Mexica: A History Podcast
Mexica: A History Podcast
Rulers of Tenochtitlan - Tenochtitlan Rising (Ep 11)
In this follow-up episode we explore the rulers of Tenochtitlan, or the tlatoque. From the first tlatoani, Acamapichtli, to the final traditional tlatoani, Cuauhtémoc, we'll explore all the "Aztec rulers." In this episode Tenochtitlan's new rulers are aggressive and eager to expand the empire. Itzcoatl, and his ambitious nephew Tlacaelel, brought a new leadership style that would free the Mexica from their Tepanec overlords, and take that same fight out into the Valley of Mexico.
Part 1 - Itzcoatl, the fourth ruler of Tenochtitlan.
Part 2 - Moctezuma Ilhuicamina, the fifth ruler of Tenochtitlan.
Part 3 - Axayacatl, the sixth ruler of Tenochtitlan.
~ Music Credits ~
Araucanian War Song by Down for the Count
Away by Meydän
Daniel Birch, www.danielbirchmusic.com
Breathe by Daniel Birch
Sustained Light by Daniel Birch
The Gates Are Locked by Daniel Birch
Intro sample, Sir Niney's Rock by Niney the Observer
Episode 11 Credits
Written, researched, performed and produced by Jeremy Lipps.
Welcome back to Mexica: A history Podcast. In the last episode we met the first three Mexica rulers, men who established the Mexica as a viable new political entity in the Valley, yet who were unable to break free of subjugation by the Tepanecs and their ruler Tezozomoc. First we met Acamapichtli, whose mixed heritage and noble lineage made him the first Mexica ruler and founder of the Tenochtitlan monarchy. Then his son Huitzilihuitl expanded the city’s land and its status through intermarriage. Finally we met Chimalpopoca, whose Tepanec links helped to crack their subjugation and allowed the building of the city’s first aqueduct. Following the violent death of Chimalpopoca the new Tlatoani would take the Mexica in a new and bold direction, breaking free of previous relationships.
Itzcoatl - 4th Tlatoani
Itzcoatl was selected to lead Tenochtitlan following the death of his predecessor, Chimalpopoca, who was allegedly murdered by his uncle Maxtla, the Tepanec leader in Coyoacan. Maxtla felt his father’s loyalty to his Mexica grandson Chimlpopoca was a liability to the economic health of the Tepanecs. And so, it is accepted that Maxtla coordinated the death of the Mexica leader and his son. Additionally, the Tepanec king Tezozomoc was possibly killed later, ending the line completely. The brash assassinations seem to be entirely the work of Maxtla, however one man benefited greatly: Itzcoatl.
Born around 1380, Itzcoatl was likely the son of Tlatoani Huitzilihuitl and his favorite slave girl, her name lost to history. Perhaps this forbidden mother, more alluring to the king than the Tepanec queen, was the root of Itzcoatl’s ferocity.
Following the death of Chimalpopoca, Itzcoatl was selected to be Tlatoani, sometime between 1424 and 1428. Itzcoatl was a new generation of leader in the Mexica world, he wasn’t content to report to another nation. Nor was his brother, the young and powerful Mexica noble, Tlacaelel. His coronation made Maxtla and other Tepanec leaders nervous. Maxtla sent a force that actually overran the Mexica defenses and occupied the city for some time. It was Nezahualcoyotl of Texcoco who came to their salvation and drove out the Tepanecs. Nezahualcoyotl, the legendary poet warrior of Texcoco, had a fondness for the Mexica from his time as a willing prisoner under Chimalpopoca’s rule. In a show of loyalty the Texcoco king returned all of Tenochtitlan to Itzcoatl.
A group of leading men from Tenochtitlan thought it best to go to Azcapotzalco and pledge allegiance to Tezozomoc on behalf of Itzcoatl, to minimize any ideas of conflict. Tlacalael, then a young warrior, stood up to these men and urged them not to offer their subjugation so quickly. He managed to convince Itzcoatl to send him to Azcapotzalco to see the king Tezozomoc, to understand why the Tepanec army was surrounding them. Tezozomoc admitted he had lost the faith of his son Maxtla and other leaders and that they now acted on their own. Having presented this information to Itzcoatl, Tlacalael was again sent to Tezozomoc, this time with an ultimatum - war or subjugation.
