Freestyle Theology
The Christian Faith is more mysterious and, quite frankly, weirder than we think. But the way we talk about it is often insipid and inaccessible, using tired words and ideas from the 16th century that nobody uses anymore.
Freestyle Theology is a space for us to wonder freely out loud, to take our faith seriously in *this* time and place, and to wander down all sorts of fascinating rabbit holes. Get ready for another out of the box conversation about Christianity with Brad Melle and friends! Freestyle Theology is sponsored by Daily Breadth, the Christian meditation app that works. Learn more at dailybreadth.app or try it for free by downloading it in the Apple App Store or on Google Play.
Freestyle Theology
Let's Talk About: Residential Schools as Church History
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In this enlightening episode of "Freestyle Theology," Dr. Bradley Melle, a historian of Global Christianity, dives deep into the history of colonialism, Indigenous Christianity, and the impact of residential schools. Joining forces with John Simon and Thomas Duell from the "Church History for Chumps" podcast, Dr. Melle shares his insights from his teaching stint in Arizona, bringing to light the little-known history of American Indian boarding schools amidst Arizona's large Indigenous population.
The discussion unveils the dark legacy of colonialism intertwined with Christianity, exploring the phenomenon of residential schools as a grim episode in church history. Through a compelling narrative, the episode addresses the cultural genocide and the physical and emotional abuse inflicted upon Indigenous children, aiming to erase their identity and assimilate them into a dominant culture.
Dr. Melle, along with his hosts, navigates through the complex relationship between colonial powers, the church, and Indigenous communities, shedding light on the systemic injustices and the struggle for healing and reconciliation. This episode is a critical examination of the past, encouraging a reflective understanding of Christianity's diverse history and its role in shaping societies.
Freestyle Theology is brought to you by Daily Breath, the Christian meditation app that promotes spiritual wellness and growth. Download it for free on the Apple App Store or Google Play. For those seeking to explore the multifaceted history of the church and its impact on global cultures, this episode is a must-listen. Follow Dr. Melle on Instagram at @freestyletheology for more insightful content on church history across different eras and cultures.
Hey everybody, welcome to another episode of Freestyle Theology. I'm your host, Dr. Bradley Melle, Historian of Global Christianity. I recently got back from another teaching stint down in Arizona,
which gave me another chance to talk with my friends John Simon and Thomas Duell of the podcast Church History for Chumps. Now,
I study indigenous Christianity and the history of colonialism. And so I'm going to talk about the history of colonialism. so and also being a Canadian we have talked a lot about residential schools in the last while but down in Arizona even though they have a really large indigenous population they don't really talk or know much about what they call the Indian boarding schools and so John and Thomas had me on their
podcast to speak about sort of the history of colonialism and Christianity and yeah I wanted to explore the phenomenon of residential schools as an episode in church history so we're going to tune in now to our conversation on church history for chumps and hopefully you find it in and and yeah let me know what you think afterwards and if you're interested in learning more about Christianity's diverse history follow me on
Instagram at freestyle theology I post a lot of videos on there dealing with the church it's history from all across the world and all different times so check it out and yeah I hope to see you there.
Enjoy the episode. Freestyle Theology is sponsored by Daily Breath, the Christian medication app that really works. Learn more at dailybreath .app.
Hey everybody, welcome to Church History for Chumps. My name is John Simon and I am sitting close by my co -host. Give me a high five. Uh, boom,
it's Thomas Duell. Thomas Duell and I'm our wonderful guest for today, a return, a very important returning guest by the name of Dr.
Brad Melle. - Brad Melle. - That's cool. - Pew, pew, pew. - That actually sounded pretty good. - Yeah, cool, cool. - Okay, that's good. Well, Brad, thanks for being back with us, man. - I'm back.
Last time I was here, we talked Celtic Christianity. - We did. - And I released... that on my podcast as well, Freestyle Theology. People love that one.
- Dude, people told us for a long time after that episode dropped how much they appreciated it. And I don't think it's just because Celtic Christianity is kind of a buzz term.
Like I think they really just enjoyed a lot of the nuances that we explored. - Yeah, digging in. - And we couldn't have done that without you. - Well, actually, we could have right Thomas That's great. You know Brad's like Brad's like when you know when you get when you have the option to do like a higher octane gas You know when you're filling up the pump premium Brad's Brad's a 91.
Yeah, there we go. I like that Yeah, we're 87 you're 91. That means a lot. Mm -hmm. Yeah, and on my podcast. I'm back. I'm an 87 Okay, okay mine and I try to bring on 91s myself Marshall:
Does that make us 91? Stan: Yeah. Marshall: Okay. Stan: Oh yeah. Welcome to Freestyle Theology. I'm your host, Brad Melle. I'm here with some guests today. This is John Simon and Thomas Duell.
Hello, hello. What up? My calls from Tucson, Arizona, a couple of all kinds of things, tri -vocational pastors, missionaries, missional people,
church history buffs, and yeah. yeah. - Yeah, there we go. I love that, 'cause now we're, now people are like, I don't even know what I'm listening to anymore. Yeah,
this is all over the place. - You're gonna leave that in. - Yeah, I think we might. Yeah, but no, it's always a pleasure to have you, Brad. Brad's visiting us from Hamilton,
Ontario, 40 minutes away from Toronto. And, yeah, it's always a pleasure to have you. yeah, why don't you give us, I mean we've been talking a little bit before, but why don't you share just a little bit about some of the stuff you and your waif are up to these days?
Oh boy. Well, let me see. So I am a, you know, a trained academic. I'm a church historian, but my focus is actually on colonialism and Christianity in that era as well.
So I'm going to share a little bit about that. indigenous people. But I love the whole gamut. I like exploring Christian communities across time and space, getting to know their world and seeing kind of what they made of the gospel.
So, I release a lot of videos. I love exploring Christian diversity. So, you can catch me online on Instagram at Freestyle Theology. if you want to just learn all kinds of stuff about different eras of church history.
