{"version":"1.0.0","segments":[{"startTime":5.285,"endTime":9.335,"body":"I guess many of you in the audience will, uh, I guess all of you"},{"startTime":9.335,"endTime":10.685,"body":"will know someone with dyslexia."},{"startTime":10.685,"endTime":12.685,"body":"Some of you may be dyslexia yourself."},{"startTime":13.465,"endTime":19.076,"body":"Um, everyone has their own personal experience of dyslexia, and this evening we're going to"},{"startTime":19.076,"endTime":23.565,"body":"consider therefore whether dyslexia should be considered a difference or a disorder."},{"startTime":25.745,"endTime":27.885,"body":"So what is dyslexia?"},{"startTime":29.735,"endTime":33.864,"body":"The Gresham College lecture that you're listening to right now is giving you knowledge and"},{"startTime":33.864,"endTime":34.14,"body":"insight from one of the world's leading academic experts, making it takes a lot of"},{"startTime":34.14,"endTime":34.415,"body":"time, but because we want to encourage a love of learning, we think it's well"},{"startTime":34.415,"endTime":42.675,"body":"worth it."},{"startTime":43.615,"endTime":47.798,"body":"We never make you pay for lectures, although donations are needed, all we ask in"},{"startTime":47.798,"endTime":48.635,"body":"return is this."},{"startTime":49.185,"endTime":51.475,"body":"Send a link to this lecture to someone you think would benefit."},{"startTime":51.815,"endTime":55.498,"body":"And if you haven't already, click the follow or subscribe button from wherever you are"},{"startTime":55.498,"endTime":56.235,"body":"listening right now."},{"startTime":57.415,"endTime":59.195,"body":"Now, let's get back to the lecture."},{"startTime":62.035,"endTime":68.565,"body":"Well put simply, dyslexia is simply a difficulty in acquiring reading and spelling fluency."},{"startTime":69.105,"endTime":72.221,"body":"So this is a book, the title of which I know is dyslexia, but I"},{"startTime":72.221,"endTime":72.845,"body":"can't read it."},{"startTime":73.585,"endTime":79.988,"body":"And here, a 16-year-old young man of above average ability is having great difficulty in"},{"startTime":79.988,"endTime":84.685,"body":"writing how he would want to design his house more formally."},{"startTime":84.965,"endTime":90.231,"body":"Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder, which means that it has an early onset, and it"},{"startTime":90.231,"endTime":91.285,"body":"is lifetime persistent."},{"startTime":91.715,"endTime":93.645,"body":"It's likely to be highly heritable."},{"startTime":96.365,"endTime":103.393,"body":"Dyslexia is important to society, not least because poor reading and spelling in primary school"},{"startTime":103.393,"endTime":106.205,"body":"often leads to disengagement from school."},{"startTime":106.995,"endTime":113.926,"body":"Poor educational achievement in secondary school, and this is in turn, will lead to limited"},{"startTime":113.926,"endTime":118.085,"body":"job opportunities, low levels of adult productivity and wellbeing."},{"startTime":119.705,"endTime":123.805,"body":"But dyslexia turns out to be controversial and was ever thus."},{"startTime":124.985,"endTime":126.285,"body":"And why should that be?"},{"startTime":127.315,"endTime":132.87,"body":"Well, in my opinion, the reason that dyslexia is controversial is that there are no"},{"startTime":132.87,"endTime":137.685,"body":"clear cut differences between people with dyslexia and people who have typical reading."},{"startTime":139.165,"endTime":145.295,"body":"Dyslexia is not like chickenpox where those spots are the hallmark of the problem, the"},{"startTime":145.295,"endTime":148.565,"body":"illness rather, that it's more like blood pressure."},{"startTime":149.025,"endTime":150.685,"body":"So blood pressure is a dimension."},{"startTime":151.545,"endTime":154.525,"body":"It varies in the population from low to high."},{"startTime":155.355,"endTime":160.125,"body":"There's no clear cut difference between having high blood pressure and having normal blood pressure."},{"startTime":160.125,"endTime":165.205,"body":"But we do create a category, we call it hypertension, and we treat it."},{"startTime":165.265,"endTime":168.285,"body":"And if we didn't do that, there would be serious health consequences."},{"startTime":169.425,"endTime":172.165,"body":"So I think dyslexia can be thought of in similar terms."},{"startTime":172.875,"endTime":180.525,"body":"Reading is a dimension which varies from, um, poor and inaccurate to fast and fluent."},{"startTime":181.065,"endTime":186.645,"body":"But this shows the, um, normal distribution of reading skill in the population."},{"startTime":187.385,"endTime":195.132,"body":"And what this, um, indicates is that about 80 90% of the population can read"},{"startTime":195.132,"endTime":196.165,"body":"relatively well."},{"startTime":196.515,"endTime":202.494,"body":"They, they have good proficient reading, but at the bottom of the distribution, there are"},{"startTime":202.494,"endTime":205.285,"body":"people whose reading is really of concern."},{"startTime":205.695,"endTime":207.765,"body":"Where you put the cutoff though is arbitrary."},{"startTime":208.305,"endTime":211.325,"body":"It has to be decided by some external criterion."},{"startTime":212.345,"endTime":217.645,"body":"Now, population studies suggest that about 7% of the population has dyslexia."},{"startTime":217.705,"endTime":220.845,"body":"So you might say, well, dyslexia then is the bottom 7%."},{"startTime":221.635,"endTime":224.525,"body":"I've certainly heard it referred to as the bottom 5%."},{"startTime":224.585,"endTime":229.945,"body":"And in some, uh, local authorities, I know you have to be in about the"},{"startTime":229.945,"endTime":232.805,"body":"bottom 2% to get any identification for dyslexia."},{"startTime":233.985,"endTime":237.085,"body":"So this seems to me why it is a controversial disorder."},{"startTime":238.515,"endTime":241.045,"body":"What then, can history tell us about it?"},{"startTime":242.505,"endTime":248.763,"body":"As you may know, dyslexia was first identified or reported in this country in 1896"},{"startTime":248.763,"endTime":254.605,"body":"by a general practitioner, Pringle Morgan, who was referred a 14-year-old boy called Percy."},{"startTime":254.665,"endTime":257.605,"body":"He couldn't actually write his name, but his name was Percy."},{"startTime":258.385,"endTime":262.125,"body":"And he seemed very able in most domains, and he was good at sport."},{"startTime":262.305,"endTime":267.655,"body":"But in spite of a lot of teaching and a lot of extra help, he"},{"startTime":267.655,"endTime":273.005,"body":"still, according to Pringle, Morgan couldn't write a single syllable, couldn't read a single syllable."},{"startTime":273.745,"endTime":281.245,"body":"So Pringle Morgan hypothesized that Percy had a congenital form of word blindness."},{"startTime":282.425,"endTime":287.242,"body":"And this idea was taken up at the beginning of the 20th century, primarily by"},{"startTime":287.242,"endTime":287.885,"body":"medical specialists."},{"startTime":288.665,"endTime":294.622,"body":"And an influential figure at the time was James Selwood, um, a glaswegian eye surgeon"},{"startTime":294.622,"endTime":295.019,"body":"who became particularly concerned that there were children who had this reading difficulty and it"},{"startTime":295.019,"endTime":295.416,"body":"needed to be identified because if not, they would be neglected in the, uh, in"},{"startTime":295.416,"endTime":308.125,"body":"the schools or flogged."},{"startTime":308.665,"endTime":311.445,"body":"Um, which, you know, thankfully doesn't happen anymore."},{"startTime":312.385,"endTime":317.218,"body":"Um, what Selwood said, though, I mean he was used to dealing with problems of"},{"startTime":317.218,"endTime":321.085,"body":"vision, visual impairments, was that he said the problem wasn't in vision."},{"startTime":321.425,"endTime":323.485,"body":"It was actually a naming visual object."},{"startTime":323.705,"endTime":329.355,"body":"So congenital word blindness was really to do with the naming function, and that's was"},{"startTime":329.355,"endTime":335.005,"body":"an important insight, which many, uh, years later has come again, uh, to the fore."},{"startTime":336.705,"endTime":344.955,"body":"In the 1920s, um, Samuel Ton, uh, pediatric neurologist, um, pioneered the study of dyslexia"},{"startTime":344.955,"endTime":346.605,"body":"in the us."},{"startTime":348.035,"endTime":352.266,"body":"He's probably most well known for the fact that he established a clinic with his"},{"startTime":352.266,"endTime":354.805,"body":"wife June, shown here at, on their wedding day."},{"startTime":355.465,"endTime":362.029,"body":"Um, and in this clinic, they, um, appointed two very talented educators, um, Anne Gillingham,"},{"startTime":362.029,"endTime":366.405,"body":"who's an educational psychologist, and Bessie Stillman, a specialist teacher."},{"startTime":367.185,"endTime":371.685,"body":"And together they worked out methods for helping children with dyslexia."},{"startTime":372.345,"endTime":378.103,"body":"At the time, it wasn't called dyslexia, uh, ton referred to it as Stre Andia"},{"startTime":378.103,"endTime":378.487,"body":"to, um, really define the fact that these children often showed reversals and problems with"},{"startTime":378.487,"endTime":386.165,"body":"orientation in their reading and writing."},{"startTime":387.145,"endTime":389.365,"body":"But he also didn't think it was a reading problem."},{"startTime":391.625,"endTime":397.615,"body":"He produced this very important book, reading, writing, and Speech Problems in Children, in which"},{"startTime":397.615,"endTime":398.014,"body":"he argued that, um, dyslexia or stria was some kind of problem with the language"},{"startTime":398.014,"endTime":404.005,"body":"faculty."},{"startTime":404.185,"endTime":406.485,"body":"And I think that was a very important insight."},{"startTime":407.505,"endTime":412.59,"body":"He documented many cases in this book, and he also reported the fact that dyslexia"},{"startTime":412.59,"endTime":414.285,"body":"seemed to run in families."},{"startTime":415.105,"endTime":419.845,"body":"Um, but furthermore, it wasn't that in a family everybody was dyslexic."},{"startTime":420.235,"endTime":424.06,"body":"What he found was that in a family, you might get one person who had"},{"startTime":424.06,"endTime":427.885,"body":"a reading problem, another person had a spelling problem, another person had a speech problem."},{"startTime":428.825,"endTime":436.062,"body":"So he was aware of the familiar nature of dyslexia, but he equally was clear"},{"startTime":436.062,"endTime":440.405,"body":"that, that its, its inheritance was somewhat, um, complicated."},{"startTime":442.145,"endTime":447.853,"body":"Now, in Britain, um, there had been a bit of a lull in, uh, dyslexia"},{"startTime":447.853,"endTime":448.233,"body":"research, but in 1963, the word blind center was opened in London in Corrum Fields"},{"startTime":448.233,"endTime":455.845,"body":"by no less than Princess Margaret."},{"startTime":456.585,"endTime":461.928,"body":"And this was an important center because it brought together professionals from a range of"},{"startTime":461.928,"endTime":462.284,"body":"different disciplines, all of whom were interested in the, um, in the treatment of children"},{"startTime":462.284,"endTime":469.765,"body":"who are struggling to learn to read."},{"startTime":469.905,"endTime":476.885,"body":"So brought together neurologists, um, psychologists, specialists, teachers, speech and language therapists."},{"startTime":477.145,"endTime":483.045,"body":"And really, they, they worked incredibly hard to develop assessment and teaching methods for dyslexia."