The threat seems to have worked as Maxtla, Cuecuex and Tezozmoc backed down, pulling their troops. But tempers remained high between Maxtla and the Mexica leaders Itzcoatl and Tlacalael. This moment, the new leadership overruling the elders who were ready to beg forgiveness and subjugation, is the beginning of Tlacalael’s influence that would continue through his mentorship of four tlatoque, past his death until the end of the Empire.
Many of the Mexica nobles were still under the glow of what used to be the protective cloak of Tezozomoc and his love for his grandson, Chimalpopoca. But things had changed and Itzcoatl was intent on making the Mexica a dominant group in the Valley. His nemesis, Maxtla, had similar aspirations having expanded his territory from Coyoacan to Azcapotzalco by overthrowing his half-brother Tayatzin after his father Tezozomoc’s death.
A clear rivalry had been built upon Maxtla’s anger at the favoritism the Mexica had received from his father Tezozomoc. That rift was exploited by Itzcoatl and Tlacalael to force the Mexica out from under Tepanec control. In the midst of this tension a group of Tepanecs assaulted and stole the goods from a group of Mexica women who had traveled to Coyoacan to sell their produce. Itzcoatl ordered that all relations with the Tepanecs in Coyoacan cease, including trade. Pretty quickly this impacted Tepanec supplies and people began to starve in Coyoacan. Maxtla was faced with a choice, a choice that Itzcoatl forced. With control of the lakes, the Mexica thrived. The Cronica tells how those starving in Coyoacan were tormented by the smells of savory cooked meats wafting across the lake.
According to several narratives, Itzcoatl’s brother and loyal advisor Tlacalael, was sent to Coyoacan to deliver a message to Maxtla. Tlacalael went and talked his way into the city and to the royal palace where he was presented to Maxtla. Tlacalael, familiar with all the courtly etiquette, came for an answer, would it be peace or would there be war? Maxtla vowed no Tepanec would ever be ruled by the Mexica. According to the Cronica Mexicayotl, Maxtla dressed the Mexica emissaries in women’s clothing and sent them back to Tenochtitlan. Itzcoatl took this as the answer that Maxtla had chosen war.
Itzcoatl sent guards to the border of Tepanec lands where a small group of Maxtla’s men were, according to the Cronica. The men ran but offered plenty of insults on their way out. From here the Mexica guards spotted smoke in the lagoon and traced it to three Tepanec fishermen. The men were given weapons and a running lead then were pursued to Coyoacan where the Mexica, along with Nezahualcoyotl’s forces, destroyed the temple and looted the city. According to the Cronica, the Tepanecs of Coyoacan were sent fleeing into the hills. It is said Nezahualcoyotl personally sacrificed Maxtla.
Tlacaelel reported the outcome of the Tepanec-Mexica war to Itzcoatl, a sound victory over Maxtla’s forces. The Tepanec leaders' requests to other towns for reinforcements had all been denied and alone they fell to the aggressive Mexica allies and their generals Tlacalael, Nezahualcoyotl and another young warrior named Moctezuma Ilhuicamina.
With the destruction of Maxtla, Tepanec power landed on Totoquihuatzli the 1st, who either was an ally or realized it was best to become one. This set the stage for establishment of the Triple Alliance, or what is casually referred to as the Aztec Empire. The king of Texcoco and ruler of the Acolhua people, Nezahualcoyotl became the third power. The three rulers, Itzcoatl, Nezahuacoyotl and Totoquihuatzli, formed the Triple Alliance that would rule the Valley of Mexico until 1521.
After cementing the Tepanec alliance and control of the central Valley and lakes, Itzcoatl moved south into the lake cities of Xochimilco and Chalco. But first he took down the altepetl of Culhuacan, the traditional superpower and the city from which the Mexica borrowed the noble blood to establish their own monarchy. Then they moved on to the southern chinampa towns of Xochimilco, Cuitlauhuac, Mixquic and others. Lands from all these victories were distributed to the royal court, the generals and all the valiant warriors who had distinguished themselves in war.
With the entire Valley in their control, the lords of the Triple Alliance began to establish their titles and districts. Initially Itzcoatl felt Nezahualcoyotl and his title of Lord of the Empire was too powerful and they negotiated a more humble title of Lord of the Aculhua people with their capital in Texcoco. Itzcoatl took the title of Lord of the Culhua, Totoquihuatzli of Tlacopan took on the Tepanec lands and people. With their power consolidated the Triple Alliance sent the armies toward the people of Cuahnahuac, now called Cuernavaca.