So I do that, I teach, and then my wife, Brielle, she is the most gifted person I know. You know, she has started out her journey,
sorry, she started out her journey as a musician and has started to transition into some pretty cool sound healing Experiences,
yeah, so it's like taking music in a very different direction So we have a bit of a weird life a couple of daughters do some homeschooling. I do most of that Yeah,
just both of us trying to live life out loud. That's so cool. Yeah. Yeah, I love that. It's a cool life stage Yeah, you know, I'm down with that Yeah. Yeah Yeah, do you guys say ten toes down in Canada?
Who? No. Oh, okay. It's eight kilometers down Ten twelve kilometers ten toes down. Yeah. Yeah, I don't know if Am I culturally appropriating when I say ten toes down?
No, what culture would you be appropriating? I don't know. I've heard it in rap songs, so I was concerned Ten toes down. Yeah, no, it just means like you're like you're very committed very committed to I'm ten toes down in the Tucson game I love that.
Mm -hmm So you got your ten toes. Yeah. Yeah, you're you're in the ground. Yeah. Yeah, cool Yeah, literally means being committed to something and it has its own I think I think she hustles the first person I sit I heard say yeah,
so I was you know Just didn't know that dude was a culture. Yeah Yeah. Yeah, that's us, basically. What you're summing up is 10 toes down, that's us.
Yeah. Solid. Okay. Well, so we've got a couple of episodes that we're going to record with you. Brad, if that's okay. If we have time. If we have time.
Yeah. I know. I know. But the funny thing is, we heavily teased this topic when we were still talking about Celtic...
Christianity like a year ago because we were so excited, both Thomas and I, about kind of unfolding some of the history of the very,
very controversial North American indigenous boarding schools. And a lot of this was topical because I think it was around a year ago that the news reports had kind of found what was it like.
like, all these remains of native indigenous people under and around these boarding schools in Canada. So it was a very,
very pressing conversation a year ago. I mean, I don't think it's any less relevant today, but that's kind of what we're gonna crack today with Brad. Brad, we're gonna talk about that.
Yeah, that was with the, I think it's called Ground Penetrating Radar. Oh, interesting. They started to use, because there's so much, there's so much that happened in those schools that was sort of covered up and ignored because it was very shameful.
Sure. Just from A, from the very fact that they just really didn't work. They failed to accomplish the goal they had. So, people didn't even really know about all the horrors that were happening there.
So yeah, there's lots of bodies of children. It's not just, you know, because there's this debate in Canada. This thing, we always get stuck in.
Is this a cultural genocide or a real genocide? And every time that conversation comes up, I'm just like, this is a strange conversation. I know it's important to define things,
especially genocide. I get that, but cultural genocide. really was just a way of being like, we're going to eliminate the people as they are and kind of re -engineer them into something else.
And there's a lot of actual bodies along the way when you try to do that. - So I'm trying to remember exactly when some of those really mainstream headlines hit. Is this something, this is something you had or do you have been studying for a long time already?
and then it was like some of the more graphic findings came out, and it was already a field you were working in. Since the, in the early 1990s,
indigenous communities started filing full -on lawsuits against the federal government and against... In Canada? Yeah. Okay. Against historic churches.
Okay. Lawsuits against the Anglican community. church, against the Catholic church, united Presbyterian, because everyone was sort of involved in it. And that was the first time that Canadians really,
and by Canadians, I mean like, middle class Canadians living in cities really were exposed to some of those stories. Yeah. And then in,
so that conversation was building and building. And then in 2008, they initiated the Truth and Reconciliation Commission modeled after South Africa's TRC,
have you ever heard of that? It was basically the TRC in South Africa, sorry, was kind of one of Desmond Tutus. sort of,
he was a big name behind that. And it was, "What, how are we going to deal with the legacy of apartheid?" So what they did was they set up a space where people could come and share their stories of abuse in South Africa freely and openly and just for the whole nation to see,
the whole world to hear, really. It was their form of, "We got to be, you have to have truth." You got to say what happened and acknowledge it if you want any hope of some kind of better future together.
And so Canada modeled its own after that. So that was from 2008 to 15. It was this cross country tour where indigenous people locally could come and share their stories or the stories of their parents and grandparents.
And yeah, in 2015, they released this, what was it called? These calls to action that, in theory, Canada and the various churches are supposed to be working on pursuing.
So it is a conversation up in Canada that's kind of everywhere. I was studying it kind of from a different perspective.
I was studying it as an episode in church history, residential schools, and I was trying to figure out, you know, the obvious question,
like, how can something so heinous come from be a ministry of various churches? So this is something I remember a year ago talking with you a little bit about and just What were – yeah,
what did you encounter? What made you want to continue to pursue that? Yeah, here's what happened. At some point when I was in my kind of mid -20s,
early 20s, I – my eyes were open to how diverse Christianity was, and I kind of got the bug. I wanted to – So it was like 30 years ago? Yeah.
Okay. I can do math, but I won't do it because I don't want you guys to know the answer. Yeah. Okay. Okay. What year did you graduate? High school, Brad.
I graduated... What year did you graduate? Ninth. Ninth. I graduated in '04. Okay. Oh, that's not even... Yeah, that's when my grandma graduated.
Yeah. You know all about 2004. That's right. From granny stories. About nine years before me, so I'm the youngest in the room. Okay. I graduated in 2013.
I was 10. I was 20. That's when I graduated. So I was a little ahead of you. A little bit. Poquito. Yeah, so. That means a little bit. Sorry. Okay. I'd bust out Spanish a little bit with out of towners.
I know Spanish. Oh, sorry. Sorry. Who else you under? Yeah, so I'm studying and I'm just getting the bug and being like, wow, what was Christianity like?
in Egypt in the fourth century? What was it like in West Africa?" It was a very naive time for me. I was excited to discover this multicultural mosaic that is the church.