},{"startTime":484.185,"endTime":491.598,"body":"An important output of the center was this definition of dyslexia, a disorder manifest by"},{"startTime":491.598,"endTime":492.092,"body":"difficulty learning to read despite conventional instruction, adequate intelligence and sociocultural opportunity, which is dependent"},{"startTime":492.092,"endTime":502.965,"body":"on fundamental cognitive disabilities, frequently of constitutional origin."},{"startTime":503.705,"endTime":509.125,"body":"Now, this definition is often been criticized because it's a, it's a definition by exclusion."},{"startTime":509.625,"endTime":513.924,"body":"It implies that to be dyslexic, you would've had to have had good education."},{"startTime":513.945,"endTime":515.565,"body":"And that's clearly not the case."},{"startTime":516.424,"endTime":521.545,"body":"Um, but I think it's interesting that although we now I think, understand that dyslexia"},{"startTime":521.545,"endTime":521.887,"body":"is more diverse and implied by this definition, it is one that stood the test"},{"startTime":521.887,"endTime":530.765,"body":"of time and really marked out the field for many, uh, years."},{"startTime":532.225,"endTime":537.613,"body":"And the word blind center also had a very important influence, um, which led to"},{"startTime":537.613,"endTime":541.205,"body":"an expansion of, uh, dyslexia knowledge and the dyslexia community."},{"startTime":542.345,"endTime":547.965,"body":"Um, and it's very interesting 'cause these developments were, um, principally led by women."},{"startTime":548.505,"endTime":552.133,"body":"Um, and I'll say something about why I think that's interesting in a minute, but"},{"startTime":552.133,"endTime":552.375,"body":"on the left of this slide is Sanya Nadu, who was the second director of"},{"startTime":552.375,"endTime":556.245,"body":"the center."},{"startTime":556.425,"endTime":560.747,"body":"And she subsequently went on to be the head of a school for children with"},{"startTime":560.747,"endTime":562.765,"body":"language disorder rather than dyslexia per se."},{"startTime":563.385,"endTime":569.779,"body":"She wrote a fantastic book, specific, specific dyslexia in 1972, which really, uh, taught us"},{"startTime":569.779,"endTime":571.485,"body":"how to assess dyslexia."},{"startTime":572.425,"endTime":577.138,"body":"Um, at the top of the slide next to her is Helen Arkel, who founded"},{"startTime":577.138,"endTime":577.452,"body":"a teaching center below her, Bev Hornsby, a speech and language therapist who, with Maisie"},{"startTime":577.452,"endTime":584.365,"body":"Hold, established the dyslexia clinic at Barts Hospital."},{"startTime":584.905,"endTime":591.126,"body":"And then there's Margaret Newton, who established a research center at Aston University, which really"},{"startTime":591.126,"endTime":594.445,"body":"developed the first proper assessment kit for dyslexia."},{"startTime":595.145,"endTime":600.123,"body":"And in the top right hand corner, a very important figure, Marian Welshman, who founded"},{"startTime":600.123,"endTime":600.455,"body":"the British Dyslexia Association, which went on to have really a global influence on understanding"},{"startTime":600.455,"endTime":605.765,"body":"of dyslexia."},{"startTime":607.185,"endTime":612.614,"body":"Now, the reason, uh, the, the, the involvement of these women had an unfortunate consequence"},{"startTime":612.614,"endTime":612.976,"body":"because to quote, they were women of certain means, they all were able to focus"},{"startTime":612.976,"endTime":613.338,"body":"in on dyslexia because essentially some of them were volunteers and they didn't need to"},{"startTime":613.338,"endTime":625.645,"body":"work because they had rich husbands."},{"startTime":626.625,"endTime":630.485,"body":"Um, and, um, also many of them were fighting for their own kids."},{"startTime":631.065,"endTime":638.209,"body":"So dyslexia became dubbed a middle class syndrome, and this gave policy makers a perfect"},{"startTime":638.209,"endTime":643.925,"body":"excuse to not actually div divert any resources to helping dyslexic children."},{"startTime":645.225,"endTime":645.645,"body":"Indeed."},{"startTime":646.385,"endTime":652.885,"body":"Um, when, um, Baroness Warnock was asked by the then secretary of, uh, state for"},{"startTime":652.885,"endTime":653.318,"body":"education to chair a committee on, uh, special educational needs, she was expressive, forbidden to"},{"startTime":653.318,"endTime":663.285,"body":"call anyone from the dyslexic community to give evidence."},{"startTime":663.905,"endTime":669.485,"body":"And she was even forbidden to use the term, which is really quite, um, extraordinary."},{"startTime":670.825,"endTime":677.565,"body":"Now, fortunately, uh, in the background, the, uh, science of reading was, um, flourishing and,"},{"startTime":677.565,"endTime":678.015,"body":"uh, many experimental and cognitive psychologists were beginning to get very interested in the reading"},{"startTime":678.015,"endTime":685.205,"body":"process itself."},{"startTime":686.665,"endTime":694.033,"body":"Now, regardless of, um, the language, um, reading is a process of decoding print into"},{"startTime":694.033,"endTime":694.525,"body":"sound."},{"startTime":695.265,"endTime":700.981,"body":"And, um, in our alphabetic system, um, we have letters and we have, um, individual,"},{"startTime":700.981,"endTime":702.125,"body":"uh, speech sounds."},{"startTime":703.025,"endTime":711.114,"body":"Um, what the, uh, early, um, pioneers of dyslexia research were thinking was that this"},{"startTime":711.114,"endTime":718.125,"body":"system had to be really functioning well for reading to develop, um, fluently."},{"startTime":718.945,"endTime":724.02,"body":"And, um, most of the research was focusing on the possibility that the problem might"},{"startTime":724.02,"endTime":724.359,"body":"be in, uh, deciphering the print, which wasn't surprising, giving earlier research on visual difficulties"},{"startTime":724.359,"endTime":724.697,"body":"in dyslexia, or it might be in the fact you had to go from one"},{"startTime":724.697,"endTime":725.035,"body":"domain, the visual domain to the verbal domain, a problem in sort of cross modal,"},{"startTime":725.035,"endTime":739.925,"body":"um, transfer."},{"startTime":741.185,"endTime":750.641,"body":"Um, however, um, in 1979, this guy Frank Tino, wrote a landmark textbook in which"},{"startTime":750.641,"endTime":755.685,"body":"he argued the problem, um, with, um, dyslexia."},{"startTime":755.745,"endTime":758.925,"body":"And, and was that, was that in reading?"},{"startTime":759.385,"endTime":763.273,"body":"It wasn't to do with the visual aspects of the process, it was actually to"},{"startTime":763.273,"endTime":766.125,"body":"do with the sound based or the speech based, um, aspect."},{"startTime":767.105,"endTime":772.217,"body":"And, uh, he, he argued then that dyslexia shouldn't be considered a perceptual deficits, and"},{"startTime":772.217,"endTime":775.285,"body":"reading shouldn't really be being considered a perceptual process."},{"startTime":775.665,"endTime":777.405,"body":"It actually was a language process."},{"startTime":777.905,"endTime":781.565,"body":"And the problem in dyslexia was some kind of verbal, uh, deficit."},{"startTime":782.825,"endTime":787.808,"body":"And he gave us an example, the sort of letter reversals that you see, uh,"},{"startTime":787.808,"endTime":788.141,"body":"very often in, in dyslexia, the, the confusion of letters like B and P or"},{"startTime":788.141,"endTime":793.125,"body":"."},{"startTime":793.625,"endTime":798.143,"body":"And he, he showed convincingly in a series of experiments that these difficulties were actually"},{"startTime":798.143,"endTime":798.444,"body":"not to do with, uh, the perception of these letters, but to do with confusion"},{"startTime":798.444,"endTime":803.565,"body":"over the names."},{"startTime":803.865,"endTime":808.886,"body":"So again, picking up this earlier idea that the problem was in the naming of"},{"startTime":808.886,"endTime":811.565,"body":"visual objects, not in the visual processing itself."},{"startTime":813.745,"endTime":820.831,"body":"Um, at around the same time, the, uh, Haskins laboratories in the US um, was,"},{"startTime":820.831,"endTime":827.445,"body":"um, considering in depth the challenges that a child faces in learning to read."},{"startTime":828.145,"endTime":832.082,"body":"So in learning to read, as I've already said, the child has to set up"},{"startTime":832.082,"endTime":834.445,"body":"some kind of system for decoding print into speech."},{"startTime":835.345,"endTime":841.325,"body":"And in our alphabetic system, uh, the, um, print is in, in graphemes or letters."},{"startTime":842.025,"endTime":846.565,"body":"And the, um, the speech part is at the level of the phon."},{"startTime":846.595,"endTime":851.405,"body":"That is the smaller speech sounds in a word that convey meaning differences."},{"startTime":852.105,"endTime":857.938,"body":"So in a word like cat, we have three phon, and the, and we, there's"},{"startTime":857.938,"endTime":862.605,"body":"a phonemic difference between cat and back, just in one particular phone."},{"startTime":864.505,"endTime":868.995,"body":"If you're going to understand how this alphabetic system works, if you're going to abstract"},{"startTime":868.995,"endTime":873.485,"body":"the alphabetic principle, you really have to be aware of the phonemic structure of words."},{"startTime":874.465,"endTime":877.645,"body":"And actually, that's something that doesn't come naturally to children."},{"startTime":878.965,"endTime":882.965,"body":"Children think about cats as being very animals with whiskers."},{"startTime":883.475,"endTime":887.085,"body":"They don't for a minute think that they are something with three speech sounds."},{"startTime":888.225,"endTime":893.197,"body":"And to acquire that, um, awareness of the phonological structure of words is quite a,"},{"startTime":893.197,"endTime":893.529,"body":"quite a, um, a challenge, quite a step for the child, um, in the early,"},{"startTime":893.529,"endTime":899.165,"body":"uh, school years."},{"startTime":900.105,"endTime":902.205,"body":"But it's fundamental to learning to read."},{"startTime":903.105,"endTime":909.445,"body":"And what, um, was being discovered in the 1970s was that the problem in dyslexia"},{"startTime":909.445,"endTime":909.868,"body":"is with this phonemic system, the phonological representations, the way in which our brain represents"},{"startTime":909.868,"endTime":910.291,"body":"speech sounds and this phonological deficit, um, in dyslexia, can also help explain some of"},{"startTime":910.291,"endTime":910.714,"body":"the other issues that people do with dyslexia face, and just some of them here"},{"startTime":910.714,"endTime":931.005,"body":"on, on the, on the slide."},{"startTime":931.825,"endTime":934.925,"body":"So, people with dyslexia often have difficulty with names."},{"startTime":935.515,"endTime":939.996,"body":"They forget people's names, they have trouble with proper names, and they have great difficulty"},{"startTime":939.996,"endTime":942.685,"body":"if you ask them to name items very quickly."},{"startTime":943.435,"endTime":948.145,"body":"Psychologists use a task called rapid naming, where you have to simply name as quickly"},{"startTime":948.145,"endTime":951.285,"body":"as possible a series of letters or digits or colors."},{"startTime":951.675,"endTime":954.325,"body":"They find this difficult, they're very, uh, slow at it."},{"startTime":956.165,"endTime":961.285,"body":"A classic feature of dyslexia is a poor phonological or verbal short term memory."},{"startTime":961.865,"endTime":965.525,"body":"So remembering short sequences of verbal items."},{"startTime":967.185,"endTime":972.703,"body":"And, uh, a a particularly rather specific aspect of, um, verbal memory is the ability"},{"startTime":972.703,"endTime":973.071,"body":"to repeat words that you haven't heard before, A non word repetition deficit or a"},{"startTime":973.071,"endTime":979.325,"body":"phonological memory problem."