1214.845,"body":"in 1860."},{"startTime":1215.745,"endTime":1221.057,"body":"Uh, the second in the middle of the map there, the Red star up by"},{"startTime":1221.057,"endTime":1224.245,"body":"the Saskatchewan River was a, a party of four."},{"startTime":1224.465,"endTime":1226.685,"body":"It took them 47 days to get there."},{"startTime":1226.825,"endTime":1228.565,"body":"It is a terrible slog."},{"startTime":1228.745,"endTime":1233.965,"body":"The the travel log that they write about this trip is, it sounds miserable."},{"startTime":1234.175,"endTime":1235.925,"body":"There were clouds of mosquitoes."},{"startTime":1236.105,"endTime":1240.243,"body":"The stagecoach got stuck in the mud, they had to switch to a wagon, and"},{"startTime":1240.243,"endTime":1240.519,"body":"then they were in a canoe, and the canoe was leaking, and they spent the"},{"startTime":1240.519,"endTime":1245.485,"body":"night in the mud."},{"startTime":1245.625,"endTime":1249.565,"body":"It, it just was a terrible slog to get there to Northern Saskatchewan."},{"startTime":1250.185,"endTime":1258.468,"body":"And on Eclipse Day, they sat in a marsh and watched clouds obscure the corona,"},{"startTime":1258.468,"endTime":1260.125,"body":"nothing for them."},{"startTime":1260.585,"endTime":1264.285,"body":"And then they made it a, the long trudge back home again."},{"startTime":1265.465,"endTime":1270.696,"body":"The third group up there on the top of the slide was a team of"},{"startTime":1270.696,"endTime":1271.045,"body":"11."},{"startTime":1271.475,"endTime":1276.642,"body":"They had managed to borrow a steam ship from the Coast Survey, not the Coast"},{"startTime":1276.642,"endTime":1278.365,"body":"surveys, best steam ship, right?"},{"startTime":1278.475,"endTime":1281.845,"body":"Kind of a leftover one that was parked in the back."},{"startTime":1282.745,"endTime":1287.765,"body":"And they had to navigate through ice fields, through snow, through coastal mist."},{"startTime":1287.765,"endTime":1289.125,"body":"They about ran out of fuel."},{"startTime":1289.155,"endTime":1294.152,"body":"They thought they were gonna get stuck, uh, and they make themselves make their way"},{"startTime":1294.152,"endTime":1295.485,"body":"up to Avik Island."},{"startTime":1296.625,"endTime":1299.845,"body":"And there also clouds."},{"startTime":1301.595,"endTime":1306.259,"body":"Only one person saw any part of the Corona and that person, they had left"},{"startTime":1306.259,"endTime":1308.125,"body":"on the boat with no equipment."},{"startTime":1309.665,"endTime":1311.885,"body":"So again, nothing."},{"startTime":1312.465,"endTime":1315.365,"body":"And that itself would be sufficiently disappointing."},{"startTime":1315.955,"endTime":1324.045,"body":"However, it's more disappointing when your competition has a great day and an ocean away."},{"startTime":1325.665,"endTime":1330.955,"body":"The Royal Society fellow Warren LaRue had the help of the British Navy behind him,"},{"startTime":1330.955,"endTime":1336.245,"body":"and he had a new railroad across northern Spain that reached the zone of totality."},{"startTime":1337.225,"endTime":1342.981,"body":"And because of these advantages, he was able to transport this purpose-built Q Photo Helio"},{"startTime":1342.981,"endTime":1343.365,"body":"graft."},{"startTime":1343.585,"endTime":1348.325,"body":"So just for context, uh, this instrument weighs about 400 kilograms."},{"startTime":1349.035,"endTime":1350.365,"body":"It's about eight feet tall."},{"startTime":1350.755,"endTime":1352.845,"body":"It's a massive instrument."},{"startTime":1353.425,"endTime":1358.422,"body":"And if you're going to use this instrument to take a photograph of the sun,"},{"startTime":1358.422,"endTime":1358.755,"body":"you need to have also a photographic darkroom with you, with glass bottles full of"},{"startTime":1358.755,"endTime":1367.085,"body":"toxic chemicals and glass plates and somewhere to develop it all."},{"startTime":1367.745,"endTime":1371.835,"body":"So this is not a small enterprise to schlep all this stuff, even if you"},{"startTime":1371.835,"endTime":1372.107,"body":"have the British Navy and a railroad across northern Spain, it's going to take some"},{"startTime":1372.107,"endTime":1378.925,"body":"doing to get all of this to the zone of totality."},{"startTime":1381.265,"endTime":1387.095,"body":"But he does this, and he, given all of that investment in getting this equipment"},{"startTime":1387.095,"endTime":1392.925,"body":"and all of the supplies to the zone of totality, he takes an epic risk."},{"startTime":1393.345,"endTime":1399.49,"body":"He gambles on a new kind of photo photography, the, a wet collodion technique, which"},{"startTime":1399.49,"endTime":1399.9,"body":"is a risky new technique, but it has the potential to capture much finer detail"},{"startTime":1399.9,"endTime":1407.685,"body":"than the existing standard methods."},{"startTime":1408.625,"endTime":1409.245,"body":"And it worked."},{"startTime":1410.905,"endTime":1416.205,"body":"And Warren UE gets this photograph, the sensational photograph."},{"startTime":1416.205,"endTime":1421.982,"body":"It winds up reproduced in newspapers around the world, in particular in the New York"},{"startTime":1421.982,"endTime":1426.605,"body":"Times, where it is described as a photograph of with rosy flames."},{"startTime":1427.145,"endTime":1429.045,"body":"And this made headlines around the world."},{"startTime":1429.065,"endTime":1435.859,"body":"So you can see the, the detail here of the, the prominences coming off the"},{"startTime":1435.859,"endTime":1436.765,"body":"solar Corona."},{"startTime":1437.915,"endTime":1439.765,"body":"It's a really a spectacular image."},{"startTime":1440.665,"endTime":1447.022,"body":"And this British success of, of course, you can imagine only compounded the sense of"},{"startTime":1447.022,"endTime":1449.565,"body":"disappointment amongst American astronomers in 1860."},{"startTime":1450.945,"endTime":1453.125,"body":"It happened here, it happened in North America."},{"startTime":1454.425,"endTime":1456.365,"body":"We didn't, it didn't, we didn't get anything."},{"startTime":1457.265,"endTime":1463.6,"body":"So they resolved to take full advantage when Eclipse totality, again, returns to North America"},{"startTime":1463.6,"endTime":1464.445,"body":"in 1869."},{"startTime":1465.625,"endTime":1468.725,"body":"And planning started in 1867."},{"startTime":1471.425,"endTime":1473.845,"body":"And this coincides with two things."},{"startTime":1474.705,"endTime":1479.285,"body":"It coincides with Benjamin Perce becoming the superintendent of the United States Coast Survey."},{"startTime":1480.185,"endTime":1486.903,"body":"So Benjamin, per of our, we previously encountered of our ambitions of putting American mathematical"},{"startTime":1486.903,"endTime":1487.351,"body":"sciences on the global stage, and also in 1867 is the transfer of Alaska, which"},{"startTime":1487.351,"endTime":1487.799,"body":"means that the United States is going to immediately start mapping Alaska, sort of related"},{"startTime":1487.799,"endTime":1506.165,"body":"to their, the re recent acquisition, but also related to this eclipse opportunity."},{"startTime":1509.185,"endTime":1514.125,"body":"So in 1869, the situation in the US is somewhat different than in 1860."},{"startTime":1515.035,"endTime":1519.525,"body":"It's after the Civil War reconstruction is largely underway."},{"startTime":1519.785,"endTime":1522.725,"body":"Infrastructure has been rebuilt and expanded."},{"startTime":1523.295,"endTime":1525.165,"body":"There are new railroads."},{"startTime":1525.845,"endTime":1531.125,"body":"1869 is the date of the completion of the transatlantic, the Transcontinental Railroad."},{"startTime":1531.545,"endTime":1536.205,"body":"Uh, there's also a telegraph service going crisscrossing the country."},{"startTime":1537.025,"endTime":1542.929,"body":"And the railroads then will facilitate the transportation of bulky observational equipment and dark rooms"},{"startTime":1542.929,"endTime":1545.685,"body":"for developing any photographs you might get."},{"startTime":1546.025,"endTime":1550.845,"body":"And the telegraph lines meant that surveyors could determine longitude for the observers."