So I started studying African Christianity in the colonial period and that was a grimmer tale than I had expected. And then I moved to study,
I was like, "Okay, you know what? I'm going to study Indigenous Christianity. I'm going to find some of the stories of North America and what these people with their very different stories and languages made of the gospel." And I naively was excited about that and discovered it was just like a wasteland,
a wasteland of... Christianity, of incarnational Christianity. And I was like, "Where is it? What happened? Why is it so..." And then I asked that question,
"Why do places like Africa, the continent, why is there such a surge in Christian practice there?" And there doesn't seem to be that same thing here. And I had my inclinations,
but that's what kind of drove me. And I realized that I need to discover how this could ever have happened. How in the name,
because people talk about right now, they want to talk about like, how could people do this in the name of Christ? You know, they talk about the crusades or something like that. But this one was like children. And so I was like,
this needs to be dug into and it's dissected. It's different parts. So yeah, I came to residential schools. You guys call them boarding schools by way of church history,
which was sort of strange. That's not your typical route. Stan: Yeah. Stan: Most people, it's through studying Canadian or American colonial patterns or something.
So, just to maybe try to figure out the landscape here. here for our listeners that are like me and have a limited knowledge,
so I'm learning a lot even while we record this. But I know that these schools are not exclusive to, like in Phoenix down the road from us,
we have Indian School Road, right? Yeah, it's like one of the main roads in Phoenix. But is this? this, were you studying the schools in Canada because that's where you lived or is that where it was,
was it more pronounced there or prolific, maybe a better word? Not really. Not more prolific. I think it might be because Canada and Canada's relation in like the Northwest,
the reason I was studying it is because I was studying Northwestern indigenous history. So but yeah, Canada's history there is long with the fur trade and the fur trade was very different than what come the colonial era that comes later because the fur trade was a space where it was indigenous meets European culture.
fusions taking place over centuries. So you have the growth of the Métis people, which just means mixed in French, which is the same word as mestizo in Mexico.
So you have a mixed population growing up in Northern Canada, which was kind of half French, half indigenous. Oh, that's really interesting. Yeah. Okay. Because mestizos or...
half -Spanish, half -indigenous. Which, yeah, that's a term we are more familiar with down in the south -west. And so, you know, America and Canada's settler populations,
like the, you know, white European settlers who came to farm and stuff like that, they were very against any kind of interracial or intercultural mixing.
But the French weren't as much... They wanted to access for trade sources because the furs in the north were so prolific. So,
marrying into indigenous families was how you did that. So, it formed a new people. So, I just wonder if maybe because of that Métis culture,
then Canada is such a hard shift when it wants to escape. its sovereignty over the north, and the fur trade kind of goes down the tubes because it just wasn't what it used to be.
And then, this is what happens in both countries, because the timelines parallel each other and they're actually quite close. So,
I'll make a long story short. in 1867, Canada, which is basically four British colonies decide we're going to bind together and become a country,
will be semi -independent and the Great Britain was like, "Yeah, you can have your own legislature, like your own, what do you guys call it, Congress, you know?" But we still have,
the Empire still has to ascent to your... the legislation you pass. And so Canada's like, okay, that's 1867. Three years later, this enormous territory,
this is the largest land transfer in human history. It's called Rupert's land. And it's basically the bulk of when you look at a map of Canada,
that's what Rupert's land is. It's, it's ignored. the north and west. And that was technically under the jurisdiction of the Hudson's Bay Company.
Have you heard of the Hudson's Bay Company? It does sound familiar, but I don't know anything about it. They were a corporation, a lot like the East India Company. This corporation that was given a monopoly early on in the mid 1600s over the fur trade.
trade and they kind of had, so the Hudson Bay Company was the de facto, from the British perspective, rulers of the North. Now, indigenous people living in the North didn't know that because they didn't have any real power.
It was more of an idea that we're in power over this gigantic territory. Not really. It was just a bunch of posts. It was a, they're a company.
company, a corporation. Yeah. A lot of these indigenous people were just kind of going about their business as they always have been, right? Always had been, and they engaged at the trading posts.
There was goods they wanted, and they had the furs. It was quite a lively Northwestern scene. Sure. Sure. This is a dumb question, but we're talking Northwestern Canada.
Yes. What province would that be? today? Stan: So, that would be the northern part of Manitoba, Saskatchewan,
and Alberta, and British Columbia, and the Northwest Territories, and part of the Yukon. Marshall: Wow. Wow, okay. So - Marshall: That is a lot of land. Stan: Sounds pretty big. So, Hudson Bay Company is like,
"We're in charge here," and people don't really know that. But in 1870, their monopoly expires. and Britain asks this new Canada,
the country of Canada, if it wants to purchase the rights to Rupert's land. Because at this point, the far north has nothing to do with Canada.
Canada is this tiny little thing in the far south, right? And so they purchase it for $300 ,000. What they really are,
they're just buying an idea. But the moment after they have that, they're like, it's time we need to assert our sovereignty over the Northwest.
And they're especially, they have a fire under them because the US is expanding West at the same time. So they're like, if we want any chance in the world to be sovereign and control this huge territory.
territory, we got to act quick or the US is going to come because they're on our heels. Oh, I see. So there's a little bit of competition here of like, you know, the US is getting really good expanding their territory.
We don't want them peaking into our yard. Right. Yeah. Okay. So then it's cut to the US, it's the 1870s, and you guys are in like this brutal battle with the Lakota.
Lakota for the planes. And the Lakota were like notoriously difficult to for the U .S. military to conquer. They are masters of the planes, masters of the horse.
And they just are the they are the things stopping the U .S. from realizing its manifest destiny to control the whole continent. And, you know,
through intense brutality of eventually they are defeated and that marks the end of the "Indian War" era. And the US and Canada are both keen to assert their sovereignty over their new Western territories.
But it also means that what happens with the indigenous people left there? Like what do we do with these people? Before they were like, in the US they were like our enemies. our adversaries in war in Canada.
They were our fur trading partners They don't There's various indigenous groups and nations. I know I'm speaking broadly But the fact is they didn't fit they had no place in The vision that can't in Canada nor the u .s.
Had of its society hmm, so they call it the Indian problem. What do we do with these people? Now there was this growing belief,
like a myth being told often called the vanishing Indian and it was this sense that indigenous people are inevitably vanishing from the continent.
They have been overtaken by a superior race. and they have been their places to fade into the past Some people spoke about it in these very like poetic dramatic tones as if it was like a eulogy Hmm other people were that was the length so it actually was like a You said superior race.