},{"startTime":979.465,"endTime":985.445,"body":"So a word like a nomad like magnificent, is that easy to pronounce?"},{"startTime":985.725,"endTime":989.895,"body":"I, I've practiced it a lot, but for people with dyslexia, it's quite hard to"},{"startTime":989.895,"endTime":991.285,"body":"repeat those kinds of words."},{"startTime":992.265,"endTime":995.165,"body":"And relatedly, there is a problem with verbal learning."},{"startTime":996.025,"endTime":1001.869,"body":"Um, this, um, is, is particularly, uh, important in the school context because a lot"},{"startTime":1001.869,"endTime":1005.765,"body":"of verbal learning has to go on very early on."},{"startTime":1006.165,"endTime":1007.165,"body":"Children have to learn letters."},{"startTime":1007.585,"endTime":1012.473,"body":"That's one of the first markers of a child likely to have dyslexic difficulty in"},{"startTime":1012.473,"endTime":1013.125,"body":"learning letters."},{"startTime":1013.745,"endTime":1017.234,"body":"Um, they have to learn digits, they have to learn colors, days of the week,"},{"startTime":1017.234,"endTime":1018.165,"body":"months of the year."},{"startTime":1018.505,"endTime":1024.439,"body":"So verbal learning difficulties, all of these difficulties can be traced to problems with, um,"},{"startTime":1024.439,"endTime":1027.605,"body":"the, in the phonological system, um, of language."},{"startTime":1030.545,"endTime":1037.754,"body":"Now, um, by the 1980s, um, reading researchers had ama a large, um, amount of,"},{"startTime":1037.754,"endTime":1038.234,"body":"uh, data about how we read essentially data about the relative difficulty of reading different"},{"startTime":1038.234,"endTime":1046.405,"body":"kinds of words."},{"startTime":1047.105,"endTime":1050.005,"body":"So in English, we have a very inconsistent orthography."},{"startTime":1050.555,"endTime":1055.965,"body":"Some words are regular, but other words are very irregular, like glove or school."},{"startTime":1056.665,"endTime":1059.485,"body":"Um, the even is an irregular word."},{"startTime":1059.585,"endTime":1064.147,"body":"So we know, we knew from a lot of experiments that these kind of irregular"},{"startTime":1064.147,"endTime":1066.885,"body":"words were harder to learn than, uh, regular words."},{"startTime":1067.505,"endTime":1073.88,"body":"And there was sufficient data available to begin to model the reading process, um, by,"},{"startTime":1073.88,"endTime":1076.005,"body":"in a, in a simulation."},{"startTime":1076.825,"endTime":1083.417,"body":"And one of the earliest, and still I think the most influential co computational model"},{"startTime":1083.417,"endTime":1083.856,"body":"of, uh, reading was that, um, reported or, or developed by Seidenberg and McClelland in"},{"startTime":1083.856,"endTime":1093.965,"body":"1989, the so-called triangle or Connectionist Model of Reading."},{"startTime":1094.905,"endTime":1100.446,"body":"And in this model, um, reading is envisaged as a kind of division of labor"},{"startTime":1100.446,"endTime":1100.816,"body":"between this phonological pathway from orthography to phonology, and another pathway from orthography to the"},{"startTime":1100.816,"endTime":1108.205,"body":"meaning of words, a semantic pathway."},{"startTime":1109.065,"endTime":1112.925,"body":"But in the model, the implementation was of this phonological pathway."},{"startTime":1113.705,"endTime":1119.525,"body":"And the way in which they did it was that they had distributed representations in"},{"startTime":1119.525,"endTime":1123.405,"body":"the orthographic, um, system and, uh, in the phonological system."},{"startTime":1124.185,"endTime":1130.435,"body":"And the, um, the, the, the, the, the, the computer model was, um, given words"},{"startTime":1130.435,"endTime":1131.685,"body":"to, um, decode."},{"startTime":1132.305,"endTime":1138.864,"body":"Um, and, um, there was also inbuilt and error correction mechanism because given the irregularities,"},{"startTime":1138.864,"endTime":1141.925,"body":"that mapping doesn't always work very well."},{"startTime":1143.075,"endTime":1147.565,"body":"When the mapping worked well, the connections were strengthened."},{"startTime":1148.145,"endTime":1151.965,"body":"Um, and, uh, when it didn't work well, there was an error correction."},{"startTime":1151.985,"endTime":1158.249,"body":"And this went on until the, uh, the model that simulated human reading very well"},{"startTime":1158.249,"endTime":1159.085,"body":"in indeed."},{"startTime":1160.225,"endTime":1162.805,"body":"And so it was a really remarkable achievement."},{"startTime":1163.625,"endTime":1168.795,"body":"And the next thing was in this simulation, would it be possible to simulate dyslexic"},{"startTime":1168.795,"endTime":1169.485,"body":"reading behavior?"},{"startTime":1170.825,"endTime":1175.735,"body":"And the way in which they tried to do that was by degrading the phonological"},{"startTime":1175.735,"endTime":1177.045,"body":"representations in the model."},{"startTime":1177.905,"endTime":1182.355,"body":"And when they did that, the model started to produce the reading errors that we"},{"startTime":1182.355,"endTime":1183.245,"body":"see in dyslexia."},{"startTime":1183.515,"endTime":1188.733,"body":"Started to have much more difficulty reading non words than words, and started to make"},{"startTime":1188.733,"endTime":1193.605,"body":"errors that what might be described as kind of visually based visual looking errors."},{"startTime":1194.345,"endTime":1200.433,"body":"So this was an explicit, explicit proof, if you like, that dyslexia is a core"},{"startTime":1200.433,"endTime":1201.245,"body":"phonological deficit."},{"startTime":1202.665,"endTime":1208.549,"body":"And 40 years after the start of research on dyslexia, Tino wrote a review again,"},{"startTime":1208.549,"endTime":1208.941,"body":"uh, reflecting on his verbal deficit theory, um, showing that now this verbal deficit theory"},{"startTime":1208.941,"endTime":1209.334,"body":"had been refined to, um, a phonological deficit theory, uh, an idea that dyslexia was"},{"startTime":1209.334,"endTime":1209.726,"body":"due to problems in the phonological representations, the way in which the brain represents the"},{"startTime":1209.726,"endTime":1228.165,"body":"speech sounds, um, of words."},{"startTime":1229.505,"endTime":1235.627,"body":"So, given this accumulated knowledge and that we know what seems to be causing at"},{"startTime":1235.627,"endTime":1240.525,"body":"least the cognitive level dyslexia, why not kind of get it early?"},{"startTime":1240.835,"endTime":1245.39,"body":"Well, of course it's quite hard to get it early because it's hard to see"},{"startTime":1245.39,"endTime":1246.605,"body":"dyslexia before reading instruction."},{"startTime":1247.545,"endTime":1253.102,"body":"But one method that can be used to begin to understand the precursors of dyslexia"},{"startTime":1253.102,"endTime":1255.325,"body":"is through a family risk study."},{"startTime":1256.625,"endTime":1265.325,"body":"So, um, we've known since Samuel Ton that dyslexia, um, uh, is, comes in families."},{"startTime":1265.945,"endTime":1268.085,"body":"Um, this is my family, by the way."},{"startTime":1268.515,"endTime":1273.325,"body":"This is my father, my brother, and my nephew who are all, uh, dyslexic."},{"startTime":1274.305,"endTime":1276.285,"body":"Um, I've escaped it."},{"startTime":1276.905,"endTime":1278.205,"body":"Um, my son hasn't."},{"startTime":1278.905,"endTime":1284.405,"body":"Um, so we know that there is, um, high heritability of dyslexia."},{"startTime":1284.985,"endTime":1289.77,"body":"And what that means is you can recruit children who are at family risk of"},{"startTime":1289.77,"endTime":1290.089,"body":"dyslexia if you, if you know about their parental reading skills, and you can then"},{"startTime":1290.089,"endTime":1290.408,"body":"follow them from early on before reading instruction through the early years of reading to"},{"startTime":1290.408,"endTime":1290.727,"body":"a point where you then think you can assess and decide whether or not they're"},{"startTime":1290.727,"endTime":1304.445,"body":"dyslexic."},{"startTime":1305.305,"endTime":1311.95,"body":"And there have now been, um, several of these studies, um, over, over the studies,"},{"startTime":1311.95,"endTime":1312.393,"body":"um, together the, um, risk, if you're a dyslexic parent of your child having dyslexia"},{"startTime":1312.393,"endTime":1319.925,"body":"is about 45%."},{"startTime":1319.985,"endTime":1321.165,"body":"So that's very high."},{"startTime":1321.235,"endTime":1327.179,"body":"It's much higher about four times the probability, um, in the, in the, in the"},{"startTime":1327.179,"endTime":1328.765,"body":"non dyslexic parent population."},{"startTime":1331.025,"endTime":1336.538,"body":"So one, uh, study of children at family risk that we conducted, um, recruited children"},{"startTime":1336.538,"endTime":1341.685,"body":"when they were three and a half, um, and, uh, followed them to eight."},{"startTime":1342.145,"endTime":1344.285,"body":"We actually followed some of them till nine as well."},{"startTime":1344.705,"endTime":1350.047,"body":"But at three and a half, um, we assessed, we conducted an assessment of their,"},{"startTime":1350.047,"endTime":1353.965,"body":"I'm gonna call dyslexia risks, which was actually their language skills."},{"startTime":1354.625,"endTime":1361.281,"body":"And eight, we, um, assessed them to, um, identify those that, uh, reached criteria for"},{"startTime":1361.281,"endTime":1361.725,"body":"dyslexia."},{"startTime":1363.065,"endTime":1366.405,"body":"And we compared the development of these children with two other groups."},{"startTime":1367.575,"endTime":1373.761,"body":"First of all, a group who in the preschool years had language difficulties because we"},{"startTime":1373.761,"endTime":1377.885,"body":"knew that language difficulties were a risk factor for dyslexia."},{"startTime":1378.165,"endTime":1382.989,"body":"Dyslexia is part of the, uh, difficulty of the language faculty to quote ton, uh,"},{"startTime":1382.989,"endTime":1383.31,"body":"but the, the preschool language difficulties children in this group would, were not at family"},{"startTime":1383.31,"endTime":1383.632,"body":"risk, it was just because they had been referred to speech and language therapy when"},{"startTime":1383.632,"endTime":1394.245,"body":"they were three years old."},{"startTime":1394.665,"endTime":1400.208,"body":"And we had a group of controls who had neither, um, any concerns about their"},{"startTime":1400.208,"endTime":1403.165,"body":"development, nor any, uh, family members with dyslexia."},{"startTime":1404.545,"endTime":1407.925,"body":"And I'm gonna show you, um, three pieces of data from this study."},{"startTime":1408.415,"endTime":1413.845,"body":"First of all, um, the preschool language profiles of the children."},{"startTime":1414.905,"endTime":1417.165,"body":"Now, um, we've got here three panels."},{"startTime":1417.165,"endTime":1422.94,"body":"So we've got here children who are in the control, the typical group children at"},{"startTime":1422.94,"endTime":1426.405,"body":"family risk and children, um, with preschool language difficulties."},{"startTime":1426.465,"endTime":1431.445,"body":"I'm using the acronym here, DLD, um, that's developmental language disorder."},{"startTime":1432.185,"endTime":1437.093,"body":"Um, although it wouldn't be diagnosed at this stage because some of these children often"},{"startTime":1437.093,"endTime":1440.365,"body":"get better, it was the children with the language concerns."},{"startTime":1441.265,"endTime":1446.458,"body":"Now, on the, on the X axis in each panel is a measure of phonological"},{"startTime":1446.458,"endTime":1446.805,"body":"processing."},{"startTime":1446.915,"endTime":1449.005,"body":"It's actually a measure of non-word repetition."