},{"startTime":1550.865,"endTime":1554.803,"body":"So you need to know where exactly are the bounds of totality so you can"},{"startTime":1554.803,"endTime":1555.066,"body":"make sure to get all of your astronomers in the zone where they've got a"},{"startTime":1555.066,"endTime":1559.005,"body":"chance."},{"startTime":1559.105,"endTime":1561.605,"body":"Anyway, to see totality."},{"startTime":1564.635,"endTime":1567.845,"body":"This is a map, uh, that was in the New York Times."},{"startTime":1569.345,"endTime":1574.876,"body":"And you can see that the zone of totality is going across the entire continent,"},{"startTime":1574.876,"endTime":1575.245,"body":"right?"},{"startTime":1575.315,"endTime":1580.379,"body":"It's going from Alaska up here on the left, all the way down across and"},{"startTime":1580.379,"endTime":1582.405,"body":"off the coast of South Carolina."},{"startTime":1585.945,"endTime":1592.858,"body":"And so newly in charge of the Coast Survey responsible for governmental mapping and exploration,"},{"startTime":1592.858,"endTime":1596.085,"body":"Benjamin per promptly sent surveyors to Alaska."},{"startTime":1597.265,"endTime":1602.045,"body":"So his, his vision is to have observers across the zone of totality, right?"},{"startTime":1602.045,"endTime":1605.365,"body":"They all know what happened happened last time we got stuck by clouds."},{"startTime":1605.865,"endTime":1611.952,"body":"So if you have somebody everywhere, then you can maybe minimize the risk of catastrophe"},{"startTime":1611.952,"endTime":1615.605,"body":"in the case of cloud cover in some place."},{"startTime":1616.575,"endTime":1621.334,"body":"So this is, this is a landscape over which they want to get inland from"},{"startTime":1621.334,"endTime":1623.555,"body":"the coast to the zone of totality."},{"startTime":1624.175,"endTime":1631.989,"body":"And again, just as a reminder, they have a lot of finicky, astronomical observational equipment"},{"startTime":1631.989,"endTime":1635.115,"body":"that they wanna take with them."},{"startTime":1635.735,"endTime":1643.075,"body":"So it's a little bit, it's a little bit precarious, and they enlisted some help."},{"startTime":1643.105,"endTime":1645.475,"body":"This is a kind of incredible story."},{"startTime":1645.545,"endTime":1652.207,"body":"They enlist, enlisted some help from Chika sling Chief Klux, and he and his wives"},{"startTime":1652.207,"endTime":1652.651,"body":"drew this map of ancestral trade routes that turned out to be the key for"},{"startTime":1652.651,"endTime":1663.755,"body":"the US Coast Survey personnel to observing the eclipse in Alaska."},{"startTime":1665.105,"endTime":1668.235,"body":"It's the oldest known map of southwest Yukon."},{"startTime":1668.785,"endTime":1672.515,"body":"It's drawn in pencil and it shows trade routes and landmarks."},{"startTime":1672.895,"endTime":1678.653,"body":"Uh, there's some interesting work being done on this to do with indigenous place names"},{"startTime":1678.653,"endTime":1679.037,"body":"and stretching hundreds of kilometers inland from the, the village of Kwan traversing traditional territory"},{"startTime":1679.037,"endTime":1686.715,"body":"of several of the first nations."},{"startTime":1688.855,"endTime":1694.342,"body":"And this, there was, um, big celebrations of this map in 2019 on the hundred"},{"startTime":1694.342,"endTime":1694.707,"body":"and 50th anniversary of, well, these eclipse observations, but also the, the drawing of this"},{"startTime":1694.707,"endTime":1700.195,"body":"map."},{"startTime":1700.345,"endTime":1704.195,"body":"It's, uh, quite a, quite a significant cultural object."},{"startTime":1706.175,"endTime":1708.635,"body":"So meanwhile, the Americans are making plans."},{"startTime":1709.025,"endTime":1712.81,"body":"They're trying to figure out how to access as much as possible of the zone"},{"startTime":1712.81,"endTime":1713.315,"body":"of totality."},{"startTime":1714.935,"endTime":1722.528,"body":"And meanwhile, there is another path of totality in 1868 that is crossing the Indian"},{"startTime":1722.528,"endTime":1723.035,"body":"subcontinent."},{"startTime":1723.525,"endTime":1725.915,"body":"There aren't any Americans who plan to go."},{"startTime":1725.915,"endTime":1728.435,"body":"There was one who was invited, but it didn't, didn't work out."},{"startTime":1728.855,"endTime":1736.195,"body":"But in 1868, in the zone of totality here, European astronomers again made huge news."},{"startTime":1737.015,"endTime":1743.38,"body":"The Royal Astronomical Society had sent John Herschel to jam Condi India with this single"},{"startTime":1743.38,"endTime":1743.805,"body":"prism spectroscope to study the chemical composition of the solar Corona so that nobody had"},{"startTime":1743.805,"endTime":1750.595,"body":"tried this."},{"startTime":1751.015,"endTime":1753.275,"body":"The Spectroscope is a new item."},{"startTime":1754.575,"endTime":1758.758,"body":"And the, the thought of using this training, the spectroscope on the solar Corona is"},{"startTime":1758.758,"endTime":1759.595,"body":"a new plan."},{"startTime":1760.295,"endTime":1765.205,"body":"Uh, the, the French astronomer we heard about earlier, uh, Johnson made similar observations, um,"},{"startTime":1765.205,"endTime":1766.515,"body":"for both of them."},{"startTime":1766.855,"endTime":1772.651,"body":"The spectrum of the Chromophore show showed an unfamiliar line near the sodium d that's"},{"startTime":1772.651,"endTime":1776.515,"body":"this one here, and this turned out to be helium."},{"startTime":1776.705,"endTime":1780.915,"body":"They detected a new element in 1868 in the solar Corona."},{"startTime":1781.875,"endTime":1785.405,"body":"This would not be isolated on Earth until 1895."},{"startTime":1786.465,"endTime":1788.245,"body":"So this is huge news."},{"startTime":1788.785,"endTime":1794.445,"body":"We found a new element, and this raised, again, more new questions."},{"startTime":1794.905,"endTime":1797.725,"body":"It raised questions about the chemical composition of the solar Corona."},{"startTime":1798.705,"endTime":1806.223,"body":"And this added some new things to the US observer's eclipse observation to-Do list for"},{"startTime":1806.223,"endTime":1806.725,"body":"1869."},{"startTime":1807.215,"endTime":1808.965,"body":"We're looking for an incur planet."},{"startTime":1809.665,"endTime":1815.405,"body":"We wanna find out about the, the composition of the solar Corona."},{"startTime":1815.785,"endTime":1820.99,"body":"We wanna be able to time the eclipse phases so that we can gear up"},{"startTime":1820.99,"endTime":1822.725,"body":"for the transit of Venus."},{"startTime":1823.225,"endTime":1825.245,"body":"So, and we also, we wanna take a lot of photographs."},{"startTime":1825.245,"endTime":1826.685,"body":"They're really interested in photographs."},{"startTime":1828.905,"endTime":1834.627,"body":"And Charles Augustus Young, who had recently become a professor of natural philosophy and astronomy"},{"startTime":1834.627,"endTime":1839.205,"body":"at Dartmouth, following his Civil War service, he immediately took up spectroscopy."},{"startTime":1840.025,"endTime":1844.893,"body":"And this became a research trajectory that would make him, by the end of the"},{"startTime":1844.893,"endTime":1847.165,"body":"century, one of America's most significant astronomers."},{"startTime":1848.225,"endTime":1854.041,"body":"And he developed a new style of spectroscope in hopes of more effectively identifying elements"},{"startTime":1854.041,"endTime":1855.205,"body":"in the Corona."},{"startTime":1855.625,"endTime":1861.325,"body":"So there's a real sense of opportunity for exploration and discovery, right?"},{"startTime":1861.325,"endTime":1866.093,"body":"No one's quite sure how these spectral analyses of the Corona, how they're working, how"},{"startTime":1866.093,"endTime":1867.365,"body":"you could improve them."},{"startTime":1867.505,"endTime":1874.672,"body":"So astronomers in various places are experimenting with all kinds of different, all kinds of"},{"startTime":1874.672,"endTime":1880.885,"body":"different approaches per is overseeing the US preparations for eclipse observations in 1869."