There was a oh, yeah a race element by that time. Yes. Okay race was full There's lots of Canadians now moving west to go possess these new territories?
- They hadn't really started to yet. No, not really, that's a little bit later. But again, around the same time as you guys,
it's like the US and Canada thought we have to pacify these areas first before we can support settlement. And so, you have a little bit more to come. these indigenous people and you're asking like what do we do?
now I have to like back up the story a little bit because After the great the second -grade awakening, you know the different the revival that one's the one in the 1820s and 30s Now that inspires Mission Cross -cultural mission,
right all around the world world. Those revivals see the launch of the Protestant missionary century of the 1800s. You know, some people are off to the South Pacific.
Some people are off to Africa. Mostly China, that's their big fish that missionaries are... That's the big prize everyone's after, India. And some people look to the indigenous places.
in America and Canada. So, this is about the 1840s and '50s. Missionaries begin moving out into the West.
I'll just call it the West, and it applies to both Canada and the States. This is a relatively ignorant take, but here in the Western United States and Southwestern,
it seems like... like the missionary movements to indigenous people were tended to be Catholic movements that weren't, I haven't heard stories of a lot of like revival,
like second grade awakening movement towards indigenous people in America. It seems like it's more likely to Catholics. Part of that's because of like the ties with with Mexico and outposts that were already here and that sort of thing.
But is there any sort of Catholic movement in Canada? Oh yeah. I would say it's, if I had to roughly break it up, it's probably a good 60 % Catholic missions and 40 % split between Protestants.
Yeah. And that's a different story. Why is there a right, an revival in Catholic missions? That's just its own history, but there is at that same time. Because the Catholic Church was the missionaries par excellence in the 16 and 1700s.
But by the 1800s, their influence had dwindled and the Protestants kind of jumped in. But yeah, a lot is Catholic in Canada and down here,
too. just not only. So this is the 1840s, '50s, and they're thinking, "Hey, you know, we want these native people to convert to Christianity," right?
That's the kind of evangelical impulse, we want to save souls. But this is the thing. At that time, what What it meant, that's why I said at the beginning or wait that was when we were just talking.
Yeah When it's like a European missionary at that time or a Euro Canadian or Euro American When they thought what does it mean to be a Christian that had a very specific a very specific set of images would have emerged In the Middle Ages Ages,
the Western European Christian looked at the world and they sought mainly in two Christians and Muslims. That's how they understood who they were.
By the time of the early modern era, by the time of the modern era, that had shifted. And the major way, the major division that Europeans made for understanding the world was...
into civilized and savage. That was the primary way they sorted the world. Those words weren't like well -defined.
They were just a set of like practices and structures and ideas and stories. Even, yeah, I've done some reading where it seems like dependent on who's saying it,
the word carries more or less like negative thrusts. Like we recently did an episode on David Brainerd, and Brainerd uses that word to describe the people that he's ministering to,
but Brainerd from everything that I've done doesn't seem to be overrun with any sort of like manifest to me. vision. I mean, that wasn't that wasn't around yet for Brainerd,
but like that's just the word in the vocabulary that he used. And he's when was he again, 1770 early 1700s. Yeah. Yeah.
And so the word civilized or civilization, you know, like every word has a history. Yeah. Yeah. And it, I mean,
the word really. is the reason that people are reaching back in time for that word. Sorry, they're reaching back in time. That's a word from the Greco -Roman world, civilized and barbarian.
Right. That was how the Greeks divided up the world. Yeah, yeah, that's a good point. And so it's part of the like enlightenment and the renaissance, the rediscovery of classical sources that gives people a new.
new renewed sense that, hey, we're the civilized ones. So, to be civilized meant, A, it meant like the type of clothes you wore,
B, it meant the type of haircuts you had, the languages you spoke, the authors you read, like the great classical Greek and Roman philosophers,
that was part of being... So it wasn't. to be a civilization was to be a certain type. No. Yes. Yes. To be civilized and to be civilized under your under the your Eurocentric like ideal of what civilization was because others had civilizations with customs language religion all that they just weren't European.
Right. So the word could function as like, you know, Islamic civilization, Chinese civilization. But when a European's using it as like a thing to aspire to,
they're applying it to like what they call savages, those without civilization. And there it has like a set of, it has a set of mutating but specific meanings that have to do with every aspect of life.
It's actually a very, a total, it's almost its own full worldview. Interesting. Civilized, the civilized ideal. And so what emerges in the modern era is you have a bit of a mutation of Christendom's mission,
which is to spread. Christian territory and law across Europe and then the world, right? In the early... Under the Enlightenment's influence, it kind of morphs into a shadow version of that,
which is the civilizing mission, or also called the white man's burden. And that really marks the 19th century, the mid to late 19th century,
that the white man has a burden to uplift the rest of the world from savagery to civilization. And so it's an era of extreme racism and prejudice and just gross,
gross ways of looking at other human beings. And then it gets mixed with like a social Darwinism, which kind of looks at this up of people through an sort of a pseudo evolutionary perspective.
Yeah, the bummer is like when I when I think of someone like David Livingston, the missionary to like what would become Rhodesia,
what's now Zambian Zimbabwe, he had a very high view of civilization too, and he wanted to help African tribes establish healthy trade routes and form relationships with one another.
And he wanted to lift the burden of slavery from the people like he had. He had a lot of good ideas of what civilization was in addition to Christianity.
But then of course the people who would succeed him in those regions kind of put the heel on the back of the natives. So it's like, I can understand how seeing how Christianity is meant to bring,
you know, a very loaded word civilization can be a good thing, but I can also see how it can become a very distorted thing. Right. Because people don't seem to...
to do very well when one sets, when one group sets itself up as superior to another. It's like they just, people can't,
they don't seem to be able to handle that kind of untruth and integrate it well and it becomes violent at some level. Yeah. This is so tightly bound with what I understand about like the Enlightenment problem.
which is to take these these modern principles and try to go global with them. We've talked,
we haven't talked a lot about this on our pod because it's more modern history but like we still see vestiges of this today like a lot of the Enlightenment ideals have been thoroughly challenged by by postmodernism now,
but the one that everybody still likes is global, like consumerism and like, and what you get from that. So if you're,
if you're listening and trying to get into the mindset of like, what would this be like to, to just adopt this into your cultural practice, your own individual understanding,
like we still have have this mindset today. It's just taken on a form that is what's currently palatable for us. Mm -hmm.