},{"startTime":1449.785,"endTime":1453.765,"body":"And on the y axis is a measure of language understanding comprehension."},{"startTime":1454.705,"endTime":1461.058,"body":"And in each of the, um, panels, the this dot, the vertical dotted line is"},{"startTime":1461.058,"endTime":1466.565,"body":"one standard deviation below average for the population to the left in phenology."},{"startTime":1467.585,"endTime":1472.845,"body":"And the horizontal line is one standard deviation below average in language."},{"startTime":1473.945,"endTime":1477.165,"body":"And we can look at the, um, the different groups here."},{"startTime":1477.585,"endTime":1481.565,"body":"So there's a lot of variability in the typical group."},{"startTime":1482.275,"endTime":1484.765,"body":"Most of the children are in this upper right quadrant."},{"startTime":1484.875,"endTime":1489.825,"body":"They're actually above, you know, they're, they're doing fine in language and phonology, which is"},{"startTime":1489.825,"endTime":1493.125,"body":"what you would expect looking at children at family risk."},{"startTime":1493.225,"endTime":1498.68,"body":"Now, when we recruited them, we, we were measuring their language, not their phonology, but"},{"startTime":1498.68,"endTime":1499.043,"body":"you can see a lot of them in the top right hand quadrant have, um,"},{"startTime":1499.043,"endTime":1507.045,"body":"phonological difficulties, uh, sorry, it's your left \u003claugh\u003e."},{"startTime":1507.545,"endTime":1509.965,"body":"Um, they have, um, phonological difficulties."},{"startTime":1510.305,"endTime":1512.245,"body":"One or two of them have some language problems."},{"startTime":1512.585,"endTime":1518.597,"body":"And if you look at the language, uh, concerns group, a lot of them on"},{"startTime":1518.597,"endTime":1522.205,"body":"the left of this line have, um, phonological difficulties."},{"startTime":1522.315,"endTime":1524.885,"body":"They also have language difficulties by definition."},{"startTime":1526.465,"endTime":1528.805,"body":"Now, what does this mean about their reading outcomes?"},{"startTime":1528.915,"endTime":1534.535,"body":"When these children are eight years of age, what proportion of them would fulfill criteria"},{"startTime":1534.535,"endTime":1535.285,"body":"for dyslexia?"},{"startTime":1536.265,"endTime":1541.85,"body":"So, um, in the typical group, it's 7%, which is spot on what population studies"},{"startTime":1541.85,"endTime":1542.222,"body":"suggest it should be in children at family risk, 26% of them have dyslexia, so"},{"startTime":1542.222,"endTime":1548.925,"body":"about a fourfold risk."},{"startTime":1549.905,"endTime":1556.967,"body":"And then, um, in terms of the language concerns, group, 66 of them have, uh,"},{"startTime":1556.967,"endTime":1561.205,"body":"reading skills that suggest that they, um, are dyslexic."},{"startTime":1562.065,"endTime":1567.659,"body":"So this study takes us a bit further than, um, thinking about dyslexia as a"},{"startTime":1567.659,"endTime":1568.405,"body":"phonological deficit."},{"startTime":1569.185,"endTime":1574.491,"body":"Um, it confirms that it is, and it also confirms that that's evident before reading"},{"startTime":1574.491,"endTime":1574.845,"body":"instruction."},{"startTime":1575.305,"endTime":1579.981,"body":"But it also suggests there's an additional risk factor lurking here, which is, uh, a"},{"startTime":1579.981,"endTime":1580.605,"body":"language problem."},{"startTime":1582.185,"endTime":1586.952,"body":"Now, we can also use, um, data from this study to look at how children"},{"startTime":1586.952,"endTime":1591.085,"body":"in different outcome groups are doing in other skills are important for education."},{"startTime":1591.145,"endTime":1595.845,"body":"And one very important skill for education is, uh, reading comprehension."},{"startTime":1596.325,"endTime":1598.565,"body":"I mean, the aim of reading is really reading for meaning."},{"startTime":1598.625,"endTime":1603.478,"body":"And by the time you're in the middle to to late primary school, years, years,"},{"startTime":1603.478,"endTime":1607.685,"body":"you're expected to be able to read for meaning in terms of outcomes."},{"startTime":1607.865,"endTime":1609.045,"body":"We have three groups."},{"startTime":1609.145,"endTime":1611.525,"body":"We have children who are dyslexic."},{"startTime":1612.745,"endTime":1617.362,"body":"We also have a group of children who've got now this developmental language disorder, but"},{"startTime":1617.362,"endTime":1621.365,"body":"actually they can read, they can decode print well, so they're not dyslexic."},{"startTime":1622.345,"endTime":1626.125,"body":"And we've got children who are both dyslexic and have a language disorder."},{"startTime":1626.905,"endTime":1631.725,"body":"And what I've, what I've plotted here is their, um, comprehension deficit."},{"startTime":1632.025,"endTime":1636.437,"body":"So, so what we did is we asked them to read some passages, and then"},{"startTime":1636.437,"endTime":1639.085,"body":"we asked them verbally some questions about the passage."},{"startTime":1640.025,"endTime":1642.845,"body":"And, um, this was a measure of their reading comprehension."},{"startTime":1643.585,"endTime":1648.216,"body":"And shown here is the gap between their reading comprehension and that of the control"},{"startTime":1648.216,"endTime":1648.525,"body":"group."},{"startTime":1649.665,"endTime":1655.325,"body":"And what you can see is that for the dyslexic children, these are effect sizes."},{"startTime":1655.825,"endTime":1660.245,"body":"Um, they've got some problems with reading comprehension, but they're not that bad."},{"startTime":1660.245,"endTime":1664.205,"body":"They're broadly in the average range, but they are weak for their age."},{"startTime":1664.745,"endTime":1669.28,"body":"The children with language disorder, even though they can read those texts very well, can't"},{"startTime":1669.28,"endTime":1669.885,"body":"understand them."},{"startTime":1670.385,"endTime":1676.028,"body":"And if you've got dyslexia and language disorder, you have very significant difficulty with reading"},{"startTime":1676.028,"endTime":1676.405,"body":"comprehension."},{"startTime":1677.755,"endTime":1679.805,"body":"It's almost like these two things are additive."},{"startTime":1680.625,"endTime":1685.621,"body":"The dyslexia, which seems to be associated with phonological problems, the language disorder, if you"},{"startTime":1685.621,"endTime":1689.285,"body":"add 'em together, you get a much bigger sort of deficit."},{"startTime":1692.545,"endTime":1696.125,"body":"So, um, this is another way of thinking about this."},{"startTime":1696.345,"endTime":1703.07,"body":"So this is a schematic representation of some data that we, um, collected, which, um,"},{"startTime":1703.07,"endTime":1703.518,"body":"looks at the predictors of individual differences in reading, um, from age three, um, onwards,"},{"startTime":1703.518,"endTime":1712.485,"body":"uh, to, um, six and eight."},{"startTime":1713.665,"endTime":1719.723,"body":"Um, so we measured language at age three, and we measure aspects of the alphabetic"},{"startTime":1719.723,"endTime":1720.127,"body":"principle, fer awareness and letter sound knowledge at, um, age five, as well as rapid"},{"startTime":1720.127,"endTime":1728.205,"body":"naming, which is another dyslexia feature."},{"startTime":1728.225,"endTime":1730.125,"body":"And then we measure reading at age six."},{"startTime":1731.225,"endTime":1736.508,"body":"And what we, what we know already is that individual differences in phoning awareness and"},{"startTime":1736.508,"endTime":1737.565,"body":"letter sound knowledge."},{"startTime":1737.565,"endTime":1740.205,"body":"The alphabetic principle predict reading attainment."},{"startTime":1740.835,"endTime":1747.277,"body":"What this study showed us is that earlier on in development language actually predicts the"},{"startTime":1747.277,"endTime":1747.707,"body":"alphabetic principle, and that has a, a direct effect on word reading, but it also"},{"startTime":1747.707,"endTime":1758.445,"body":"has a direct effect later on in development, on reading comprehension."},{"startTime":1759.505,"endTime":1763.125,"body":"Now, within this model, then there are two risks for dyslexia."},{"startTime":1763.865,"endTime":1765.125,"body":"The first risk is the risk."},{"startTime":1765.125,"endTime":1766.845,"body":"I've been talking about the phonological deficit."},{"startTime":1767.585,"endTime":1773.645,"body":"The second risk is an earlier, uh, and persisting language, um, impairment."},{"startTime":1775.665,"endTime":1781.788,"body":"So, um, this idea fits well with the research evidence that language is the foundation"},{"startTime":1781.788,"endTime":1782.605,"body":"of literacy."},{"startTime":1783.625,"endTime":1790.01,"body":"Um, and, um, we now know we need, we can be intervening much earlier, but"},{"startTime":1790.01,"endTime":1792.565,"body":"where do these risks come from?"},{"startTime":1793.755,"endTime":1796.125,"body":"Well, we know that dyslexia runs in families."},{"startTime":1796.665,"endTime":1800.965,"body":"So are these differences, uh, do they have a genetic origin?"},{"startTime":1801.545,"endTime":1806.392,"body":"Now, the problem with family studies is that families don't just share their genes, they"},{"startTime":1806.392,"endTime":1807.685,"body":"also share their environment."},{"startTime":1808.105,"endTime":1809.605,"body":"So there's a confound here."},{"startTime":1810.505,"endTime":1816.861,"body":"Um, twin studies can be very enlightening, especially if you compare monozygotic twins who are"},{"startTime":1816.861,"endTime":1817.285,"body":"identical."},{"startTime":1817.795,"endTime":1823.579,"body":"They share a hundred percent of their genes with, um, dizygotic twins, twins, which are"},{"startTime":1823.579,"endTime":1823.965,"body":"non-identical."},{"startTime":1823.965,"endTime":1828.365,"body":"They're just like a brother and sister, and on average share 50% of their genes."},{"startTime":1829.185,"endTime":1833.861,"body":"Now, if you have a dyslexic twin, what is the probability that your cotran will"},{"startTime":1833.861,"endTime":1834.485,"body":"be dyslexic?"},{"startTime":1835.065,"endTime":1837.325,"body":"That's what refer to as a concordance rate."},{"startTime":1837.325,"endTime":1844.693,"body":"And what on average is seen across studies is that the concordance rate for identical"},{"startTime":1844.693,"endTime":1849.605,"body":"twins is 70% compared to about 40% for non-identical twins."},{"startTime":1850.065,"endTime":1858.222,"body":"So these kind of data, um, sort of, um, confirm that the causes of dyslexia,"},{"startTime":1858.222,"endTime":1861.485,"body":"uh, have a genetic, uh, component."},{"startTime":1863.425,"endTime":1867.925,"body":"So the heritability of dyslexia was a starting point for molecular genetics."},{"startTime":1867.945,"endTime":1874.645,"body":"And, and, and the studies of the molecular genetics of dyslexia started in the 1970s."},{"startTime":1875.235,"endTime":1881.272,"body":"Essentially, these studies then try to find genetic differences between people with dyslexia and, and"},{"startTime":1881.272,"endTime":1883.285,"body":"their relatives who are unaffected."},{"startTime":1883.945,"endTime":1890.032,"body":"The first studies were so-called linkage studies that looked for parts of the, um, chromosomes"},{"startTime":1890.032,"endTime":1893.685,"body":"that, um, differed between affected and unaffected, uh, people."},{"startTime":1894.305,"endTime":1899.805,"body":"And these linkage studies identified, uh, gene markers on a number of different chromosomes."},{"startTime":1900.345,"endTime":1905.928,"body":"Um, and certainly there was replication of these findings on chromosomes 1, 2, 3, 6,"},{"startTime":1905.928,"endTime":1907.045,"body":"15, and 18."},{"startTime":1907.705,"endTime":1912.125,"body":"The next step then was to try to identify the actual genes that were involved."