},{"startTime":1881.745,"endTime":1883.845,"body":"And they're taking this seriously."},{"startTime":1884.145,"endTime":1888.461,"body":"The stars on the map are where there are observers who reported into the US"},{"startTime":1888.461,"endTime":1889.325,"body":"Coast survey reports."},{"startTime":1890.185,"endTime":1893.445,"body":"So they really don't want to miss it."},{"startTime":1895.785,"endTime":1901.176,"body":"And in Percy's words, he said, it's nothing less than a duty owing to civilization"},{"startTime":1901.176,"endTime":1901.535,"body":"that everything in our power and within our means should be done to make the"},{"startTime":1901.535,"endTime":1908.365,"body":"observations as complete as possible."},{"startTime":1908.825,"endTime":1911.965,"body":"So again, visually displayed here in this map."},{"startTime":1913.025,"endTime":1915.685,"body":"Now, the available means, it's kind of interesting to think about."},{"startTime":1916.195,"endTime":1921.725,"body":"They got $5,000 out of Congress in a kind of unconventional move."},{"startTime":1921.785,"endTime":1928.045,"body":"So that's a current economy cost of just over $17 million out of Congress."},{"startTime":1928.225,"endTime":1934.234,"body":"And they also had the rail companies who donated the excess of $2,000 of free"},{"startTime":1934.234,"endTime":1934.635,"body":"travel for astronomers who were going from the East coast into the, the band of"},{"startTime":1934.635,"endTime":1940.645,"body":"totality."},{"startTime":1941.985,"endTime":1948.147,"body":"Uh, there's a great story about an amateur photographic society in Philadelphia who had a"},{"startTime":1948.147,"endTime":1948.558,"body":"custom outfitted train car to transport all of their, uh, photographic equipment and their jars"},{"startTime":1948.558,"endTime":1956.365,"body":"of chemicals in their darkroom."},{"startTime":1956.705,"endTime":1961.319,"body":"And the, the railroad company wanted to support the cause of science, so they made"},{"startTime":1961.319,"endTime":1963.165,"body":"a special train car for them."},{"startTime":1963.625,"endTime":1967.9,"body":"So there's, there's all kinds of amazing stories of this nature of what people did"},{"startTime":1967.9,"endTime":1969.325,"body":"to practice their photographic techniques."},{"startTime":1969.385,"endTime":1971.485,"body":"You, you don't have a lot of time, right?"},{"startTime":1971.485,"endTime":1972.645,"body":"You're not using your iPhone."},{"startTime":1973.305,"endTime":1975.885,"body":"You have to, you have to expose things that takes time."},{"startTime":1975.905,"endTime":1980.123,"body":"You need a plan and to practice your plan if you wanna get a good"},{"startTime":1980.123,"endTime":1980.405,"body":"photograph."},{"startTime":1980.785,"endTime":1984.325,"body":"And you only have about two minutes of totality to, to make that happen."},{"startTime":1986.825,"endTime":1992.09,"body":"So there are lots of amateurs, there are astronomers from various, uh, universities in the"},{"startTime":1992.09,"endTime":1997.005,"body":"us various colleges, and there are also a vast numbers of Coast survey employees."},{"startTime":1997.305,"endTime":2001.216,"body":"So Benjamin Purse, again, in charge of the Coast survey, the coasts survey has a"},{"startTime":2001.216,"endTime":2004.085,"body":"total budget of about half a million dollars for the year."},{"startTime":2005.225,"endTime":2008.925,"body":"And that covers equipment and survey personnel in the zone of totality."},{"startTime":2009.195,"endTime":2015.045,"body":"Just by way of perspective, about 35% of the coast survey report for that year"},{"startTime":2015.045,"endTime":2016.605,"body":"is about the eclipse."},{"startTime":2017.545,"endTime":2020.205,"body":"So they're, they've got a lot of other things they're supposed to be doing, right?"},{"startTime":2020.205,"endTime":2025.816,"body":"They're mapping the entire country, uh, but 35% of that year, they're, they're focused on"},{"startTime":2025.816,"endTime":2026.565,"body":"the eclipse."},{"startTime":2029.585,"endTime":2031.885,"body":"So just to give you an idea of sort of the conditions."},{"startTime":2031.945,"endTime":2036.365,"body":"So this is a temporary observatory that was built in Burlington, Iowa."},{"startTime":2037.115,"endTime":2040.965,"body":"This is an easy train journey then and now from Chicago, Illinois."},{"startTime":2041.185,"endTime":2045.125,"body":"And it was the destination for thousands, thousands of eclipse watchers."},{"startTime":2045.745,"endTime":2048.445,"body":"Uh, this photo shows a very posed scientific party."},{"startTime":2048.985,"endTime":2052.743,"body":"Uh, the group includes, you can see down here, uh, with the parisel and the"},{"startTime":2052.743,"endTime":2053.245,"body":"black dress."},{"startTime":2053.315,"endTime":2054.324,"body":"It's Mariah Mitchell."},{"startTime":2054.545,"endTime":2060.284,"body":"She was, um, astronomy faculty at Vassar College, which is a, a women's college."},{"startTime":2060.905,"endTime":2063.324,"body":"And some of her female students are there as well."},{"startTime":2064.264,"endTime":2069.085,"body":"And their, their scientific visit created quite sensation in the local newspapers."},{"startTime":2070.185,"endTime":2072.725,"body":"Uh, Charles Young was also in Burlington."},{"startTime":2072.875,"endTime":2078.485,"body":"He's in this photograph as well over there with this spectroscope."},{"startTime":2078.824,"endTime":2082.407,"body":"So you can see this looks very different from the one that John Herschel took"},{"startTime":2082.407,"endTime":2082.885,"body":"to India."},{"startTime":2083.304,"endTime":2084.925,"body":"Uh, he's trying to innovate here."},{"startTime":2084.925,"endTime":2091.15,"body":"He designed and built this himself, and he's successfully captured the green Corona line, K"},{"startTime":2091.15,"endTime":2091.565,"body":"1474."},{"startTime":2091.594,"endTime":2093.405,"body":"It's the one there on the far right."},{"startTime":2094.545,"endTime":2097.285,"body":"And this was first thought to be another new element."},{"startTime":2097.705,"endTime":2100.045,"body":"So there was kind of immediate sense of triumph."},{"startTime":2100.185,"endTime":2104.874,"body":"We found another new element, they named it Coron after being in the, in the,"},{"startTime":2104.874,"endTime":2106.125,"body":"in the solar Corona."},{"startTime":2106.745,"endTime":2110.771,"body":"Uh, it was a subject of debate for a number of years, um, but early"},{"startTime":2110.771,"endTime":2113.725,"body":"in the 20th century was determined to be highly ionized iron."},{"startTime":2114.065,"endTime":2123.477,"body":"So not a new element, but nonetheless, uh, exciting to have found, uh, to have"},{"startTime":2123.477,"endTime":2129.125,"body":"found something I so nearby in Des Moines, Iowa."},{"startTime":2129.785,"endTime":2135.745,"body":"So a couple hundred, so miles further inland, uh, the furthest west in the band"},{"startTime":2135.745,"endTime":2138.925,"body":"of totality that was accessible by the railroad."},{"startTime":2139.145,"endTime":2141.605,"body":"So that's a kind of key piece of information."},{"startTime":2142.505,"endTime":2144.165,"body":"Uh, there was Simon Newcombe."},{"startTime":2144.305,"endTime":2148.935,"body":"So he was one of the four that was stranded in a soggy canoe in"},{"startTime":2148.935,"endTime":2151.405,"body":"1860, uh, stuck up in the Saskatchewan River."},{"startTime":2152.185,"endTime":2158.437,"body":"And he, I'm sorry to say, was also disappointed in 1869 because what he wanted"},{"startTime":2158.437,"endTime":2162.605,"body":"to do in 1869 was to find the inial planet."},{"startTime":2163.505,"endTime":2165.125,"body":"So he observed eclipse totality."},{"startTime":2165.155,"endTime":2167.885,"body":"This is his diary entry from Eclipse Day."},{"startTime":2168.625,"endTime":2174.908,"body":"And he writes how he was disappointed as he would be understandably not to find"},{"startTime":2174.908,"endTime":2176.165,"body":"the inial planet."},{"startTime":2178.105,"endTime":2184.005,"body":"But overall, the eclipse observations in 1869 were viewed as a tremendous success."