Yeah. And so what was currently palatable in the mid -1800s was a different set. Even though it's related, it's linked in spirit somehow from the Enlightenment.
Enlightenment, even before the Enlightenment, this sense of mission. So when a missionary looked at an Indigenous person in the mid -1800s in,
let's say, Northern Canada, they saw savage. They saw a person whose culture and history and traditions were what words like "primitive" and inferior and barbaric.
All those words would come to mind. That doesn't mean that they hated the people. They often didn't, but they had a very specific idea of like what it would mean for them to become Christian.
Right. Because Christianity was seen as that was one of the key dimensions of civilization. civilization. You adopt Christianity. And what does that look like?
That is, it's the opposite of an incarnational view. To be Christian looks like sounds like is like us. That's what it means, right?
And so one of the in, across like, this is the Victorian era, right? Yeah. And in England, evangelicals, evangelicals especially are very involved in legislative reform.
Like Wilberforce kind of is the guy who starts that. He's like, yeah, he doesn't start it, but he's sort of the symbol of evangelicals using the government to pass reform,
social reform, make the country better. Sure. Right. Abolition of slavery, and then you have, like, the We're cleaning up the ugly parts of society all the stuff that Charles Dickens railed against.
Yeah, Wilbur force is like actually Dickens was after but But still that's the that's the ethos, right? Yeah We can we have we can solve these problems almost what we might call systemically Which I'll say Because I'm a Wilbur force fan one thing that I appreciate about Wilbur force That I think is different than what I see even today,
like in today's kind of social reform projects that go the legislation route, is they were interested in the Clapham Saints,
Wilberforce's group. Their social reform was more than just trying to legislate. They weren't trying to just... fix morality through legislation.
- Impose it on the country. - Yeah, they actually wanted to change, like that's why it worked for them with the abolition of the slave trade was because they were revealing to people what was actually going on.
They were showing people like, this is what is going on in these ships, and this is where your sugar comes from, and that's what actually brought about change. - It's like a truth.
- A truth. a truth and reconciliation thing almost. Yeah. Like look it in the face. Don't look away. Yeah. Yeah. So, you know, the major problem seen through that lens that this kind of arose in the Victorian era was in the problem is people are uncivilized.
Why are they uncivilized? Because they are ignorant. How do you fix ignorance? through education? And in the Victorian... The very enlightenment way of going about it,
yeah. The Victorian era education becomes what's called a panacea, a cure -all for everything. And that's what you have to see when a missionary with rooted in that world,
those stories and images, goes into Northern... Northern Canada or Southwestern US, encounters indigenous people who are obviously living,
things are tough. And there's some reasons for that too. The main one being that in the wars that the US was engaged in with the Lakota and other groups.
The US military systematically slaughtered all the bison. bison. They killed every bison they could. There's this haunting horrible picture of just search mountain of bison skulls and you'll see what they did.
That sounds like a death metal album. It looks like a death metal album cover, but it's a real picture. And that is from, um, yeah,
check it out. out. - Holy moly, oh my gosh. That is incredible. - Wow.
- Whoa. - So part of the way the US decides we're gonna actually beat the Lakota once and for all. Like I said, you put enough power into it, you can do it. - Were they trying to kill their food supply?
- Yeah. - Was that really what it was? - I have a friend that, actually, if you bring up the bison, like he'll actually like start crying a little bit. Like he gets really upset about this story,
like he's, yeah. That's so, let's undermine, if we, because the bison was to planes and western indigenous people, kind of like, wheat,
yeah, would be just absolutely fundamental to. Absolutely fundamental. So, the reason that indigenous people are so impoverished by the 1870s and '80s in such a bad way is because of that.
As long as they had the bison, they could do anything, you know? I can't believe I've never seen this picture. Yeah. So, that's - I'm really just saying that to say missionaries arrive,
indigenous people Yeah. things are rough, they, indigenous communities are actually like, look, we need some help, we need to learn kind of your language,
we need to learn how to read and write, we're getting screwed over in treaties, we need to learn how to read and write, and so the answer seems to be for the different missionaries,
we could make schools. Yeah. initially these schools were in the community like a Missionary would be given permission by the community to build one or do some education and the parents would Be able to have their say like yes,
you can You can teach my kid or know you can't sure they had no hard what's called hard power. Yeah missionaries He had no hard power. They had to opt in.
Yeah. But that's what I was trying to say at the beginning, where when Canada and the US, when their goal shifts and it's, we need to pacify and extend our sovereignty over these territories,
now you have the state. You have the state coming in with its money and its power. And they say, you know what? churches, these missions are already doing the education thing.
What if we fund them and we take this to the next level? We can't have the school in the community because this is what keeps happening.
They're still spending time with their families and learning their traditions and their old stories and they're... keep speaking their old language. They're not coming civilized.
So what we need to do is build huge schools modeled after factories far away. And this will sound so ridiculously heinous,
but it's just the straight up truth. It's like, and instead the kid will spend their entire childhood in the school. That's why they're called Residential or boarding schools.
- Oh, 'cause the kids lived there. Holy smokes. - And the idea was, you know, from about the age of six to 16, this was the quote, "The school is now your mother." Doesn't that just sound like something from-- - I hate that.
- Ugh, gross. - Doesn't that sound like something from a, like, you dystopian-- - This is so fascinating because you've got these very distinct cultural-- themes kind of overlapping to make this like three -headed monster because you've got the European global view of the world which is like you said the whole civilized versus uncivilized which I mean like to be maybe not generous but at the very least considerate like our
view of the world at large is very privileged because of the world of information that we have. And you know, the US really does pride itself in this melting pot model,
however much it's failed, like diversity is seen as a value and not in other places. So it's not at all like strange that they would see the world in terms of civilized and uncivilized.