},{"startTime":1912.745,"endTime":1919.069,"body":"So there was a search then for candidate genes, again, with some success, but none"},{"startTime":1919.069,"endTime":1923.285,"body":"of these genes account for very much variance in reading."},{"startTime":1924.425,"endTime":1930.187,"body":"Um, in fact, they account for tiny amounts of variants, so they are not, um,"},{"startTime":1930.187,"endTime":1935.565,"body":"really giving us much of a clue as to the genetic basis of dyslexia."},{"startTime":1936.995,"endTime":1943.808,"body":"More recent, um, advances in gene technology allow, um, researchers to look across the whole"},{"startTime":1943.808,"endTime":1948.805,"body":"genome, um, to identify gene Loki that are associated with dyslexia."},{"startTime":1948.805,"endTime":1954.005,"body":"And in this recent study, 42 Loki were associated with dyslexia."},{"startTime":1954.535,"endTime":1957.165,"body":"Again, each accounting for a very small amount of variance."},{"startTime":1957.165,"endTime":1961.288,"body":"But what you can do is you can count, you can count them up, you"},{"startTime":1961.288,"endTime":1961.562,"body":"can combine them to give a kind of risk score for an individual that's a"},{"startTime":1961.562,"endTime":1967.885,"body":"kind of index of their risk of becoming dyslexic."},{"startTime":1969.025,"endTime":1973.605,"body":"Um, and so, um, that's been quite, um, uh, an important advance."},{"startTime":1973.605,"endTime":1979.271,"body":"However, again, we are not gonna counting for huge amounts of variants, but also there"},{"startTime":1979.271,"endTime":1983.805,"body":"are complex interactions between genes and also between genes and the environment."},{"startTime":1983.825,"endTime":1989.205,"body":"And we need to bear in mind always that genes act through the environment."},{"startTime":1989.585,"endTime":1997.535,"body":"And for a complex disorder like dyslexia, there's a, there's a combination of heredity and"},{"startTime":1997.535,"endTime":2003.365,"body":"hereditary and, uh, environmental influences referred to as gene environment correlation."},{"startTime":2004.665,"endTime":2010.645,"body":"We see aspects of the gene environment correlation acting out in home literacy environments."},{"startTime":2011.025,"endTime":2013.565,"body":"So what's the literacy environment in the home like?"},{"startTime":2013.585,"endTime":2015.285,"body":"And how does it relate to reading?"},{"startTime":2016.035,"endTime":2024.171,"body":"Well, Shaw and Lathea, um, developed a model, uh, in, in 2002, in which they"},{"startTime":2024.171,"endTime":2031.765,"body":"showed that, um, two aspects of the home environment predicted reading in, in children."},{"startTime":2032.425,"endTime":2036.953,"body":"One was the extent to which books are shared between parents and children, and the"},{"startTime":2036.953,"endTime":2037.255,"body":"other is whether or not a child actually actively teaches words or letters or writing"},{"startTime":2037.255,"endTime":2042.085,"body":"your name."},{"startTime":2043.265,"endTime":2050.857,"body":"The parent teaching bit produces, uh, improvements in emergent literacy, the shared book reading in"},{"startTime":2050.857,"endTime":2051.364,"body":"language."},{"startTime":2051.665,"endTime":2055.565,"body":"The two things come together to produce individual differences in reading."},{"startTime":2055.864,"endTime":2060.764,"body":"And of course, parents vary in the extent to which they do these activities."},{"startTime":2061.395,"endTime":2066.053,"body":"This is referred to as active gene environment correlation, but they're also passive influences as"},{"startTime":2066.053,"endTime":2066.364,"body":"well."},{"startTime":2067.105,"endTime":2073.042,"body":"If parents are very literate, their chil their par, their children see them reading, and"},{"startTime":2073.042,"endTime":2076.605,"body":"that might encourage them to read evocative gene environment."},{"startTime":2076.685,"endTime":2084.205,"body":"A a child's genetic disposition might encourage them to take part in literary activities."},{"startTime":2084.705,"endTime":2087.885,"body":"And of course, beyond the home, there's lots of environmental influences."},{"startTime":2087.965,"endTime":2092.435,"body":"I can't have time to go into them, but in the school, the government policies,"},{"startTime":2092.435,"endTime":2092.733,"body":"the culture, and indeed the language, and I've only talked about alphabetic systems, but obviously"},{"startTime":2092.733,"endTime":2099.885,"body":"across the world we have lots of different writing systems."},{"startTime":2100.465,"endTime":2105.635,"body":"The bottom line is in all of these systems, phonological difficulties seem to be associated"},{"startTime":2105.635,"endTime":2106.325,"body":"with dyslexia."},{"startTime":2107.465,"endTime":2112.934,"body":"So given all the different genes, given the diverse environments, it's perhaps not surprising that"},{"startTime":2112.934,"endTime":2113.298,"body":"we see individual differences, individual experiences of dyslexia, this is my family again, but just,"},{"startTime":2113.298,"endTime":2121.685,"body":"um, to say that they're not all the same."},{"startTime":2121.685,"endTime":2122.965,"body":"They were all dyslexic."},{"startTime":2123.825,"endTime":2127.045,"body":"My father was an engineer, had high visual-spatial skills."},{"startTime":2127.665,"endTime":2133.796,"body":"My brother had a DHD with dyslexia, and his son has a language difficulty with"},{"startTime":2133.796,"endTime":2134.205,"body":"dyslexia."},{"startTime":2135.025,"endTime":2139.66,"body":"So what we are seeing here is that these genes that are associated with dyslexia"},{"startTime":2139.66,"endTime":2141.205,"body":"are coding for overlapping disorders."},{"startTime":2142.025,"endTime":2145.005,"body":"And formally we refer to this as comorbidity."},{"startTime":2145.115,"endTime":2150.665,"body":"It's, I think what Aton was observing when he saw the different members of a"},{"startTime":2150.665,"endTime":2155.845,"body":"family had slightly different sorts of, um, disorder, but all of the language faculty."},{"startTime":2157.385,"endTime":2162.074,"body":"So drawing together what we've learned about causes, it's becomes clear that we have to"},{"startTime":2162.074,"endTime":2163.325,"body":"think in multifactorial terms."},{"startTime":2164.345,"endTime":2170.045,"body":"We have biological causes, we have cognitive causes, and we have environmental causes."},{"startTime":2170.305,"endTime":2176.646,"body":"And all of these causes impact how the many genes involved in learning to read"},{"startTime":2176.646,"endTime":2182.565,"body":"come together to, um, develop either a typical reader or a reader with dyslexia."},{"startTime":2183.705,"endTime":2189.263,"body":"The more, um, risk factors I would hypothesize, the more likely you're going to have,"},{"startTime":2189.263,"endTime":2190.005,"body":"um, dyslexia."},{"startTime":2191.025,"endTime":2199.03,"body":"The core of dyslexia is a phonological deficit, but often it co-occur with language difficulties"},{"startTime":2199.03,"endTime":2201.165,"body":"or with attention problems."},{"startTime":2201.345,"endTime":2207.652,"body":"And we might then say, these are co co-occurring conditions, dyslexia and DLD dyslexia and"},{"startTime":2207.652,"endTime":2208.072,"body":"A DHD, or we might think it's a dimension of neurodevelopmental disorder, but it's not"},{"startTime":2208.072,"endTime":2219.005,"body":"a, it's not a council of despair because children also inherit strengths."},{"startTime":2219.305,"endTime":2221.485,"body":"And strengths can often lead to compensation."},{"startTime":2222.705,"endTime":2225.765,"body":"But the most important form of compensation, of course, is intervention."},{"startTime":2226.785,"endTime":2232.207,"body":"And for an intervention to be, to work well, ideally, it needs to be theoretically"},{"startTime":2232.207,"endTime":2232.569,"body":"motivated and it needs to be evaluated and shown to be effective using a randomized"},{"startTime":2232.569,"endTime":2241.245,"body":"control trial if it's become part of practice and policy."},{"startTime":2241.785,"endTime":2248.666,"body":"And in RCT, children are randomly allocated either to receive an intervention or business as"},{"startTime":2248.666,"endTime":2249.125,"body":"usual."},{"startTime":2249.545,"endTime":2253.956,"body":"And at the end of the intervention, if the intervention children are doing better than"},{"startTime":2253.956,"endTime":2257.485,"body":"the, um, business as usual, then we know the intervention is effective."},{"startTime":2257.485,"endTime":2263.908,"body":"And in England now, the, uh, education Endowment Foundation is, is funding a lot of"},{"startTime":2263.908,"endTime":2264.336,"body":"promising, uh, interventions, uh, uh, RCTs on promising intervention to try to develop a stronger"},{"startTime":2264.336,"endTime":2272.045,"body":"evidence base for education."},{"startTime":2273.665,"endTime":2279.702,"body":"We have actually pretty strong evidence, I would say, gold standard evidence that interventions that"},{"startTime":2279.702,"endTime":2280.105,"body":"train phony awareness letter knowledge and linking these in the alphabetic principle and then practicing"},{"startTime":2280.105,"endTime":2289.765,"body":"those skills work really well for helping children with dyslexia."},{"startTime":2290.235,"endTime":2295.233,"body":"This is, uh, just one of the, these interventions that was developed by my colleagues,"},{"startTime":2295.233,"endTime":2298.565,"body":"um, and it can be delivered by trained teaching assistants."},{"startTime":2298.755,"endTime":2303.801,"body":"Essentially at the core of the program is this, what we call sound linkage learning"},{"startTime":2303.801,"endTime":2307.165,"body":"letters, learning phone names, linking them together, often using writing."},{"startTime":2307.945,"endTime":2313.006,"body":"And then at the beginning and the end of each lesson, there's reading from books"},{"startTime":2313.006,"endTime":2313.344,"body":"chosen initially, the beginning to be easy to build site vocabulary, and at the end"},{"startTime":2313.344,"endTime":2313.681,"body":"at an instructional level so that they can practice and hone the decoding skills that"},{"startTime":2313.681,"endTime":2323.805,"body":"they're learning."},{"startTime":2323.905,"endTime":2330.626,"body":"In this middle of what my colleague refers to as the reading intervention sandwich, the,"},{"startTime":2330.626,"endTime":2331.074,"body":"um, evidence is strong and, and the approach has been, uh, included in a number"},{"startTime":2331.074,"endTime":2340.485,"body":"of different guidance, um, reports for teachers."},{"startTime":2341.425,"endTime":2346.588,"body":"But we must remember that what I've been saying is that it's not just phonology,"},{"startTime":2346.588,"endTime":2347.965,"body":"it's not just language."},{"startTime":2347.965,"endTime":2355.565,"body":"There's also a, a language foundation that underpins the development of the, um, alphabetic principle."},{"startTime":2356.385,"endTime":2359.805,"body":"So should we be intervening on language?"},{"startTime":2361.035,"endTime":2363.245,"body":"Well, I would say with some children, we should be."},{"startTime":2364.145,"endTime":2371.17,"body":"And with this in mind, we develop the Nuffield Early Language Intervention program, otherwise known"},{"startTime":2371.17,"endTime":2371.638,"body":"as Nelly, which is a 20 week program of language, um, delivered to children who"},{"startTime":2371.638,"endTime":2381.005,"body":"enter school with poor language development."},{"startTime":2381.905,"endTime":2386.165,"body":"Um, and it's delivered again by trained teaching assistance."