},{"startTime":2184.785,"endTime":2191.991,"body":"The, the effort of the American astronomers produced photographs, hundreds of photographs and observational data,"},{"startTime":2191.991,"endTime":2192.471,"body":"pages and pages and pages and pages of so much data about the weather \u003claugh\u003e,"},{"startTime":2192.471,"endTime":2192.952,"body":"about the birds, about the observations, lots of data, and also it excited, tremendous popular"},{"startTime":2192.952,"endTime":2206.885,"body":"interest."},{"startTime":2207.815,"endTime":2213.47,"body":"Newspapers from San Francisco to New Hampshire described the, the sort of flaming corona and"},{"startTime":2213.47,"endTime":2213.847,"body":"the airiness of impending totality in parts of the country that would not have had"},{"startTime":2213.847,"endTime":2221.765,"body":"any part of the path of totality."},{"startTime":2222.845,"endTime":2227.435,"body":"Thousands of people witnessed at least a partial eclipse as far east as Boston and"},{"startTime":2227.435,"endTime":2228.965,"body":"as far west as California."},{"startTime":2229.915,"endTime":2237.092,"body":"This level of interest led to an increase in governmental funding, particularly earmarked to supply"},{"startTime":2237.092,"endTime":2239.485,"body":"astronomers for future scientific expeditions."},{"startTime":2240.105,"endTime":2243.005,"body":"So kind of a win for the astronomers there."},{"startTime":2244.345,"endTime":2250.645,"body":"One other, perhaps more surprising outcome of the Eclipse expedition is the beginning of this,"},{"startTime":2250.645,"endTime":2252.325,"body":"the annals of mathematics."},{"startTime":2252.865,"endTime":2259.165,"body":"If we have any mathematicians in the room, you'll recognize this as one of the"},{"startTime":2259.165,"endTime":2262.525,"body":"most prominent, highest ranked journals in mathematics currently."},{"startTime":2263.505,"endTime":2270.955,"body":"And this publication, this prestigious publication had its start in the unlikeliest of places in"},{"startTime":2270.955,"endTime":2272.445,"body":"Des Moines, Iowa."},{"startTime":2273.425,"endTime":2276.325,"body":"And its first couple of issues looked like this."},{"startTime":2277.185,"endTime":2280.845,"body":"And you can see that the type setting is not standardized there."},{"startTime":2280.915,"endTime":2283.325,"body":"It's printed by different publishers."},{"startTime":2283.355,"endTime":2287.963,"body":"This was kind of a home job that was borrowed type that was type set"},{"startTime":2287.963,"endTime":2288.885,"body":"in the basement."},{"startTime":2288.955,"endTime":2296.546,"body":"There's a incredible story about the, the origins of this journal, and perhaps even more"},{"startTime":2296.546,"endTime":2303.125,"body":"unlikely, is that this guy, Joel Hendricks, is the editor of this journal."},{"startTime":2303.825,"endTime":2307.605,"body":"He was self-taught in mathematics and astronomy."},{"startTime":2308.065,"endTime":2313.554,"body":"He had made money as a railroad surveyor, and he was essentially retired from his"},{"startTime":2313.554,"endTime":2313.92,"body":"railroad surveying days and living with his family in Des Moines, which was at the"},{"startTime":2313.92,"endTime":2321.605,"body":"time viewed as the border of civilization."},{"startTime":2321.985,"endTime":2324.365,"body":"So it's the red star over here on the left."},{"startTime":2325.185,"endTime":2330.827,"body":"And so where is most scientific activity happening, happening on the east coast in the"},{"startTime":2330.827,"endTime":2333.085,"body":"population centers, which you can see,"},{"startTime":2339.185,"endTime":2339.965,"body":"Am I back on?"},{"startTime":2340.575,"endTime":2343.565,"body":"Which you can see in the, the kind of orange circles here."},{"startTime":2343.985,"endTime":2346.525,"body":"So that is about a thousand miles."},{"startTime":2346.525,"endTime":2347.485,"body":"That's a long way."},{"startTime":2348.625,"endTime":2354.353,"body":"And somehow, somehow this guy doesn't have any training, didn't go to any of the"},{"startTime":2354.353,"endTime":2354.735,"body":"institutions where astronomers and mathematicians would be assumed to have been trained and made their"},{"startTime":2354.735,"endTime":2360.845,"body":"professional contacts."},{"startTime":2361.155,"endTime":2363.365,"body":"He's not a member of any professional societies."},{"startTime":2364.215,"endTime":2371.646,"body":"There is no good reason this guy should be the editor of a mathematical journal"},{"startTime":2371.646,"endTime":2372.142,"body":"in the United States that is the most successful mathematical journal in the 19th century,"},{"startTime":2372.142,"endTime":2380.565,"body":"deeply mysterious, right?"},{"startTime":2380.585,"endTime":2384.605,"body":"We saw in 1840, Benjamin Purse tried to start a research journal."},{"startTime":2385.395,"endTime":2387.825,"body":"He's at Harvard, right?"},{"startTime":2388.375,"endTime":2389.785,"body":"Last for not even a year."},{"startTime":2390.495,"endTime":2395.367,"body":"This guy keeps his journal going for 10 years, and then it gets sent to"},{"startTime":2395.367,"endTime":2395.691,"body":"the University of Virginia, and then it gets sent to Harvard, and then it gets"},{"startTime":2395.691,"endTime":2396.016,"body":"sent to Princeton, and then it gets edited jointly by the Institute for Advanced Study"},{"startTime":2396.016,"endTime":2407.385,"body":"and is now the Annals of Mathematics."},{"startTime":2409.165,"endTime":2410.785,"body":"How in the world did this happen?"},{"startTime":2412.135,"endTime":2417.65,"body":"This \u003claugh\u003e this is an incredible question, and this is actually how I got in"},{"startTime":2417.65,"endTime":2420.225,"body":"to thinking about Eclipse expeditions at all."},{"startTime":2420.545,"endTime":2424.705,"body":"I was working on mathematical journals, and this is a question that came up."},{"startTime":2424.895,"endTime":2431.603,"body":"It's a perplexing question, and the answer of it turned out to be the 1869"},{"startTime":2431.603,"endTime":2432.051,"body":"eclipse, because Hendricks was living in Des Moines, Iowa, which was in the zone of"},{"startTime":2432.051,"endTime":2442.785,"body":"totality in 1869, as Hendricks was a man about town."},{"startTime":2442.885,"endTime":2448.365,"body":"He was friends with the mayor, and the mayor threw a party for the visiting"},{"startTime":2448.365,"endTime":2452.385,"body":"scientist who had come to Des Moines to observe the eclipse."},{"startTime":2453.765,"endTime":2461.573,"body":"And at that party, Hendricks met Simon Newcombe and his various compadres from the US"},{"startTime":2461.573,"endTime":2462.093,"body":"Naval Observatory, the US Naval, uh, core of mathematics professors and various other visiting astronomers"},{"startTime":2462.093,"endTime":2472.505,"body":"from other parts of the country."},{"startTime":2474.405,"endTime":2478.625,"body":"And he likely never, ever would've met any of these people otherwise."},{"startTime":2479.765,"endTime":2486.701,"body":"So a few years later, when his idea of a mathematical journal is realized, he"},{"startTime":2486.701,"endTime":2487.164,"body":"draws on an incredibly wide network of correspondence in Boston and Washington DC and New"},{"startTime":2487.164,"endTime":2498.725,"body":"York and Italy and the United Kingdom and around the world."},{"startTime":2500.945,"endTime":2507.557,"body":"And this is the correspondence that's, uh, interleaved in his own bound copy of the"},{"startTime":2507.557,"endTime":2511.525,"body":"issues of the analysts, the journal that he began."},{"startTime":2512.185,"endTime":2515.725,"body":"And it successfully runs for 10 years, right?"},{"startTime":2515.785,"endTime":2522.301,"body":"And this sort of flourishing of mathematical community is partially due of course, to the"},{"startTime":2522.301,"endTime":2522.735,"body":"development of infrastructures, educational infrastructures happening in the US at this time, but it's also"},{"startTime":2522.735,"endTime":2523.169,"body":"pretty significantly pinpointed as a result of an eclipse expedition that he starts this journal"},{"startTime":2523.169,"endTime":2523.604,"body":"and a range of contributors participate in this journal, and mathematics is circulated in the"},{"startTime":2523.604,"endTime":2548.365,"body":"United States in a way that it would not have been expected to do ordinarily."