Then you've got this enlightenment drive telling people that the way to be prepared for the world is education. So now it's like,
okay, well, you need to be three things. You need to be civilized. You need to be a Christian. You need to be educated. And you've got these native people who are none of these things. So how do we,
how do we, like, and it's it's easy, I think, from our time period? to say, oh, well, this was indoctrination. But it's like, but you also have to think, this is what they thought was the best thing they could do.
I don't think, I mean, it's like, this is where it gets so tricky trying to like, speak so in such a backwards time period,
is 'cause you could say, well, it was racist. Well, of course it was racist. Was it hate? Well, I don't know. Like it was good, it was well intended, but it was founded on like extremely prejudiced,
like kind of white supremacist ideals. But to just say these were a bunch of mustache twirling villains, I think really undermines the cultural foundations here.
I don't know, that was a lot. I just had to, yeah. No, I appreciate that. What I think is, I don't... Why the schools went so awry is we have to ask the question,
like, how do people work? How does abuse work? Why does abuse happen sometimes and sometimes it doesn't? So,
these schools develop in a way that you have... these kids who are, for all intents and purposes, they are kidnapped by the state, because a lot of people...
So, it is cease being a opt -in kind of thing and more like... Okay. Because, okay, you're in an indigenous community,
you're in a desperate spot, you start cutting deals with the US or Canada who wants your land officially officially to be theirs, like without any worry of like resistance.
And so they come up with treaties, which are like, we'll provide you with rations, we'll provide medical stuff or farming instructors or whatever.
But one of the catches is if you want any of that stuff, you send your kids to these schools. Right. Now people still... they're desperate. They still resist when the RCMP officer or whatever military person here would come to town to take the kids away.
They still resist. They try to hide them, but at some point, it becomes futile and the kids get rounded up and taken. Again, and that desperation was largely imposed on them because of all the the native or the the Europeans had done to basically decimate their resources.
Exactly. Because you got to that question doesn't come up enough. Well, why the Lakota resisted for so long. What changed? Why? Yeah. It's usually when something a move like that is pulled,
you know, yeah. So the kids are taken away. And then this is the so this is the scenario. you have you have Now it's funded by the state and the state usually where things go wrong.
The state is interested in You know cutting costs doing this as cheaply as possible and as quickly as possible And then you have to step back for a second.
What kind of education did they? want to give these kids What role did they imagine that they would be playing in the order to come? - I've got a question here that I'm curious about.
It seems like a lot of history in North America is like, whether we're talking about the origin of the United States,
I don't know as much about the origin of Canada, but like the origin of the United States, or various missionary movements it seems like at the onset there's honest there's Christian involvement is often very earnest like there's a there's an earnestness to it so like you're talking about these missionaries that kind of started these proto schools and that sounds like their their motives were earnest at least and then the
state gets involved things start going awry awry. What's the - The change? Well, it sounds like Christians are going to stay involved, but are they the same people that were trying to do what they saw as a good work at first and then they are just overtaken by this larger project?
Or is it different people? It is, you know. Because I'm always trying to when we're talking about. American well any any part of church history,
I'm always interested in like where's the remnant, you know, like where are the people that are resisting the cultural The cultural tide and more importantly,
how did they do it? How did they recognize it? And so is that is this gonna be a sad story where like there is no Resistance to that and it's just a hundred percent capitulation,
or is there stories of people who saw what the state involvement was going to do and at a minimum just backed out? There's not a lot of stories of the white Christian at that time who had any involvement in the schools standing up to it,
no. Well, you see... it initiates a movement of indigenous rebirth and mobilization,
which defines a lot of the 20th century. And that sees indigenous people, this is what my dissertation is actually in, like, what did they make of the Christian faith after everything that had happened?
How are they interpreting it? Because in a lot of ways, it's similar, a similar experience just on a smaller scale to the Holocaust. It's similar. It's just not as, it's not as graphic and rapid,
you know? So yeah, I don't have very many stories of that. It's, it's a more indigenous Christian resistance. Yes. Okay. And that is just,
it's a gradual thing. that develops. So we've kind of set the table for these schools becoming kind of imposed on these tribes and these families.
What does the abuse of these schools look like? Like I know that this is probably, I mean this is 100 % where the idea of kill the Indians, save the man comes from.
For someone trying to wrap their mind. mind around just how bad these schools were, what does that look like? Stan: Yeah, that is the quote about the schools, that's what - yeah,
right. Well, I was gonna say that you have a bunch of young kids stolen away from their parents. In Australia,
the same thing happened, they call them the stolen generation, ripped away from their parents. communities. One of the reasons for doing that was to sever their ties with the land because then they would be willing to turn it over to the state without any emotional connection because indigenous people in the land have a,
there's an intimacy there. But yeah, the education was designed to make them workers, second -class laborers. That's what they were learning. Mm -hmm.
They weren't learning Plato and Aristotle and they were learning how to be a grunt on a farm or in a factory. So this is what I said about how abuse works.
When you set up a situation that the power differential is so radically different where you have a couple of people who are probably probably don't really want to be here living in the far north And you kind of invest them the state gives them the power to do kind of whatever they want Mm -hmm,
and they're taking care of a ton of children who You know a don't speak the language are terrified You know the trauma of just being taken away is enough to live with a kid for the rest of their life and in that kind of of context,
it's like soaking up, what's it called, a paper towel and throwing it in a dark, humid corner and not expecting like mold to grow.
You are asking for abuse to happen. The moment if a priest or one of the missionaries loses their temper and they start, they take that rage out on a kid or a priest.
mean the sexual abuse at these places was just off the charts. It's like nothing you would ever believe. And I think that that grows up because there's no accountability,
there's no there you are just off in the middle of nowhere with like these pawns at your disposal, you know. People do not, they cannot flourish in that kind of environment.
Yeah. Not taking them off the hook. for doing it. I'm just saying you're asking for the impossible. You're asking for no abuse to take place in a place that's just primed for it.
And the shameful thing is, like you were just saying, like, you know, all the talk about how this is a very enlightenment driven thing, but we weren't even properly trying to educate.
We weren't we weren't trying to give them a rich western philosophical worldview. worldview. We were trying to train them up to be, you know, like you said, hands.