Itzcoatl died after a short illness in 1440. Before his death he assigned ranks to the other two Triple Alliance powers, Tenochtitlan would be the dominant power with Texcoco second and the Tepanecs in Tlacopan third. After his death he was succeeded by his nephew Moctezuma Ilhuicamina, who had served as a general in Itzcoatl’s campaigns in Coyoacan, and the southern lake towns.
Itzcoatl’s legacy would be sealed through his marriage to Huacaltzintli, a princess of Tlatelolco. Her brother, Tlacateotl, was king of Tlatelolco, and she would be grandmother to three kings of Tenochtitlan. Itzcoatl and his faction, including his generals Tlacalael and Moctezuma Ilhuicamina, had made the Mexica a powerful force in mesoamerica, and his successors would continue in this aggressive style of violent expansion.
Moctezuma Ilhuicamina - 5th Tlatoani
Moctezuma the First, or Elder, and his brother Tlacalael were at the heart of the Mexica nobility and served as young generals under the violent leadership of Itzcoatl. They were part of a militant political faction that had raised Itzcoatl to the throne and stood in opposition to their other brother, and former tlatoani Chimalpopoca. After Chimalpopoca's assassination Itzcoatl, Moctezuma, Tlacalael and their group took power. Moctezuma and Tlacalael had big ambitions for the growing Mexica people.
During his time as a general Moctezuma had been sent to Texcoco to negotiate with Nezahuacoyotl. As a result the two men formed a lasting bond. This bond with one of the Triple Alliance leaders, in addition to Moctezuma’s experience as a military leader, made him a natural candidate to be the next tlatoani. After Itzcoatl died, it was Nezahuacoyotl and Totoquihuatzli who selected Moctezuma Ilhuicamina to succeed him. He was crowned likely in 1440 after 80 days of mourning for Itzcoatl.
With the Tepanecs now allied with Tenochtitlan and the southern lake towns mostly subjugated from Itzcoatl’s campaigns, Moctezuma set about a major upgrade to the Templo Mayor, dedicated to the hummingbird god Huitzilipochtli, at the center of Tenochtitlan. He, along with Tlacalael, decided to ask their subjects in other towns to provide labor and materials for the new temple. Tlacalael advised that captains should be sent to each city to ask for labor and materials. From Mixquik to Coyoacan, all the towns agreed to provide labor and various materials.
Chalco, which had not been subjugated, came to the attention of the two Mexica leaders. Tlacalael, always aggressive, insisted they send messengers to ask for materials and labor. The lords of the Chalco region, including Cuauteotl of Amecameca, and Toteociteuctli of Chalco, declined to support the project and responded with hostility. This kicked off the Chalco-Mexica War in approximately 1465.
According to Duran, Tlacalael took the army south to Iztapalapa where they got reports that the Chalco army was across the plain. After scouts had reported seeing the Chalco army formed up Moctezuma gave the order to march on Chalco. The two armies met in a fierce battle, but Duran says the Chalcas used a technique of rotating troops, which allowed them to stay rested throughout the day. This technique seems to have given them the day and the Mexica retreated to Tenochtitlan. Regrouped and refreshed a small contingent from the Mexica army reengaged the Chalcas for five days of fighting. On the sixth day Tlacalael dispatched the rest of the Mexica army and they routed the Chalcas.
Three Mexica nobles were killed in the Chalco conflict, including brothers of Moctezuma. There was a great amount of grieving for these men and others killed in the battles. Funerals were held, the families were honored and given food and gifts. According to Duran, during these funerals word came from far away that Mexica merchants had been murdered.
In what became a pattern of pretense for later wars, Duran reports that Mexica merchants in Tepeaca were murdered and their bodies left in the street to rot. So Tlacalael ordered the army the furthest it had ever been from Tenochtitlan and they divided into four units and attacked the four towns, or five forts according to the Cronica Mexica, of Tepeaca. Duran reports they offered no defense and quickly fell to the Triple Alliance forces. After the conquest of Tepeaca, Moctezuma ordered a great market be built there and he installed a Mexica noble to rule.
Around 1451 a great snow fell on Tenochtitlan, killing crops and starving many people. The snow was so heavy it collapsed houses in Texcoco, according to History of the Chichimeca Nation, and many elderly people died. Said to be knee-deep, the snow lasted six days and terrified the people of Tenochtitlan. This was the first of two major climate calamities that struck the Mexica during Moctezuma’s reign.