},{"startTime":2549.865,"endTime":2556.609,"body":"So this is perhaps an unexpected outcome for an eclipse expedition, and it exemplifies the"},{"startTime":2556.609,"endTime":2562.005,"body":"incredible potential of scientific meetings to foster surprising collaborations and new ideas."},{"startTime":2563.365,"endTime":2572.886,"body":"A bit less surprising perhaps, is the fact that the enthusiasm from the 1869 eclipse"},{"startTime":2572.886,"endTime":2577.965,"body":"generates huge interest in the eclipse in 1870."},{"startTime":2579.145,"endTime":2585.445,"body":"So there's enormous momentum for planning expeditions to observe Eclipse totality in Spain in 1870"},{"startTime":2585.445,"endTime":2590.485,"body":"per himself planned to go, it would be his only international trip."},{"startTime":2590.505,"endTime":2591.845,"body":"He never left the country otherwise."},{"startTime":2592.545,"endTime":2594.645,"body":"And he said the constitution of the sun."},{"startTime":2594.865,"endTime":2600.193,"body":"So what we can find out through spectral analysis of the solar Corona is the"},{"startTime":2600.193,"endTime":2602.325,"body":"chief scientific problem of our time."},{"startTime":2603.185,"endTime":2609.503,"body":"And he thought the 1870 eclipse was going to remove the last obscurity from the"},{"startTime":2609.503,"endTime":2609.925,"body":"subject."},{"startTime":2610.795,"endTime":2618.205,"body":"Well, that didn't happen, uh, but the 1870 eclipse did generate widespread excitement."},{"startTime":2619.545,"endTime":2624.66,"body":"And this map of the US observation camp party camp gives a sense of the"},{"startTime":2624.66,"endTime":2626.365,"body":"size of their expedition party."},{"startTime":2626.705,"endTime":2632.445,"body":"So there's a transit observatory, a photography tent, a spectroscopic tent, telescopes outside as well."},{"startTime":2634.145,"endTime":2637.645,"body":"So there's a sort of a, a sizable number of people who've gone."},{"startTime":2638.785,"endTime":2643.605,"body":"And one observer that I want to just highlight here is Zina Fe Purse."},{"startTime":2644.505,"endTime":2649.71,"body":"So she's an American feminist and a founder of what becomes known as the Cooperative"},{"startTime":2649.71,"endTime":2650.405,"body":"Housekeeping movement."},{"startTime":2650.425,"endTime":2652.645,"body":"So this is sort of primarily what she's known for."},{"startTime":2653.785,"endTime":2657.725,"body":"But she had married Charles Saunders purse, who was a employee of the Coast Survey."},{"startTime":2657.865,"endTime":2661.765,"body":"And as it happened, the son of the superintendent of the Coast Survey."},{"startTime":2662.585,"endTime":2666.165,"body":"And so they were going on this expedition."},{"startTime":2666.185,"endTime":2670.969,"body":"And so that's how she found herself on a ship crossing the Atlantic to observe"},{"startTime":2670.969,"endTime":2672.245,"body":"an eclipse in 1870."},{"startTime":2673.105,"endTime":2678.6,"body":"And during the weeks at sea, she pinned photos of the moon to the canopy"},{"startTime":2678.6,"endTime":2681.165,"body":"of her bed, and she practiced sketching."},{"startTime":2681.455,"endTime":2683.765,"body":"Could she capture a likeness of the moon?"},{"startTime":2684.185,"endTime":2687.74,"body":"In two minutes, she would time herself and she would draw, because it was kind"},{"startTime":2687.74,"endTime":2688.925,"body":"of all hands on deck."},{"startTime":2688.945,"endTime":2692.125,"body":"If we're taking you to this eclipse, you're gonna produce some observations."},{"startTime":2694.615,"endTime":2699.062,"body":"And she also tried to sketch the clouds of smoke on the steamer just to"},{"startTime":2699.062,"endTime":2701.435,"body":"get practice sketching, things moving in the sky."},{"startTime":2705.445,"endTime":2711.097,"body":"And about her eclipse experience, she said, this is a quote, the time is too"},{"startTime":2711.097,"endTime":2714.865,"body":"brief, the novelty too complete, and the agitation too great."},{"startTime":2715.285,"endTime":2719.499,"body":"I'm convinced for a person observing an eclipse for the first time to see truly"},{"startTime":2719.499,"endTime":2721.185,"body":"more than one thing in it."},{"startTime":2722.475,"endTime":2724.105,"body":"Still her preparation paid off."},{"startTime":2724.725,"endTime":2730.4,"body":"She produced this sketch here that captures these three dark lines, uh, and these along"},{"startTime":2730.4,"endTime":2730.778,"body":"with a photograph taken by a wealthy amateur, or taken as evidence that the Corona"},{"startTime":2730.778,"endTime":2738.345,"body":"was in fact a solar feature."},{"startTime":2738.525,"endTime":2741.477,"body":"So there was some debate about whether the Corona was part of the moon or"},{"startTime":2741.477,"endTime":2742.265,"body":"part of the sun."},{"startTime":2742.605,"endTime":2747.74,"body":"Uh, and her sketch here was taken as evidence that it was in fact a"},{"startTime":2747.74,"endTime":2748.425,"body":"solar feature."},{"startTime":2749.925,"endTime":2756.183,"body":"Her father-in-law, declared the 1870 observations to be the triumphant vindication of American observations from"},{"startTime":2756.183,"endTime":2762.025,"body":"the year before, the novelty of which had made them somewhat suspect in Europe."},{"startTime":2763.125,"endTime":2767.545,"body":"Uh, and he thought that it established the superior accuracy of the American predictions."},{"startTime":2768.005,"endTime":2773.862,"body":"So we can see he's ever got the angle on making American science more visible"},{"startTime":2773.862,"endTime":2775.425,"body":"on the international stage."},{"startTime":2776.485,"endTime":2780.585,"body":"At a time when the sciences were not yet well established in the United States."},{"startTime":2780.595,"endTime":2787.82,"body":"These solar eclipse expeditions generated huge public interest and support connections forged beneath and about"},{"startTime":2787.82,"endTime":2789.265,"body":"the sun's shadow."},{"startTime":2789.575,"endTime":2796.097,"body":"Sustained networks of communication facilitated periodical publication and set precedent for government funding and support"},{"startTime":2796.097,"endTime":2802.185,"body":"of mathematical activity in the 19th and early 20th century in the United States."},{"startTime":2803.095,"endTime":2808.336,"body":"This provided the growing scientific community with a platform to advance mathematics and astronomy in"},{"startTime":2808.336,"endTime":2809.385,"body":"the United States."},{"startTime":2810.205,"endTime":2817.641,"body":"And the highly publicized 1878 eclipse across North America involved a mistaken, sorry, citing of"},{"startTime":2817.641,"endTime":2819.625,"body":"the intra mercurial planet."},{"startTime":2820.285,"endTime":2822.065,"body":"So that was huge news."},{"startTime":2823.855,"endTime":2831.936,"body":"That news, again, was debated throughout the 1880s and the 1890s, and eventually was debunked"},{"startTime":2831.936,"endTime":2836.785,"body":"Newton's gravitational theory, which was powerful enough to predict."},{"startTime":2836.895,"endTime":2842.789,"body":"Neptune, as we saw, could only explain about half of the observed shift in Mercury's"},{"startTime":2842.789,"endTime":2847.505,"body":"solar orbit as the close, as the closest planet to the sun."},{"startTime":2848.335,"endTime":2855.331,"body":"Mercury occupies a region of the solar system where Einstein's theory of general relativity suggested"},{"startTime":2855.331,"endTime":2855.798,"body":"that the sun's mass would disturb space, time, and eclipse observations in 1919 and also"},{"startTime":2855.798,"endTime":2869.325,"body":"1922 confirmed Einstein's predictions and ushered in a general, uh, an era of general relativity."},{"startTime":2869.905,"endTime":2875.915,"body":"So this is a kind of iconic image, a photograph of the solar Corona from"},{"startTime":2875.915,"endTime":2881.925,"body":"the 1919 paper by Edington and Dyson and Davidson verifying Einstein's theory of general relativity."