This isn't a classical Christian education. Right, right. They're just, and I'm sure there is a level of, you know, Christian doctrine being implemented here, right? You know,
like if you, if you Google, I know that we're doing a lot of image searching, so hopefully you're not a driving listener, but if you Google, if you're not familiar with this, because it's... it's it's a picture it really does tell a thousand words If you Google the the phrase kill the Indian save the man You'll see a very very famous side -by -side photo of a Probably like a young young a young man native American
with very long hair dressed in his traditional Native garments and then the kind of after photo is him with like a very short kind of traditional European haircut in like a suit and A dress shirt and that's kind of that's kind of what they were doing,
right? Like it almost seems like the cultural deletion was more important than giving them something New that's exactly it. I'm kind of floored.
I'm looking I'm looking at that right now And you can tell that even the the exposure on the photographer photography was changed yeah to make the second picture way wider because his skin is so much lighter yeah yeah it's the only way you could have done that is just by using a higher uh wider aperture when you're taking the photo to just wash out the image that's crazy that itself it tells you a lot yeah about I
think you know when so, geez, there's so many thoughts running through my head right now. I think of the,
you know, I've got a sister with an intellectual disability and the history of the mentally disabled in our country is weirdly similar to the treatment of Native Americans because,
because. was this view that they were subhuman, because they could not contribute to the consumerist grind like the rest of us could,
and it was very common to be institutionalized. The thing is, you don't expect to treat someone well when the culture fundamentally does not.
believe that they are a full thriving human being. And yeah, it sounds like what you're saying. And I think not beyond what you're saying, what history shows us is that even the best of intentions.
And I mean, Thomas, you're talking about the remnant, like I have no doubt that like the remnant was there. I think they were probably Christians who were there. But what what kills me and I think what can just destroy us and our faith and the way that our faith expresses itself on the world is,
like, when you fundamentally see someone as subhuman in some way, like, it's going to cripple your intentions. It's going to drive you towards abuse.
It's going to be rooted in all types of prejudice and... And it's just, it's hard to break that. Like it's really, really hard to break that. - That's the story of chattel slavery.
- Yeah. - In America too. You know, just like when you make a certain series of assumptions over a long enough period of time. - To become doctrines of, yeah, what the status of someone is in the eyes of God and man then kind of opens the door for all sorts of insanity.
- Well dude, I'm even thinking of like, I know, know, you know, again, like group homes. I know of people who have lived in group homes where you've got a couple parents who have half a dozen foster kids coming in and out of their household all the time.
These foster kids have, you know, I've been living well below the poverty line, family, probably substance users, all that stuff. Like, in the community. people who own these group homes are just collecting checks,
and because these kids belong to the dregs of society in their minds, they are subject to all types of abuse and mistreatment.
And so this is still this ongoing thing of it doesn't matter if the system is supposed to work, if there's no accountability, and this is why in my church and in churches in general.
I'm a huge advocate of having as many measures to prevent abuse as possible because it's like it doesn't matter it doesn't matter how many Christians you can get around or what how good your intentions are like certain people and certain vulnerable positions are always going to be just that vulnerable.
That's a good word and there's small little change you can make to reduce the potential of that by a ton, you know? And I think sometimes we expect too much just to be like,
"We're going to be good. We're going to use our willpower and tough it out and be good." But our willpower doesn't work well when life crumbles around us. You need to have like,
you need to think ahead, right? Yeah. - Yeah. - And these schools, yes, they're the extreme, but I know people have been in, that's why,
this isn't just a Christian thing in these schools. This is, I guarantee you, this is what's happening in the Uyghur concentration camps in China. They're basing what they do there off of what we did.
And I hate to say this, but it's true. that Hitler said that those that way of doing it was inspiring. He drew from the how he said the way native people are that we that's what we want to do.
Yeah. Isn't that crazy? That's awful. What I wanted to say with what you guys are talking about is it just it really matters what stories we tell ourselves about other people.
people because chattel slavery, indigenous savagery, those are stories. Those words are stories. The word civilization itself is a narrative.
It's compact. It's one of those words that... What's it like when you... It's not a code word. It's just like it means a whole world of things when you say it.
It's like a short... shorthand. That's what I mean. Just like the word covenant is in Scripture. It's a shorthand. There's a whole history just in that word. That's what civilization is like,
so it matters what stories we tell about other people. Something that's coming to mind is just the importance of Christian discipleship and how to prepare people for a missionary encounter with culture.
When we did our Salem Witch Trials episode, it was kind of fun because we told the story and then at the end you and I were like, "So what really happened there?" And it was interesting because our perspective was that there probably was something evil going on in Salem.
There was probably some anything that should be a part of how Christians see the world and learn how to deal with not only just relational problems,
but like spiritual darkness issues. And what ended up happening was the destruction of the human person and justice going out the window.
So I'm kind of thinking about that with like this scenario where I don't disagree with a missionary who would be looking at,
uh, American tribes that worship spirits and see the demonic influence as,
you know, I would call, I think along with James, like anything that departs from the truth is in some fashion demonic, so I'm not always just talking about,
you know, like Hollywood, you know, demonic. But the response to that is really important, like, how do you, you know, engage with cultures that are more or less set up against the one true God and /or don't know about the one true God?
And if you do it wrong, then the church at times in history is in danger of participating in the demonic through the destruction of the human.
person. Right. It also lacked like on the one hand, like I get that and agree in a fundamental way.
I think there was an extreme lack of curiosity about who these people were. And when we say they worship the spirits, it's like you don't know what's going on here,
you know? Yes, there's certain things where there's fruit and you can tell like unhealth is the result of this or destruction of the human person but you know, if People in the ancient Greek not ancient Greek in the Greco -Roman world had treated Greek philosophy like that I just did a video today about Justin Martyr and the old man on this on the beach Right now you guys know that story enough.
Oh really? Yeah, so Justin Martyr he's born in the year 100, 100 in Samaria, which was a Roman province, and he believed in pursuing the true quest of philosophy,
which according to Plato was the end of philosophy was the face of God. That was the goal of it. And Justin Martyr was like, "I'm,
I'm, I'm, I'm, I'm, I'm, I'm, I'm, I'm, I'm, I'm, I'm, 100%. I actually want to pursue the philosophic life." Not a Christian guy, according to the original intention.