After the snow melted Moctezuma and Tlacalael were eager to continue the wars of conquest across the Valley of Mexico and beyond. Often citing the murder of merchants, wars were begun and finished. The Huastec people along the Gulf of Mexico were subjugated with many of their soldiers brought back to Tenochtitlan for ritualistic sacrificial combat. The sacrificial prisoners were given a feathered wooden weapon and chained to a platform then attacked by a series of warriors until killed.
Next Tlacalael and Moctezuma sent armies Southeast toward Ahuilizapan and Cotaxtla where they quickly routed the defense forces and marched into Cotaxtla where they were treated as conquerors and appointed their own governor, Pinotl, who would be among the first Mexica officials to see the Spanish in 1519. Next the armies headed for the Mixtec people, who paid off the Mexica army. Soon the people in Cotaxtla began to rebel and the armies headed back to regain control.
These wars even became tiring for the Mexica who began to formalize them into what would become known as the Flower Wars. According to History of the Chichimeca Nation, one of Tlaxcala’s great leaders, Xicotencatl, proposed a regularly held battle at a fixed location. These planned battles were meant to mitigate the mass losses of actual war, while still providing sacrifices and opportunities for valor. Known as the “Flower Wars,” these fights often favored the stronger Triple Alliance armies, despite rules to help equalize the battles.
It seems that as Moctezuma Ilhuicamina aged, he turned toward the spiritual side of Mexica culture more and more. He became fascinated with the Aztlan origin story and organized an expedition to find the original Seven Caves in Chicomoztoc. The quest, as told by Duran, takes the expedition into a dreamland where they observe the ancestral homeland of the Mexica, an island city surrounded by plentiful waters, canoes, fisherman and the ancestors, still youthful and un-aged. The expedition leaders told them of what had become of those who left, Tenoch and others, that they were all dead of old age now. This saddened the ancestors to hear as they had not aged. The expedition returned with only this dreamlike exchange and vision.
Around this time the Templo Mayor was completed and sacrifices from the latest expedition to Oaxaca were prepared for the opening ceremony. Duran describes the Templo as being 120 steps high. This was the fourth version of the Templo, and one of the largest expansions.
The Great Drought
In 1454 a drought struck the Valley of Mexico causing a great famine across the region. Seeing that the population of Tenochtitlan was beginning to flee the area Tlacalael advised Moctezuma to tap into the royal granaries and release corn and gruel to the people. As the rivers and lakes dried up and the crops failed a second season the granaries began to run out. On one final night Moctezuma used the remaining supplies to hold a final feast and to wish his people good luck, telling them they were free to pursue their own fates. In a reversal of history, the Totonac people from the coast began to arrive in Tenochtitlan to buy Mexica slaves. The lowlands by the coast were thriving and many Mexica, Texcocans, Tepenecs and others were bought or simply fled to pursue opportunities or to follow enslaved family members.
Seeing his end near, Moctezuma ordered a couple of tributary projects in his honor, including carvings of himself and Tlacalael in Chapultepec, and the Gardens of Huaxtepec. The carvings can still be seen, although they have been defaced throughout history. The gardens are now part of a national park and there is little, if anything, left of the Mexica-era gardens.
Death of Moctezuma
In 1469 he died in Tenochtitlan, according to History of the Chihcimeca Nation. The Catholic writer Duran notes he became ill, worsening by the day. Just before his death, according to Duran, the famines ended and a military conquest had been completed. Duran also notes he was buried in the courtyard of his palace along with his treasure - a treasure that Cortes would raid. Although Duran may be confusing Axayacatl’s palace and treasure, which Cortes definitely looted. Quickly after his death, the ruler of Texcoco, Nezahuacoyotl, sent for Axayacatl, grandson of Itzcoatl and Moctezuma, who would be the next ruler.
Moctezuma Ilhuicamina’s rule greatly expanded the Triple Alliance empire and the power of Tenochtitlan. Driven, in part, by his brother Tlacalael’s aggressive military policies the empire expanded to the south, east and west, the largest expansion of Mexica power in history. In the later years of his reign we get a glimpse of a spiritual man who wanted to leave more than war and subjugation.
Axayacatl - 6th Tlatoani
The son of prince Tezozomoc, a grandson of tlatoque Moctezuma and Itzcoatl, Axayacatl was seemingly destined to become ruler of Tenochtitlan. But his military record helped him rise above his two older brothers, Tizoc and Ahuitzotl, to become favored by the elite decision makers, like Tlacalael. He had served as Captain General and High Priest of the Templo Mayor before ascending to the throne.