},{"startTime":2387.885,"endTime":2394.457,"body":"Nelly has two 10 week, uh, modules, um, and in each module there's a alternating"},{"startTime":2394.457,"endTime":2397.525,"body":"each week between group and individual sessions."},{"startTime":2398.655,"endTime":2406.405,"body":"There are three themes, developing narrative skills, enriching vocabulary, and improving speaking and listening."},{"startTime":2407.225,"endTime":2412.893,"body":"And in the second 10 week, um, module, the children also have training in phoning"},{"startTime":2412.893,"endTime":2414.405,"body":"awareness and letter knowledge."},{"startTime":2415.185,"endTime":2417.885,"body":"But remember, these are children in our schools."},{"startTime":2418.265,"endTime":2421.445,"body":"So in the background, in their mainstream, they're also getting quite a lot of phonics."},{"startTime":2421.445,"endTime":2426.703,"body":"There's no reading in this program at all, but there is encouragement of the alphabetic,"},{"startTime":2426.703,"endTime":2427.405,"body":"uh, principle."},{"startTime":2429.025,"endTime":2436.553,"body":"We now have strong evidence from two research and three much larger scale randomized trials"},{"startTime":2436.553,"endTime":2439.565,"body":"that this early language intervention works."},{"startTime":2440.345,"endTime":2445.959,"body":"It improves children's language, it has a beneficial effect on the foundations for reading, and"},{"startTime":2445.959,"endTime":2448.205,"body":"it also actually improves their behavior."},{"startTime":2448.745,"endTime":2453.701,"body":"And it's particularly cost effective when it's used in combination with a screening tool that"},{"startTime":2453.701,"endTime":2454.032,"body":"we developed for this trial in which teachers can use to identify the children in"},{"startTime":2454.032,"endTime":2463.285,"body":"their class when they come to school, who are in need of language support."},{"startTime":2466.425,"endTime":2472.777,"body":"It has been said not by me, that, um, Nelly has the largest, strongest evidence"},{"startTime":2472.777,"endTime":2476.165,"body":"base for a language intervention in the uk."},{"startTime":2476.345,"endTime":2480.165,"body":"And, uh, possibly, uh, internationally this might be why."},{"startTime":2481.105,"endTime":2488.536,"body":"Um, our government decided, um, to, um, fund Nelly as part of a, the COVID-19"},{"startTime":2488.536,"endTime":2492.005,"body":"catch up scheme in, uh, disadvantaged schools."},{"startTime":2492.825,"endTime":2497.805,"body":"And so Nelly has now been rolled out, um, across schools in English."},{"startTime":2497.805,"endTime":2499.085,"body":"It is still fully funded."},{"startTime":2499.785,"endTime":2505.398,"body":"And, um, we have evidence that even in the wilds of classrooms, it is as"},{"startTime":2505.398,"endTime":2505.772,"body":"effective as it was when delivered in the small group, uh, settings, uh, which we"},{"startTime":2505.772,"endTime":2514.005,"body":"were overseeing as part of the research trials."},{"startTime":2515.305,"endTime":2518.365,"body":"So is dyslexia a disorder or is it a difference?"},{"startTime":2519.755,"endTime":2528.391,"body":"Well, um, over its history, campaigners have lobbied to keep the concept of dyslexia as"},{"startTime":2528.391,"endTime":2534.725,"body":"a disorder alive, but it's not a clear cut diagnostic category."},{"startTime":2535.625,"endTime":2540.565,"body":"Um, and it can range from very mild to really quite severe."},{"startTime":2540.665,"endTime":2542.805,"body":"So it's a kind of dimensional disorder."},{"startTime":2543.985,"endTime":2549.34,"body":"Um, but the very important thing is that we mustn't adhere to a medical model,"},{"startTime":2549.34,"endTime":2551.125,"body":"which says diagnosis is important."},{"startTime":2551.125,"endTime":2552.405,"body":"Before intervention comes."},{"startTime":2553.145,"endTime":2558.256,"body":"We know enough about learning to read and the risks of not learning to read,"},{"startTime":2558.256,"endTime":2562.005,"body":"for us to be able to intervene without waiting for diagnosis."},{"startTime":2562.745,"endTime":2568.013,"body":"And of course, we must be mindful that language sets the stage four learning to"},{"startTime":2568.013,"endTime":2568.365,"body":"read."},{"startTime":2569.595,"endTime":2574.205,"body":"It's still important to raise awareness of children's oral language difficulties."},{"startTime":2575.485,"endTime":2579.885,"body":"Everyone knows about dyslexia, but many fewer people know about developmental language disorder."},{"startTime":2579.995,"endTime":2584.327,"body":"It's a really important, uh, message that people need to know that some children going"},{"startTime":2584.327,"endTime":2584.615,"body":"to school have got language difficulties and they need to be attended to if they're"},{"startTime":2584.615,"endTime":2592.125,"body":"gonna learn to read and become literate and understand what they're reading."},{"startTime":2593.265,"endTime":2598.485,"body":"Uh, we also know that children who went to school with poor language are at"},{"startTime":2598.485,"endTime":2601.965,"body":"high risk of, uh, dyslexia from many years of research."},{"startTime":2604.745,"endTime":2608.965,"body":"Um, and this is important not just for the current generation, but for the next."},{"startTime":2610.305,"endTime":2616.005,"body":"If a child has poor language in literacy as a result of some of these"},{"startTime":2616.005,"endTime":2619.045,"body":"sorts of difficulties, they will have poor qualifications."},{"startTime":2619.075,"endTime":2622.765,"body":"This will lead them into low page employment if they have employment."},{"startTime":2623.515,"endTime":2628.713,"body":"This in turn, will reduce the, their home resources, and that will reduce the sorts"},{"startTime":2628.713,"endTime":2633.565,"body":"of education and, and home literacy that they can provide for their own children."},{"startTime":2633.785,"endTime":2639.801,"body":"So if we don't intervene, we are into a downward spiral, which will lead to"},{"startTime":2639.801,"endTime":2641.005,"body":"intergenerational, um, hardship."},{"startTime":2642.185,"endTime":2647.517,"body":"So just to, um, close, then I will leave the last words to my, um,"},{"startTime":2647.517,"endTime":2647.873,"body":"uh, to the late Sir Jim Rose, who, uh, I'm a great admirer of, in"},{"startTime":2647.873,"endTime":2656.405,"body":"his 2009 report, laid out an agenda, uh, for dyslexia."},{"startTime":2656.985,"endTime":2660.045,"body":"And he said, intervene, don't wait."},{"startTime":2661.265,"endTime":2668.285,"body":"Ensure a strong foundation in language, offer a graded approach to intervention and monitor response."},{"startTime":2669.345,"endTime":2671.245,"body":"Be aware of co-occurring features."},{"startTime":2671.635,"endTime":2676.993,"body":"They're not dyslexia, but they're co-occurring, and they can affect the impact of dyslexia and"},{"startTime":2676.993,"endTime":2680.565,"body":"provide support, guidance, and appropriate arrangements to people with dyslexia."},{"startTime":2681.565,"endTime":2688.553,"body":"I think there's no time like now given our scientific understanding of dyslexia to begin"},{"startTime":2688.553,"endTime":2689.485,"body":"to intervene."},{"startTime":2691.135,"endTime":2691.965,"body":"Thank you very much."},{"startTime":2700.815,"endTime":2702.405,"body":"Thank you very much, professor Milling."},{"startTime":2702.435,"endTime":2707.405,"body":"It's, um, really clear presentation of a very challenging problem for us."},{"startTime":2707.975,"endTime":2710.725,"body":"There been a few, um, interesting questions."},{"startTime":2710.725,"endTime":2716.605,"body":"The first one is, uh, how frequent are associations with other forms of neurodiversity?"},{"startTime":2716.785,"endTime":2720.462,"body":"So if you have, um, dyslexia, how does it overlap with the other ones that"},{"startTime":2720.462,"endTime":2723.405,"body":"we're maybe going to hear about in the rest of our series?"},{"startTime":2724.385,"endTime":2730.565,"body":"So, um, the overlap with A DHD is probably the most, uh, prevalent."},{"startTime":2730.695,"endTime":2735.925,"body":"We're talking about 40 or 50%, but that's where we're looking at the diagnoses."},{"startTime":2736.105,"endTime":2738.445,"body":"And again, we have to remember, these are all dimensions."},{"startTime":2738.465,"endTime":2742.315,"body":"So if you think about how many people with dyslexia have attention difficulties, it's probably"},{"startTime":2742.315,"endTime":2743.085,"body":"more than 40%."},{"startTime":2743.185,"endTime":2750.789,"body":"But to actually have the two diagnoses at the moment, um, the, the literature suggests"},{"startTime":2750.789,"endTime":2754.845,"body":"40%, um, 40 or 50% with language disorder."},{"startTime":2755.505,"endTime":2762.941,"body":"Um, I, I think with autism, classically autism, it's much lower once you start talking"},{"startTime":2762.941,"endTime":2764.925,"body":"about autism spectrum disorder."},{"startTime":2764.925,"endTime":2771.325,"body":"There's probably some overlap, but I think we, that has not been researched as much"},{"startTime":2771.325,"endTime":2775.165,"body":"as, um, those, those, um, disorders that affect learning."},{"startTime":2775.265,"endTime":2780.74,"body":"So I think we sometimes can, um, differentiate things that affect learning from those that"},{"startTime":2780.74,"endTime":2782.565,"body":"affect other aspects of wellbeing."},{"startTime":2783.425,"endTime":2788.736,"body":"So a second group of questions is about, um, I guess you'd call it national"},{"startTime":2788.736,"endTime":2789.445,"body":"educational policy."},{"startTime":2790.025,"endTime":2795.877,"body":"And, um, you may have read an article in the papers weekend about what was"},{"startTime":2795.877,"endTime":2796.268,"body":"going on in Denmark about tr delaying, um, training to read until quite late, by"},{"startTime":2796.268,"endTime":2796.658,"body":"my experience, five years or so, and encouraging play, particularly outside and physical play, uh,"},{"startTime":2796.658,"endTime":2809.925,"body":"does, is how does that work?"},{"startTime":2810.165,"endTime":2811.765,"body":"I mean, is that a mad thing to do?"},{"startTime":2812.105,"endTime":2815.546,"body":"You don't seem dane seem just the same as us when you meet large groups"},{"startTime":2815.546,"endTime":2816.005,"body":"of them."},{"startTime":2816.145,"endTime":2816.365,"body":"Yes,"},{"startTime":2816.545,"endTime":2816.765,"body":"Yes."},{"startTime":2816.825,"endTime":2821.447,"body":"And and the other point about Danish is it's an irregular language like English is,"},{"startTime":2821.447,"endTime":2823.605,"body":"it's, it's one of the most irregular."},{"startTime":2824.185,"endTime":2827.485,"body":"So, um, well this question is a very interesting one."},{"startTime":2827.525,"endTime":2832.652,"body":"I personally think we do teach reading too early and now it very much is"},{"startTime":2832.652,"endTime":2835.045,"body":"part of the very early years curriculum."},{"startTime":2835.725,"endTime":2838.725,"body":"I think we could wait, but of course we don't have any evidence on this."},{"startTime":2838.875,"endTime":2843.405,"body":"What we need is some natural experiments where somehow some people are, are learning later."},{"startTime":2843.875,"endTime":2845.205,"body":"It's the same about intervention."},{"startTime":2845.345,"endTime":2850.04,"body":"We assume early intervention's important, but we've not tested it against later intervention."},{"startTime":2850.065,"endTime":2854.033,"body":"And certainly with the reading intervention that I've talked about, we know that works well"},{"startTime":2854.033,"endTime":2855.885,"body":"with kids in secondary school as well."},{"startTime":2856.185,"endTime":2858.925,"body":"You just have to tweak the sort of reading material."