},{"startTime":2882.865,"endTime":2889.504,"body":"So this is probably the most famous, uh, the most famous result of, um, kind"},{"startTime":2889.504,"endTime":2893.045,"body":"of most well-known outcome from an eclipse expedition."},{"startTime":2894.495,"endTime":2900.965,"body":"There are nonetheless many other eclipse expeditions that also provide great material for historical research."},{"startTime":2901.625,"endTime":2907.7,"body":"And this work has developed a community of researchers who are captivated by 19th century"},{"startTime":2907.7,"endTime":2912.965,"body":"eclipse expeditions, including a number of early career scholars whose projects at St."},{"startTime":2912.965,"endTime":2917.765,"body":"Andrews in particular have developed into publications and funded research positions."},{"startTime":2917.765,"endTime":2921.049,"body":"So I just wanna give you a little bit of an overview of some work"},{"startTime":2921.049,"endTime":2921.925,"body":"that's currently going on."},{"startTime":2927.225,"endTime":2931.685,"body":"So this map here is the map of totality in 1871."},{"startTime":2931.745,"endTime":2937.085,"body":"So this is just following the eclipse at which Zena made her, made her sketch."},{"startTime":2937.465,"endTime":2942.637,"body":"So this is the, an eclipse across the Indian subcontinent, and a couple of students"},{"startTime":2942.637,"endTime":2947.465,"body":"did some research on this about Rangan Char, who's pictured in the middle there."},{"startTime":2947.535,"endTime":2953.085,"body":"It's the first Indian fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society based on some observations that"},{"startTime":2953.085,"endTime":2953.825,"body":"he made."},{"startTime":2954.485,"endTime":2959.505,"body":"Uh, and he also wrote this beautiful pamphlet, which is about the transit of Venus."},{"startTime":2960.045,"endTime":2962.465,"body":"Uh, and it's translated into six Indian languages."},{"startTime":2962.485,"endTime":2969.065,"body":"And it was a blend of Indian traditional astronomy with methods imported from Europe."},{"startTime":2969.205,"endTime":2974.185,"body":"So it's a really sort of incredible, uh, and incredible work."},{"startTime":2974.845,"endTime":2979.373,"body":"Uh, and this research was done by these two, som Lina there in the middle"},{"startTime":2979.373,"endTime":2981.185,"body":"is now doing some graduate work."},{"startTime":2981.185,"endTime":2983.025,"body":"She's a chemist working in spectroscopy."},{"startTime":2983.645,"endTime":2989.093,"body":"Uh, and Meg Breyers there on the right has just started a PhD program, a"},{"startTime":2989.093,"endTime":2989.456,"body":"PhD project directly related to this on women in 19th century British and astronomical field"},{"startTime":2989.456,"endTime":2994.905,"body":"work."},{"startTime":2994.925,"endTime":2997.865,"body":"So she's a, um, max plank in, in Berlin."},{"startTime":3000.645,"endTime":3008.145,"body":"So another eclipse that has some sort of interesting historical features is this one, right?"},{"startTime":3008.145,"endTime":3013.585,"body":"You can see it goes across Africa there and the very top of South America."},{"startTime":3014.485,"endTime":3018.865,"body":"And this particular eclipse features in some work that was done by Joelle Hendricks."},{"startTime":3019.645,"endTime":3026.185,"body":"So he is, uh, from Trinidad, and I said Hendricks, Joelle Beckel."},{"startTime":3026.615,"endTime":3032.449,"body":"He's, um, from Trinidad and was interested in doing some work on the eclipse observations"},{"startTime":3032.449,"endTime":3034.005,"body":"in Trinidad in 1889."},{"startTime":3035.185,"endTime":3040.938,"body":"And this resulted in a paper in the notes and records of the Royal Society,"},{"startTime":3040.938,"endTime":3045.925,"body":"featuring some individuals whose contributions to eclipse expeditions, uh, in Trinidad were unrecognized."},{"startTime":3046.225,"endTime":3050.49,"body":"Uh, I don't have any pictures of those individuals, but I do have a picture"},{"startTime":3050.49,"endTime":3052.765,"body":"of Elizabeth Brown who went on that expedition."},{"startTime":3052.825,"endTime":3054.525,"body":"She funded her own way."},{"startTime":3054.665,"endTime":3055.925,"body":"She took along her cousin."},{"startTime":3056.155,"endTime":3059.005,"body":"It's an incredible story of adventures on the high seas."},{"startTime":3059.505,"endTime":3065.165,"body":"Uh, and they made some observations at the eclipse in 1889."},{"startTime":3066.825,"endTime":3074.611,"body":"Uh, in 1941, there's a passive eclipse totality that goes across China, which at this"},{"startTime":3074.611,"endTime":3078.245,"body":"point is in experiencing extreme wartime conditions."},{"startTime":3079.465,"endTime":3085.13,"body":"Uh, and a student, Yong Lee, who should be purch pictured there, oh, he's not"},{"startTime":3085.13,"endTime":3085.508,"body":"pictured anyway, is, uh, is working on this, uh, and has tracked down some of"},{"startTime":3085.508,"endTime":3096.085,"body":"the official Chinese governmental reports about the observations that were taken in Lin Tao."},{"startTime":3096.665,"endTime":3102.525,"body":"Um, they had photographs, but they were also filming the eclipse for the first time."},{"startTime":3103.065,"endTime":3108.724,"body":"Uh, they had airplanes or an or airplane enlisted in service, which is an extraordinary"},{"startTime":3108.724,"endTime":3111.365,"body":"governmental commitment during a time of war."},{"startTime":3112.105,"endTime":3116.788,"body":"And this was a very similar case to the kind of us interest in getting"},{"startTime":3116.788,"endTime":3117.725,"body":"on the map."},{"startTime":3118.185,"endTime":3123.253,"body":"Uh, this sort of results of this solar eclipse in 1941 were the subject of"},{"startTime":3123.253,"endTime":3124.605,"body":"the first radio broadcast."},{"startTime":3124.715,"endTime":3128.365,"body":"They talked about, uh, the observations from the eclipse."},{"startTime":3128.905,"endTime":3133.052,"body":"So this is some work in progress, um, that's turned out to be quite, um,"},{"startTime":3133.052,"endTime":3133.605,"body":"quite exciting."},{"startTime":3134.985,"endTime":3140.125,"body":"Uh, there's also a team of students who have developed a website for public use."},{"startTime":3140.145,"endTime":3144.962,"body":"So the links to this are the Gresham website, the history and Science of Total"},{"startTime":3144.962,"endTime":3145.605,"body":"Solar Eclipses."},{"startTime":3145.625,"endTime":3151.076,"body":"So some of the things I've talked about today, but also quite a lot of"},{"startTime":3151.076,"endTime":3156.165,"body":"other interesting stories and other geographical locations and cultural perspectives on, uh, eclipse observation."},{"startTime":3156.225,"endTime":3159.525,"body":"So that's a kind of exciting, uh, exciting thing to look at."},{"startTime":3160.225,"endTime":3166.089,"body":"And these students who are doing these work and are joining a global community of"},{"startTime":3166.089,"endTime":3166.48,"body":"scholars from the South Pacific, from the Indian subcontinent, from China, south Asia, Europe, African"},{"startTime":3166.48,"endTime":3176.645,"body":"regions, who will all gather at an ICMS funded workshop that's upcoming."},{"startTime":3176.785,"endTime":3181.205,"body":"So this is happening, oh, oh, that's not there."},{"startTime":3181.675,"endTime":3183.325,"body":"It's happening a year from now."},{"startTime":3187.905,"endTime":3193.82,"body":"And it's a ambitious meeting that will bring together cross-cultural interdisciplinary cohort of scholars with"},{"startTime":3193.82,"endTime":3194.215,"body":"a vision of generating a coherent sense of shared ownership of the mathematical tradition of"},{"startTime":3194.215,"endTime":3200.525,"body":"Eclipse reckoning."},{"startTime":3200.665,"endTime":3206.989,"body":"So we heard earlier about some 11th century approaches to Eclipse reckoning, and the this"},{"startTime":3206.989,"endTime":3211.205,"body":"is a subject of fascination over time and across geography."