After the death of his grandfather, Moctezuma, Tlacalael met with the other leaders of the Triple Alliance, Totoquihuatzli and Nezahualcoyotl. At first the nobles and elders pleaded with Tlacalael to be the next ruler, but he declined, telling them he already ruled and was respected and his decisions heard and that he was too old to rule. He suggested Axayacatl, who he would guide and mentor, and he was chosen to succeed. Axayacatl was crowned in 1469. The new tlatoani would be a good friend of Nezahualcoyotl until his death in 1472, when Axayacatl attended his funeral. The new king’s rule was eventful.
Tensions between their sister city, Tlatelolco, and the Tenochca Mexica began to simmer. Market disputes between women from the two communities were addressed by Axayacatl, but left lasting tensions. The appointment of a Tlatelolco king, Moquihuix, was seen as a threat. Accusations by the Tlatelolcas that a canal they were digging had been filled in overnight caused a great uproar, according to Duran. The Cronica Mexica says some carnal relations between Tenochca men and Tlatelolca women, perhaps rape, had also added to the fury. Eventually the list of confrontations and instigations from Moquihuix, ruler of Tlatelolco, led to conflict.
According to Duran, a Tlatelolca ambush was found out and Axayacatl attacked his Mexica neighbors starting a brief civil war that ended with the subjugation of the city and death of Moquihuix. Tlatelolco would not be considered an autonomous city again, but separate cultures remained and to this day Tlatelolco has kept a distinct aura to itself.
The History of the Chichimeca Nation, written from a Texcoco perspective, claims Axayacatl spent most of his time in Texcoco because he found it enjoyable and healthful. This seems like self-flattery by Ixtlilxoxhitl, a Texcoco writer, but there was a bond between the leaders of the two cities.
Axayacatl was an eager military man who expanded the empire west into the Toluca Valley. As a young man in charge of the empire under the watchful eye of Tlacalael, he was eager to prove himself in battle. According to the Cronica, in one battle he was stabbed in the leg, causing him a lifelong limp. He led the armies of the Triple Alliance into Matlatzinca and other towns, enforcing the power of the empire.
However, this desire to expand led to the Mexica’s most disastrous defeat ever. Beyond Toluca were the Tarascan people of Michoacan, centered in the city of Tzinztuntzan. In 1476, the Mexica armies were defeated in the only major defeat ever suffered by Tenochca armies, to that point. One report claims 20,000 Mexica soldiers died. Axayacatl retreated to Ecatepec, where the army regrouped and began mourning. The bodies that were retrieved were cremated, the families given clothes and food for their sacrifice. The defeat in Michoacan came to define his rule and he died five years later in 1481 of illness. He is credited with the carving of the famous Sun Stone, by Duran, but that claim isn’t clear as it has indications it was made after his reign.
Axayacatl died in 1481 at about the age of 31. Duran says he died after a flurry of sacrifices, overwhelmed by the smell of blood and filth and exhausted from taking so many lives. Duran was a Catholic priest and is clear in his disdain for Mexica religion throughout his writings. The Cronica says he died of a similar illness as his friend Nezahuacoyotl, growing ill over days until he died. Several sources link his defeat in Michoacan as a driving source of his demise. His forces went on to several other victories, but his reign was stained by Michoacan.
Forty years later Axayacatl's palace would serve as living quarters, and fortress to Cortes and the Spanish-Tlaxcalan force. Perhaps a coincidence, but according to the History of the Chichimeca Nation, Axayacatl had temples to the gods built in his palace ahead of a war with Chalco. Cortes and his men described in their writing effigies of the gods in the palace when they stayed there. Perhaps the ones built 40 years earlier in preparation of war.
Close
Itzcoatl, Moctezum Ilhuicamina and Axayacatl were all respected empire builders who expanded and solidified the Triple Alliance and Tenochtitlan. Influenced heavily by their brother, Tlacalael, the tlatoque of this era were warlike, but also paid attention to infrastructure, expanding the city, its causeways, aqueducts and temples. These three rulers largely built the world that the modern world recognizes as the Aztec Empire.
In the next episode we meet the next generation of rulers, including the somewhat unremarkable Tizoc, Ahuitzotl, last of the pre-conquest tlatoque, and Moctezuma Xocoyotzin, the most well-known of the Aztec rulers who faced off against Cortes.
Thank you for listening. For more information on the history of the Mexica or the Conquest, visit Mexicapodcast.com.