},{"startTime":2859.745,"endTime":2865.76,"body":"Um, I'm gonna do something that I've spent 70 years trying to avoid and that's"},{"startTime":2865.76,"endTime":2867.365,"body":"admitting that I'm dyslexic."},{"startTime":2868.425,"endTime":2874.765,"body":"Uh, one of the things that I have a problem with is left, right."},{"startTime":2875.265,"endTime":2876.005,"body":"Is this common?"},{"startTime":2876.905,"endTime":2882.389,"body":"Um, \u003claugh\u003e, uh, well, uh, in the days of the word blind center in the"},{"startTime":2882.389,"endTime":2886.045,"body":"1960s, some of those psychologists worked in child guidance clinics."},{"startTime":2886.265,"endTime":2891.525,"body":"So they were finding kids who had been referred for emotional and behavioral difficulties."},{"startTime":2891.825,"endTime":2897.15,"body":"And, but these psychologists were aware that it wasn't really, that wasn't the, that really"},{"startTime":2897.15,"endTime":2898.925,"body":"was an underlying reading problem."},{"startTime":2899.385,"endTime":2902.725,"body":"So I, so I think that that's kind of you, you hid away."},{"startTime":2903.425,"endTime":2908.462,"body":"You might have acted out, you might have gone in all sorts of other directions,"},{"startTime":2908.462,"endTime":2911.485,"body":"but I think that is not uncommon, um, consequence."},{"startTime":2911.505,"endTime":2916.319,"body":"And it's not uncommon for people with dyslexia to be late diagnosed and later to"},{"startTime":2916.319,"endTime":2918.245,"body":"find where their real strengths lie."},{"startTime":2918.545,"endTime":2922.605,"body":"Maggie, there's, there's several questions which are almost the same here, really."},{"startTime":2923.195,"endTime":2926.085,"body":"What do you think the role is for speech and language therapists?"},{"startTime":2926.165,"endTime":2930.506,"body":"I guess there may be one or two hiding in the audience, but what, what,"},{"startTime":2930.506,"endTime":2930.795,"body":"what is the role for speech and language therapists in the management of dyslexia, if"},{"startTime":2930.795,"endTime":2936.005,"body":"management's the right word?"},{"startTime":2936.225,"endTime":2936.445,"body":"Yes."},{"startTime":2936.715,"endTime":2938.925,"body":"Well, I, I'm a great fan of speech and language therapists."},{"startTime":2938.925,"endTime":2939.845,"body":"We don't have enough of them."},{"startTime":2940.345,"endTime":2945.721,"body":"Um, I think because, um, dyslexia is, um, it typically thought of as part of"},{"startTime":2945.721,"endTime":2946.079,"body":"the school system and part of teaching reading speech and language therapists are kind of,"},{"startTime":2946.079,"endTime":2953.965,"body":"um, pushed out and not expected to contribute."},{"startTime":2954.225,"endTime":2958.975,"body":"But clearly many of children with dyslexia have underlying language problems that are neither being"},{"startTime":2958.975,"endTime":2959.925,"body":"assessed nor treated."},{"startTime":2960.305,"endTime":2964.661,"body":"So I think one, they have a role to, um, in consultancy to ask for"},{"startTime":2964.661,"endTime":2967.565,"body":"people's dyslexia, have they had more of a language assessment?"},{"startTime":2967.905,"endTime":2972.84,"body":"And then secondly, with interventions like our language intervention, they could be, um, you know,"},{"startTime":2972.84,"endTime":2974.485,"body":"encouraging schools to use them."},{"startTime":2974.825,"endTime":2979.451,"body":"Um, and, and indeed help I think working to kind of refine them because of"},{"startTime":2979.451,"endTime":2979.76,"body":"course, although Nelly is, uh, has very effective, but some children still have significant needs"},{"startTime":2979.76,"endTime":2980.068,"body":"and, and so that if they can find, um, data on kids who've had one"},{"startTime":2980.068,"endTime":2980.376,"body":"language intervention, if you're still having trouble, then that's where they should be getting in"},{"startTime":2980.376,"endTime":2994.565,"body":"with more individualized support."},{"startTime":2995.185,"endTime":2996.325,"body":"Now, I'm dyslexic."},{"startTime":2996.845,"endTime":3000.685,"body":"I didn't discover this until I went to university as a mature student."},{"startTime":3000.685,"endTime":3001.045,"body":"Mm-Hmm."},{"startTime":3001.085,"endTime":3006.085,"body":"\u003caffirmative\u003e."},{"startTime":3001.145,"endTime":3004.445,"body":"And I can't hear the relief when somebody said, you're not all my life."},{"startTime":3004.445,"endTime":3006.445,"body":"I've been told I was lazy and stupid."},{"startTime":3006.985,"endTime":3010.693,"body":"The point I wanted to make of, I know you are on about phonetics Now,"},{"startTime":3010.693,"endTime":3013.165,"body":"nobody spotted that I had a hearing or site problem."},{"startTime":3013.505,"endTime":3016.365,"body":"And I've realized later on I read by sight."},{"startTime":3016.365,"endTime":3017.725,"body":"There's no question about it."},{"startTime":3018.275,"endTime":3021.942,"body":"When I was taught to read, they could have talked in Japanese for all the"},{"startTime":3021.942,"endTime":3023.165,"body":"difference it made to me."},{"startTime":3023.305,"endTime":3027.465,"body":"So when they say, well, you really need to look at how children learn, that"},{"startTime":3027.465,"endTime":3029.685,"body":"isn't a, this is the model for everything."},{"startTime":3031.075,"endTime":3035.165,"body":"Yeah, well, I think that what your experience is exactly what I would predict."},{"startTime":3035.225,"endTime":3037.565,"body":"So you're having difficulty with the phonics, if you like."},{"startTime":3037.865,"endTime":3040.645,"body":"And so you, you, you went, uh, you went visually."},{"startTime":3041.065,"endTime":3047.085,"body":"And uh, that's, um, that's a, that's what many higher ability people with dyslexia do."},{"startTime":3047.705,"endTime":3051.685,"body":"Um, often the downside is that you might not be very good at spelling."},{"startTime":3051.865,"endTime":3055.525,"body":"I'm not gonna ask you because if you've learned the words by her, it's holes"},{"startTime":3055.525,"endTime":3057.965,"body":"when you come to spell the letter by letter sequence."},{"startTime":3058.075,"endTime":3058.805,"body":"Haven't got it."},{"startTime":3060.115,"endTime":3060.405,"body":"Okay."},{"startTime":3060.705,"endTime":3061.445,"body":"So here's another one."},{"startTime":3061.465,"endTime":3066.245,"body":"My, my husband, not my husband at the moment, my husband, my husband was dyslexic."},{"startTime":3066.545,"endTime":3071.045,"body":"Um, our children are not, but one is Dysgraphic and the other is Dyspraxic."},{"startTime":3071.575,"endTime":3073.725,"body":"Could could you tell us about the overlap?"},{"startTime":3074.585,"endTime":3074.805,"body":"Yes."},{"startTime":3074.805,"endTime":3079.005,"body":"Well, this is precisely what Samuel Ton had, um, observed in, in his clinic, that"},{"startTime":3079.005,"endTime":3079.285,"body":"in families, you, um, can have one person with dyslexia, one person with a language"},{"startTime":3079.285,"endTime":3084.885,"body":"impairments in my family as well."},{"startTime":3085.505,"endTime":3089.561,"body":"Um, so I think this is 'cause when we, we, we now know a lot"},{"startTime":3089.561,"endTime":3091.725,"body":"of different bits of the genes are involved."},{"startTime":3092.015,"endTime":3100.04,"body":"These, uh, gene, uh, Loki and, um, they, they code not just for one prob"},{"startTime":3100.04,"endTime":3101.645,"body":"sort of difficulty."},{"startTime":3101.915,"endTime":3103.445,"body":"They also code for other ones."},{"startTime":3103.445,"endTime":3109.187,"body":"So I think that's what's going on here, that somehow some of the dyslexia genes"},{"startTime":3109.187,"endTime":3109.57,"body":"more have gone to the father and some of the other neurodevelopmental conditions are being"},{"startTime":3109.57,"endTime":3116.845,"body":"experienced by the other children."},{"startTime":3117.705,"endTime":3125.088,"body":"The only thing I'd say is that these, um, characterizations or, um, they, they can"},{"startTime":3125.088,"endTime":3126.565,"body":"change with development."},{"startTime":3126.905,"endTime":3131.822,"body":"So it's not unusual, for instance, to get a dyslexia, uh, identified to have intervention"},{"startTime":3131.822,"endTime":3136.085,"body":"and then as a teenager actually to find out you've got attentional problems."},{"startTime":3136.705,"endTime":3142.692,"body":"So, um, we don't really understand that, but there's definitely a sharing of these disorders"},{"startTime":3142.692,"endTime":3146.285,"body":"and also some particularly sequential, uh, aspects of risk."},{"startTime":3146.855,"endTime":3147.645,"body":"Thank you very much."},{"startTime":3147.715,"endTime":3148.605,"body":"Very interesting."},{"startTime":3149.535,"endTime":3151.005,"body":"We've talked a lot about children."},{"startTime":3151.425,"endTime":3153.405,"body":"I'm 80 and I've got dyslexia."},{"startTime":3153.405,"endTime":3155.725,"body":"Have you got any tips for people my age?"},{"startTime":3156.245,"endTime":3158.485,"body":"\u003claugh\u003e, you look very young."},{"startTime":3159.165,"endTime":3163.365,"body":"\u003claugh\u003e you should give me some tips on, on aging gracefully."},{"startTime":3163.785,"endTime":3165.685,"body":"Um, successful \u003claugh\u003e,"},{"startTime":3166.045,"endTime":3167.405,"body":"I was running a business at the time."},{"startTime":3167.485,"endTime":3168.125,"body":"I was 19."},{"startTime":3168.155,"endTime":3168.445,"body":"Very"},{"startTime":3168.445,"endTime":3168.925,"body":"Successful."},{"startTime":3168.945,"endTime":3169.165,"body":"Yes."},{"startTime":3169.235,"endTime":3169.525,"body":"Okay."},{"startTime":3169.525,"endTime":3173.464,"body":"Then I think what you should be doing is running, um, mentoring for young people"},{"startTime":3173.464,"endTime":3175.565,"body":"with dyslexia who want to go into business."},{"startTime":3177.035,"endTime":3177.325,"body":"Okay."},{"startTime":3177.625,"endTime":3177.845,"body":"No"},{"startTime":3177.845,"endTime":3178.365,"body":"Tips for me."},{"startTime":3178.365,"endTime":3181.525,"body":"These colored screens, colored glasses mean nothing."},{"startTime":3183.305,"endTime":3188.645,"body":"Use voice recognition software and uh, get, get something to audio books, \u003claugh\u003e."},{"startTime":3191.145,"endTime":3196.947,"body":"So being, uh, speaking a number of languages, like being bilingual as a child, does"},{"startTime":3196.947,"endTime":3197.334,"body":"that affect, uh, 'cause you talk about phonics, does that affect, uh, dyslexia or would"},{"startTime":3197.334,"endTime":3207.005,"body":"that kind of enhance your kind of lead language and speech?"},{"startTime":3207.365,"endTime":3208.685,"body":"'cause my daughter's bilingual."},{"startTime":3209.305,"endTime":3209.525,"body":"Yes."},{"startTime":3209.675,"endTime":3214.032,"body":"Well, it's a complicated question and there's not much research on it, but I'll, I'll"},{"startTime":3214.032,"endTime":3215.485,"body":"have a shot at it."},{"startTime":3216.305,"endTime":3221.642,"body":"Um, I don't think there's any evidence that being bilingual will cause dyslexia, but what"},{"startTime":3221.642,"endTime":3221.998,"body":"you can find where you have very different languages, if you, if you're learning, say"},{"startTime":3221.998,"endTime":3222.354,"body":"an alphabetic language like English and also Chinese, which is non alphabetic, you might actually"},{"startTime":3222.354,"endTime":3235.165,"body":"have done fine in one of the languages."},{"startTime":3235.705,"endTime":3237.645,"body":"And then when you learn it, we go to the other language."},{"startTime":3237.805,"endTime":3239.565,"body":"'cause it's the challenge a little bit different."