},{"startTime":3211.425,"endTime":3217.543,"body":"And we're hoping to pull together, uh, a wide number of scholars to, to think"},{"startTime":3217.543,"endTime":3217.951,"body":"about this in conjunction, of course, with mathematicians, physicists and astronomers who are doing current"},{"startTime":3217.951,"endTime":3224.885,"body":"work like this."},{"startTime":3225.465,"endTime":3233.119,"body":"Uh, to understand and model the solar Corona as in the 19th century, present day"},{"startTime":3233.119,"endTime":3233.63,"body":"astronomers also see solar darkness as a valuable time-limited opportunity for observation and testing current"},{"startTime":3233.63,"endTime":3241.285,"body":"theories."},{"startTime":3241.905,"endTime":3248.701,"body":"Now as then, high stakes astronomical expeditions depend not only on well posed scientific questions"},{"startTime":3248.701,"endTime":3249.155,"body":"and adequate funding, but also as ever on the vagaries of changeable weather, uh, and"},{"startTime":3249.155,"endTime":3256.405,"body":"delicate instruments."},{"startTime":3256.455,"endTime":3259.605,"body":"These are ongoing concerns and eclipse observation."},{"startTime":3260.235,"endTime":3268.366,"body":"They also involve networks of scientists working alongside students, civilian observers, journalists, broadcasters, and you"},{"startTime":3268.366,"endTime":3273.245,"body":"too can share the collective experience of eclipse observations."},{"startTime":3273.665,"endTime":3276.485,"body":"Uh, there's several accessible paths of totality coming up."},{"startTime":3277.105,"endTime":3282.725,"body":"So there's the one I've already mentioned, uh, coming up in April, the, uh, 2024."},{"startTime":3282.785,"endTime":3288.316,"body":"If you missed that, there's one on the 12th of August, 2026, not so far"},{"startTime":3288.316,"endTime":3288.685,"body":"away."},{"startTime":3289.785,"endTime":3294.504,"body":"Uh, also, uh, it'll go over the northern part of Russia there off the top"},{"startTime":3294.504,"endTime":3294.819,"body":"of the map, uh, in 2027 over Northern Africa and 2028, when I'm really looking"},{"startTime":3294.819,"endTime":3302.685,"body":"forward to this is five and a half minutes of totality."},{"startTime":3302.825,"endTime":3306.325,"body":"So fingers crossed it works out to be there for that."},{"startTime":3307.105,"endTime":3311.226,"body":"So mark your calendars now for an opportunity to forge your own connections in the"},{"startTime":3311.226,"endTime":3312.325,"body":"shadow of the sun."},{"startTime":3312.865,"endTime":3313.285,"body":"Thanks."},{"startTime":3313.455,"endTime":3313.885,"body":"Thank you."},{"startTime":3319.405,"endTime":3323.957,"body":"I don't know very much about solar eclipses, but in the map that you showed"},{"startTime":3323.957,"endTime":3324.26,"body":"of the line of totality in 1869, a lot of the observation points appeared to"},{"startTime":3324.26,"endTime":3324.564,"body":"be very close to the edge, and I wondered whether there was a reason for"},{"startTime":3324.564,"endTime":3333.365,"body":"it."},{"startTime":3333.865,"endTime":3334.085,"body":"Yes."},{"startTime":3334.265,"endTime":3337.485,"body":"So they want to know if they're right in where the edge is."},{"startTime":3338.465,"endTime":3342.085,"body":"So you'll see, um, sorry to do this."},{"startTime":3345.985,"endTime":3346.205,"body":"Uh,"},{"startTime":3347.615,"endTime":3348.205,"body":"There we go."},{"startTime":3348.625,"endTime":3348.925,"body":"All right."},{"startTime":3349.065,"endTime":3353.883,"body":"So you'll see, I feel so sad always for these people who are just outside"},{"startTime":3353.883,"endTime":3354.205,"body":"\u003claugh\u003e."},{"startTime":3354.955,"endTime":3356.045,"body":"They didn't see anything."},{"startTime":3356.585,"endTime":3359.205,"body":"Um, so yes, that's exactly right."},{"startTime":3359.225,"endTime":3363.293,"body":"So they're, they're trying to figure out how accurately they've calculated the, the band of"},{"startTime":3363.293,"endTime":3363.565,"body":"totality."},{"startTime":3363.625,"endTime":3365.525,"body":"So they put people exactly where they think it is."},{"startTime":3366.065,"endTime":3371.158,"body":"Uh, the people in the middle, they're, well, they don't quite make the middle, but"},{"startTime":3371.158,"endTime":3371.497,"body":"uh, the people sort of closer to the middle are tasked mostly with, um, sort"},{"startTime":3371.497,"endTime":3381.005,"body":"of more serious the scientific questions, the cameras, the spectro scopes and so on."},{"startTime":3382.065,"endTime":3382.845,"body":"Do our old friends,"},{"startTime":3382.865,"endTime":3386.085,"body":"The Greeks have much to say about solar eclipses."},{"startTime":3387.545,"endTime":3389.085,"body":"Did they have much to say about, about them?"},{"startTime":3389.145,"endTime":3389.525,"body":"Say about them?"},{"startTime":3390.235,"endTime":3391.725,"body":"They were aware of them."},{"startTime":3392.565,"endTime":3395.725,"body":"I guess there's sort of reports of observing them"},{"startTime":3396.195,"endTime":3397.325,"body":"Thought about 'em, wasn't they?"},{"startTime":3398.245,"endTime":3403.505,"body":"I mean, there mathematicians, did they read records of what they thought?"},{"startTime":3403.965,"endTime":3405.905,"body":"Uh, there are some, there are some records."},{"startTime":3406.165,"endTime":3411.533,"body":"The one, one thing that's challenging with sort of ancient eclipse observations, as I understand"},{"startTime":3411.533,"endTime":3411.89,"body":"'em, so I'm not a classicist or a scholar of that period, um, is that"},{"startTime":3411.89,"endTime":3412.248,"body":"if you are computing when a solar eclipse is going to happen, that's kind of"},{"startTime":3412.248,"endTime":3422.985,"body":"one thing."},{"startTime":3423.405,"endTime":3428.399,"body":"But if you're computing where you have to be to see it happening, that's something"},{"startTime":3428.399,"endTime":3429.065,"body":"else altogether."},{"startTime":3429.605,"endTime":3435.667,"body":"And so there are certainly ancient accounts of having experienced eclipse totality and assorted kind"},{"startTime":3435.667,"endTime":3439.305,"body":"of legends that arise from that and so on."},{"startTime":3439.965,"endTime":3446.932,"body":"Um, but as far as a sort of a plan or mounting a research trajectory"},{"startTime":3446.932,"endTime":3447.397,"body":"as it were for observing all of them, that that's a very 19th century, they,"},{"startTime":3447.397,"endTime":3454.365,"body":"they"},{"startTime":3454.365,"endTime":3455.445,"body":"Had no theory about the things then."},{"startTime":3456.185,"endTime":3457.205,"body":"No theories about it?"},{"startTime":3457.825,"endTime":3460.859,"body":"Not as far, I wouldn't, not not as far as I know, but there are"},{"startTime":3460.859,"endTime":3463.085,"body":"other people here who know more about that than I do."},{"startTime":3463.735,"endTime":3464.245,"body":"Thank you."},{"startTime":3465.745,"endTime":3467.045,"body":"Uh, thank you there."},{"startTime":3467.045,"endTime":3470.382,"body":"So there's yes, go this one 'cause you're nearest, then there's one in the back"},{"startTime":3470.382,"endTime":3470.605,"body":"row."},{"startTime":3471.035,"endTime":3471.325,"body":"Just"},{"startTime":3471.325,"endTime":3475.045,"body":"The last thing you mentioned about the 2028 Yes clips."},{"startTime":3475.425,"endTime":3476.405,"body":"You said five minutes."},{"startTime":3476.545,"endTime":3477.925,"body":"What's making it last longer?"},{"startTime":3478.865,"endTime":3479.685,"body":"Is it known why?"},{"startTime":3479.865,"endTime":3480.445,"body":"Oh yes."},{"startTime":3480.445,"endTime":3481.085,"body":"People know this."},{"startTime":3481.285,"endTime":3482.285,"body":"I don't think I'm one of them."},{"startTime":3482.585,"endTime":3488.15,"body":"Um, \u003claugh\u003e, it, it just has to do with the sort of alignments of the"},{"startTime":3488.15,"endTime":3490.005,"body":"innate orbits and so on."},{"startTime":3490.425,"endTime":3491.685,"body":"That's, yeah, sorry."