},{"startTime":3239.585,"endTime":3241.725,"body":"You become dyslexic in the other language."},{"startTime":3243.075,"endTime":3245.645,"body":"Overall being bilingual I think is a very good thing."},{"startTime":3245.645,"endTime":3250.205,"body":"And of course there's theories that it, it has other aspects in enhancing cognitive function."},{"startTime":3250.785,"endTime":3254.005,"body":"Is there any, um, evidence in medication helping dyslexia?"},{"startTime":3255.375,"endTime":3259.485,"body":"There isn't any evidence for the efficacy of, of medical interventions, no."},{"startTime":3260.275,"endTime":3260.565,"body":"Yeah,"},{"startTime":3260.785,"endTime":3261.605,"body":"That's nice."},{"startTime":3261.765,"endTime":3262.045,"body":"Straightforward."},{"startTime":3262.525,"endTime":3267.395,"body":"I was very interested, um, about the business of Chinese because they're a sort of"},{"startTime":3267.395,"endTime":3268.045,"body":"videographic mm-hmm."},{"startTime":3268.085,"endTime":3273.072,"body":"\u003caffirmative\u003e type of symbols being very different from an an alpha numeric text of some"},{"startTime":3273.072,"endTime":3273.405,"body":"kind."},{"startTime":3273.865,"endTime":3279.49,"body":"Is, is it, how hard is it for someone to learn or to be susceptible"},{"startTime":3279.49,"endTime":3281.365,"body":"to the development of dyslexia?"},{"startTime":3281.365,"endTime":3286.265,"body":"Because you were associating the, I can't remember the terms you used, but phone name"},{"startTime":3286.265,"endTime":3287.245,"body":"and the graphing."},{"startTime":3287.245,"endTime":3288.205,"body":"Yeah, yeah, yeah."},{"startTime":3288.915,"endTime":3296.35,"body":"Well, um, strangely it used to be said back in the day that learning to"},{"startTime":3296.35,"endTime":3299.325,"body":"read Chinese would be much easier."},{"startTime":3299.485,"endTime":3302.485,"body":"'cause you don't have to do that mapping between letters and pH names."},{"startTime":3303.465,"endTime":3308.94,"body":"But actually the problem with learning Chinese is that you have to learn a lot"},{"startTime":3308.94,"endTime":3310.765,"body":"of different sound symbol associations."},{"startTime":3311.305,"endTime":3315.725,"body":"So the learning demands are actually huge for someone with a verbal learning difficulties."},{"startTime":3315.745,"endTime":3321.119,"body":"So I think you do have, um, dyslexia in Chinese we, and you do in"},{"startTime":3321.119,"endTime":3321.477,"body":"Chinese because, um, there the, they don't have phoniums, but they do have, um, sounds"},{"startTime":3321.477,"endTime":3328.285,"body":"at different of different tones."},{"startTime":3328.465,"endTime":3332.045,"body":"You find that people with dyslexia find it very difficult to differentiate those tones."},{"startTime":3332.265,"endTime":3337.125,"body":"So I think strangely across the languages of the world, there's more similarities and differences."},{"startTime":3337.625,"endTime":3340.205,"body":"Um, in terms of the vulnerability to reading problems."},{"startTime":3340.905,"endTime":3347.321,"body":"My cultural was Are there any cultural or societal factors that influence the perception and"},{"startTime":3347.321,"endTime":3348.605,"body":"diagnosis of dyslexia?"},{"startTime":3349.225,"endTime":3349.445,"body":"Yes."},{"startTime":3349.445,"endTime":3352.965,"body":"Well, I mean, cultural factors are really, um, very important."},{"startTime":3353.285,"endTime":3358.973,"body":"I mean, um, aside from the fact that, um, in some cultures, um, uh, you"},{"startTime":3358.973,"endTime":3362.765,"body":"know, the, the, the education systems aren't very well developed."},{"startTime":3363.095,"endTime":3366.285,"body":"There are real cultural differences in the value of literacy."},{"startTime":3366.385,"endTime":3371.817,"body":"So we did, um, a randomized trial in a, in a small island, um, of,"},{"startTime":3371.817,"endTime":3376.525,"body":"um, the coast of Chile and Robinson, cruso Island, in fact it's called."},{"startTime":3376.785,"endTime":3381.994,"body":"And um, we, um, we want, we were trialing a reading intervention there and we"},{"startTime":3381.994,"endTime":3382.341,"body":"had quite a lot of difficulty because the families kept saying, we don't want to"},{"startTime":3382.341,"endTime":3388.245,"body":"learn to read."},{"startTime":3388.585,"endTime":3389.805,"body":"We are a fishing community."},{"startTime":3390.075,"endTime":3391.445,"body":"It's not relevant to us."},{"startTime":3391.945,"endTime":3396.445,"body":"So yes, I think there are lots of cultural factors and, um, they haven't really"},{"startTime":3396.445,"endTime":3397.045,"body":"been explored."},{"startTime":3397.665,"endTime":3402.765,"body":"Um, obviously there's the language of reading, which is also gonna be, uh, have a,"},{"startTime":3402.765,"endTime":3404.805,"body":"have a, um, have an influence."},{"startTime":3404.825,"endTime":3408.867,"body":"And, and of course once you start thinking about this wider environmental influences, the the,"},{"startTime":3408.867,"endTime":3409.137,"body":"the school's policies, I mean, if, if you have a school with good special educational"},{"startTime":3409.137,"endTime":3415.605,"body":"need policy, your dyslexic child probably will fare quite well."},{"startTime":3415.605,"endTime":3419.205,"body":"But you could be in another school where the culture was, you know, we don't"},{"startTime":3419.205,"endTime":3421.125,"body":"believe in it and dah, dah, dah, dah."},{"startTime":3421.305,"endTime":3423.925,"body":"And, and so really important point."},{"startTime":3424.055,"endTime":3424.525,"body":"Thank you,"},{"startTime":3424.985,"endTime":3426.885,"body":"Uh, thank you very much for signing for your lecture."},{"startTime":3427.425,"endTime":3431.933,"body":"I'm just wondering if you know of any more recent or current studies looking at"},{"startTime":3431.933,"endTime":3432.234,"body":"the genes, uh, the particular genes that are involved and if we've identified any more"},{"startTime":3432.234,"endTime":3437.645,"body":"since the 2002 study."},{"startTime":3438.825,"endTime":3443.325,"body":"Um, so the, the one I put up, did I say 2002, it's 2022 \u003claugh\u003e."},{"startTime":3443.705,"endTime":3445.925,"body":"Um, so that's one of the most recent ones."},{"startTime":3445.965,"endTime":3450.495,"body":"I know I'm not a geneticist, so I dunno the field, but there's also a"},{"startTime":3450.495,"endTime":3450.797,"body":"very, uh, useful report, um, about genomics and educational attainment called the Hastings Report, which"},{"startTime":3450.797,"endTime":3458.045,"body":"I've recently looked at, which I thought was very good."},{"startTime":3458.605,"endTime":3463.605,"body":"\u003claugh\u003e"},{"startTime":3459.675,"endTime":3462.325,"body":"Just, uh, just behind you at the back there."},{"startTime":3462.325,"endTime":3462.685,"body":"Thank you."},{"startTime":3464.105,"endTime":3467.925,"body":"Um, Maggie, thank you very much for a very full, uh, count."},{"startTime":3468.505,"endTime":3473.623,"body":"Um, can we go back to Mary Warnock's point about dyslexia being a middle class"},{"startTime":3473.623,"endTime":3473.965,"body":"disease?"},{"startTime":3474.585,"endTime":3480.227,"body":"Uh, when I trained as an educational psychologist in the 1960s at UCL, I was"},{"startTime":3480.227,"endTime":3482.485,"body":"taught that dyslexia did not exist."},{"startTime":3483.385,"endTime":3487.485,"body":"Um, what has been the key factors in changing people's minds?"},{"startTime":3488.715,"endTime":3493.39,"body":"Okay, but of course, Mary Warnock didn't think it was a middle class syndrome that"},{"startTime":3493.39,"endTime":3494.325,"body":"the politicians did."},{"startTime":3494.985,"endTime":3502.045,"body":"Um, I think that the increase in the scientific evidence has been quite compelling."},{"startTime":3502.385,"endTime":3508.35,"body":"Um, I mean there's a, there's a lot of research on dyslexia, um, pointing to"},{"startTime":3508.35,"endTime":3512.725,"body":"phonological problems and, and you know, realizing that they are real."},{"startTime":3513.545,"endTime":3518.911,"body":"Um, a lot of people have great hopes for genetics and, and neuroscience, but really"},{"startTime":3518.911,"endTime":3523.205,"body":"we're a long way off using them at individual patterns of risk."},{"startTime":3523.205,"endTime":3525.765,"body":"But I, but I think, I think that's one thing."},{"startTime":3525.785,"endTime":3530.844,"body":"And then I, I think, um, they've also been just improvements in understanding the science"},{"startTime":3530.844,"endTime":3533.205,"body":"of reading and how to teach reading."},{"startTime":3534.185,"endTime":3540.2,"body":"So, um, yeah, I mean, I'm not sure that politicians or policy makers still really"},{"startTime":3540.2,"endTime":3541.805,"body":"use the term dyslexia."},{"startTime":3541.805,"endTime":3545.285,"body":"They, it's usually dyslexia, stroke specific learning difficulties."},{"startTime":3545.745,"endTime":3550.485,"body":"Um, but I think I would definitely say point to the scientific evidence."},{"startTime":3551.225,"endTime":3556.359,"body":"I'm take the privilege of the last question with respect to the, you, you showed"},{"startTime":3556.359,"endTime":3556.701,"body":"a diagram there, which was, you know, if you've, if you're in a socially deprived"},{"startTime":3556.701,"endTime":3563.205,"body":"cycle, things can get worse."},{"startTime":3563.305,"endTime":3563.805,"body":"Mm-Hmm, \u003caffirmative\u003e."},{"startTime":3564.465,"endTime":3569.91,"body":"So here we are with rising inequality and, um, sort of quite a lot of"},{"startTime":3569.91,"endTime":3571.725,"body":"pressures on our educational services."},{"startTime":3572.305,"endTime":3576.685,"body":"What's the future for, for, uh, children with dyslexia in this country?"},{"startTime":3578.915,"endTime":3581.485,"body":"Well, that's a difficult question, isn't it?"},{"startTime":3581.865,"endTime":3587.542,"body":"Um, well first of all, I hope that regardless of political party, that we continue"},{"startTime":3587.542,"endTime":3587.921,"body":"to have language intervention in schools to promote the development of children with dyslexia around"},{"startTime":3587.921,"endTime":3597.005,"body":"children who also just have generally problems accessing the curriculum."},{"startTime":3598.405,"endTime":3603.28,"body":"I do hope we can fund teaching assistance because some schools can't afford them because"},{"startTime":3603.28,"endTime":3606.205,"body":"teachers need help with children who have individual needs."},{"startTime":3607.145,"endTime":3615.495,"body":"But also I think with real lack of, um, appreciation of how helpful, uh, assistive"},{"startTime":3615.495,"endTime":3617.165,"body":"technology can be."},{"startTime":3617.705,"endTime":3622.968,"body":"And I, my own view is if you have someone with dyslexia who you have"},{"startTime":3622.968,"endTime":3623.319,"body":"been trying to teach for three or four years and is still having a huge"},{"startTime":3623.319,"endTime":3623.67,"body":"struggle, we should one, be supporting their use of voice recognition software and other chat,"},{"startTime":3623.67,"endTime":3637.005,"body":"GPT, dare I say, other ai, um, uh, uh, methods."},{"startTime":3637.585,"endTime":3641.445,"body":"Um, and, and also we need to be revamping the education system."},{"startTime":3641.545,"endTime":3646.891,"body":"We recognize their strengths and we can have, you know, more vocational training and not"},{"startTime":3646.891,"endTime":3651.525,"body":"regarded as, you know, failure like some of the people here have experienced."},{"startTime":3652.715,"endTime":3653.925,"body":"Well, thank you very much."},{"startTime":3653.985,"endTime":3660.005,"body":"So absolutely magisterial presentation and really informative and thank you very, very much indeed, professor."}]}