},{"startTime":3493.105,"endTime":3499.78,"body":"I'm struck by the fact that, uh, the, the eclipses in the period that you"},{"startTime":3499.78,"endTime":3500.225,"body":"were talking about particularly, but I guess in general also happen, uh, with a particular"},{"startTime":3500.225,"endTime":3500.67,"body":"frequency, not precisely regular of course, but with a particular frequency that allowed us to"},{"startTime":3500.67,"endTime":3519.805,"body":"predict and then plan and then observe and then make capital out of the result."},{"startTime":3519.805,"endTime":3524.47,"body":"In other words, it seems to have been very fortunate not only for American science"},{"startTime":3524.47,"endTime":3524.781,"body":"actually, but all over the world, that, that these events that are completely out of"},{"startTime":3524.781,"endTime":3532.245,"body":"our control, but they happen at exactly the right frequency."},{"startTime":3532.245,"endTime":3538.885,"body":"That, that the scientific community in general was able to, uh, make not only scientific"},{"startTime":3538.885,"endTime":3545.525,"body":"use of them, but also embed itself and get significantly greater funding as a result."},{"startTime":3546.225,"endTime":3551.893,"body":"I'm just puzzled to know whether anybody can think of any other natural phenomenon that"},{"startTime":3551.893,"endTime":3553.405,"body":"has that particular feature."},{"startTime":3553.555,"endTime":3556.485,"body":"This seems to me to be an unusual feature of eclipses."},{"startTime":3559.275,"endTime":3564.485,"body":"Well, there certainly are other kind of periodic astronomical events, right?"},{"startTime":3564.585,"endTime":3569.325,"body":"The inter the transit of Venus, the changing of the seasons, right?"},{"startTime":3569.325,"endTime":3572.205,"body":"There's all kinds of astronomical events that happen periodically."},{"startTime":3572.425,"endTime":3579.067,"body":"Things like the tides happen also on a sort of regular basis that at can"},{"startTime":3579.067,"endTime":3581.725,"body":"be observed, comment, alley comment, right?"},{"startTime":3581.725,"endTime":3584.085,"body":"Things like, if you wanna think about other sort of natural,"},{"startTime":3585.245,"endTime":3589.129,"body":"I guess the comic would be the, the other one that a good candidate, it"},{"startTime":3589.129,"endTime":3590.165,"body":"ties happen every day."},{"startTime":3590.165,"endTime":3596.076,"body":"These, these are the things that you can build up to a scientific and you"},{"startTime":3596.076,"endTime":3600.805,"body":"can convince a government that it's got time to put funding aside."},{"startTime":3601.185,"endTime":3601.805,"body":"Is that what I mean?"},{"startTime":3601.995,"endTime":3602.285,"body":"Yeah."},{"startTime":3602.285,"endTime":3609.165,"body":"The um, the Transit of Venus in 1874 was epic governments around the world."},{"startTime":3609.285,"endTime":3614.879,"body":"I mean, the amount of money that was spent, the amount of people that were"},{"startTime":3614.879,"endTime":3615.252,"body":"shipped to all corners of the globe, the effort that went into the 1874 transit"},{"startTime":3615.252,"endTime":3623.085,"body":"of Venus is really hard to overstate."},{"startTime":3623.705,"endTime":3628.605,"body":"Um, and it unfortunately was hugely disa \u003claugh\u003e, hugely disappointing."},{"startTime":3628.945,"endTime":3634.885,"body":"And many people then didn't, many entities did not have other exhibitions go in 1882"},{"startTime":3634.885,"endTime":3638.845,"body":"because it was so expensive and it was so disappointing."},{"startTime":3639.545,"endTime":3644.06,"body":"Um, it wasn't until 2012 that was figured out that the Black drop problem is"},{"startTime":3644.06,"endTime":3645.565,"body":"why it was so disappointing."},{"startTime":3645.625,"endTime":3650.44,"body":"And they actually, it was impossible, the task they had set for themselves to time"},{"startTime":3650.44,"endTime":3652.045,"body":"the, the transit at Venus."},{"startTime":3652.145,"endTime":3657.671,"body":"So that, that, that's a kind of, I would say a pretty singular case that"},{"startTime":3657.671,"endTime":3661.725,"body":"the epic nature of the expeditions for the Transit of Venus."},{"startTime":3663.825,"endTime":3664.295,"body":"Thank you."},{"startTime":3664.555,"endTime":3667.695,"body":"If I, I'll take prerogative and ask the final question."},{"startTime":3668.125,"endTime":3671.901,"body":"Just because of the transit of Venus, you talked about the reason why that's gonna"},{"startTime":3671.901,"endTime":3675.175,"body":"help you determine the distance to the sun is because you're using parallax."},{"startTime":3675.765,"endTime":3679.446,"body":"Does that mean you need to be able to observe it, not just well in"},{"startTime":3679.446,"endTime":3681.655,"body":"one place, but in two quite far away places?"},{"startTime":3681.915,"endTime":3682.575,"body":"Yes, exactly."},{"startTime":3682.715,"endTime":3688.509,"body":"And so that's the reason for the massive coordinated efforts to send people to opposite"},{"startTime":3688.509,"endTime":3690.055,"body":"sides of the globe."},{"startTime":3690.525,"endTime":3690.815,"body":"Yeah."},{"startTime":3691.275,"endTime":3694.923,"body":"To, to observe and then to not just have them in two places on opposite"},{"startTime":3694.923,"endTime":3695.166,"body":"sides of the globe, but more places in case of cloud, you know, bad weather,"},{"startTime":3695.166,"endTime":3698.815,"body":"right?"},{"startTime":3698.835,"endTime":3700.455,"body":"You wanna try to cover your bases."},{"startTime":3700.925,"endTime":3701.215,"body":"Yeah."},{"startTime":3701.235,"endTime":3707.525,"body":"So with a, it was a really extraordinary amount of time and effort and planning"},{"startTime":3707.525,"endTime":3707.945,"body":"and expenditure of resources and there are many incredible tales of people who tried and"},{"startTime":3707.945,"endTime":3714.655,"body":"failed and"},{"startTime":3716.005,"endTime":3716.295,"body":"Yeah."},{"startTime":3716.995,"endTime":3719.135,"body":"Et cetera with the observing the transit of Ven."},{"startTime":3719.445,"endTime":3719.735,"body":"Yeah."},{"startTime":3719.995,"endTime":3720.215,"body":"Yes."},{"startTime":3720.475,"endTime":3721.735,"body":"So it goes with astronomy,"},{"startTime":3721.775,"endTime":3721.975,"body":"I guess."},{"startTime":3722.075,"endTime":3723.215,"body":"So it always goes, yes."},{"startTime":3723.275,"endTime":3726.98,"body":"Um, so listen, we, we need to wrap up now, but um, I want to"},{"startTime":3726.98,"endTime":3728.215,"body":"say a few thank yous."},{"startTime":3728.275,"endTime":3732.828,"body":"So thank you of course to our wonderful speakers this afternoon who just a fantastic"},{"startTime":3732.828,"endTime":3736.775,"body":"array of talks in, in just covering such a huge variety of topics."},{"startTime":3737.235,"endTime":3740.848,"body":"Um, thank you to everyone at the BSHM and at Gresham College for all that"},{"startTime":3740.848,"endTime":3741.089,"body":"they've done in helping to organize just smoothly run events, which, uh, which has been"},{"startTime":3741.089,"endTime":3741.329,"body":"a delight to have the easy job of just standing here and saying a few"},{"startTime":3741.329,"endTime":3750.965,"body":"words that I had the easiest possible job of all of it."},{"startTime":3750.965,"endTime":3752.845,"body":"So I'm grateful for all the support that everyone's provided."},{"startTime":3753.345,"endTime":3758.645,"body":"Um, and thank you everybody for coming, attending and asking such fantastic questions."},{"startTime":3758.645,"endTime":3762.139,"body":"We hope to see you again at the SHM events and at Gresham events in"},{"startTime":3762.139,"endTime":3762.605,"body":"the future."},{"startTime":3762.785,"endTime":3766.553,"body":"So do look at the websites of both our organizations and see what is coming"},{"startTime":3766.553,"endTime":3766.805,"body":"up."},{"startTime":3766.805,"endTime":3767.845,"body":"And we hope to see you at those."},{"startTime":3767.905,"endTime":3771.325,"body":"But that's all from me today, so let's give everyone a big round of applause."},{"startTime":3771.335,"endTime":3772.605,"body":"Thank you very much for our speaking."}]}