Philosophy was originally a religious quest. By his day, it had become a lot more of like a... Kind of like education is now, where it's like people fighting for funding and trying to get recruits and blah,
blah, blah. So he has disillusioned with that. tried the studied under the kind of like Augustine bouncing from thing to thing, studied under the Stoics,
Aristotelians, Pythagoreans, Platonists, found him all wanting in some way. He hadn't experienced his metabole which meant like the awakening to reality.
So he's near the sea and... you know, an old man appears there, a Christian, and the old man engages Justin in Socratic dialogue.
Oh, I have heard this story. Yeah, yeah, yeah. And they talk about the usual Greek things, the nature of the soul, whether the soul is immortal or not, et cetera,
et cetera, and he convinces Justin comes to sea through this old man that philosophy is immortal. is on its own speculative and it can never reach full divine truth.
And he tells him, "If you want to experience it, read the prophets, the Hebrew prophets." He said, "These were true philosophers,
but they relied on revelation from the divine itself." And that just... just that changed his trajectory and he just and it's really cool he was like he's like it seized upon me and I love a flame kindled in my heart for the prophets and the friends of Christ and he then he said it is for this reason that I am a philosopher not that I'm a Christian that I'm a philosopher this is why I got into this.
this. And why I brought that up is that old man engaged with Justin in his indigenous mode, his indigenous process of knowing and coming to God.
And I just, I find that so beautiful. He engaged with them and Justin never gave up his indigenous ways. He kept wearing the cloak of the philosopher till he died,
till he was martyred. And that's what I'm saying. saying, is that that's the peace of Christian discipleship that's missing, oftentimes, in history. That forming that part in people. Right,
where you see someone that God puts in your path, not as a project that you really have any power to change that person at all.
I mean, that's even another part of Christian discipleship, isn't it? understanding of how a person becomes regenerate, how they become gods.
And if that's your presupposition, is it God's going to be the one to work in this person's life anyway? And I'm some sort of tool in God's hands,
maybe, or conduit, however you want to. to look at it, then that really changes how you approach people. Can I also just point out the necessary thing as a couple of covenantal bums,
that there's something absolutely un -Christian about assuming that a child removed from their family is in the best position to be discipled? Oh my gosh.
That's horrible. That's insane. That's the worst place to be discipled. Like. the the the family is like where grace and the that covenantal Relationship is initiating strongest.
Yeah, so so for this like very Pragmatic approach of well, let's just let's just get them while they're most vulnerable and susceptible But also remove from them the natural supports of the ones that God God made to nurture and take care of them And let's give them a bunch of basically like missionary babysitters to watch over like like that whole System is doomed by design right doomed by design and I mean I I can't
imagine there are many people Maybe you're gonna break my heart Brad I can't imagine there's many people who can defend something something like this, but for me, I mean,
one thing that you said a lot during our last episodes, a couple back when we recorded like a year ago, which is you always look at the fruit. You always look at the fruit of what's been produced from something because good things produce good fruit.
Like, when I mean, we live in the Southwest, there's a lot, there's a pretty big native population out here. there's no time when you drive through a res and you're like,
wow, it looks great out here. Like these are communities who throughout our country, who throughout Canada as well, I can imagine are just ridden with poverty and ridden with disease and mental illness and all types of addiction and everything else.
But what kills me even more is, like, like, where is the spiritual health that was supposed to come out of this? Like, we're supposed to be indoctrinating Christians? Where are the Christians?
Like, where are the churches? Like, that's not to say that these things don't exist, but there's not a strong culture of native Christianity that was birthed as a result of this.
I think the reason is because the roots were rotten from the beginning. You're dead on. It was the roots are rotten and the trauma,
because that's the other important thing, and we've learned a lot about that in the 20th and 21st century, and I think that's a really important frontier for the church to grapple with is what we now know about the body and trauma,
because what gets end up in the 70s. 70s and 80s what gets sort of spoken about is it's this kind of neo -savagery where they're like these people,
they're always drunk or on drugs and it's a continuation of like that they're inferior and they don't belong and get them out of our community and push them out and you can understand people feel unsafe.
Yeah, but why? I'm kind of excited actually about a new chapter of engagement between the Christian story and Indigenous peoples.
I have a number of friends here in Tucson that are not only are Indigenous, but they have worked to kind of reclaim as much of their heritage as possible.
I've got one friend that I'm thinking of in particular, Talisa, if you're listening. I love you. But Talisa's not a Christian,
but Talisa and I have great conversations because even this covenantal language that, you know, you brought up, John, and you and I were talking about this last night,
that image that I... borrowed from James Jordan of like the Covenantal cords, you know, and like how our Covenantal bond with God, when that's restored,
that that animates the covenants that we have with every other part of the world around us, you know, the animal kingdom and our personal possessions and our loved ones.
and even like our relationship with the state that's something I didn't bring up last night like that could be another idea of like a a so the image here I guess I should have maybe given the image before I shorthanded it is like from from you there's all these like different colored cords that are going to different things in your life you know your spouse spouse or your truck or your dog or your friend.
And when those things are broken, like someone steals your truck, like the reason why it hurts is because you actually had a covenantal bond with that thing. When your loved one dies,
they're really gone. And there's really something that's been severed there. But the Christian story is that like the most important bond was severed early in human history and it's through that restoration of that covenantal bond with God.
Now all of these other things have the potential for being restored to how they were meant to be, to be reanimated so to speak, kind of like I get the image of like a heart pumping blood through the blood vessels too.
the rest of the body. And from what I understand of kind of my friends who have kind of tried to recover a like a Native American understanding of like the created world around them and the cosmos,
that tracks, you know, like it's not a completely different story. There's there's overlap there, but also good news, which is I know something that you like to talk about on your podcast and with your content is like what facets of the gospel are good news to various cultures.
It was the indigenous peoples of North America were really I'd say socially and emotionally mature.
mature. And when Europeans came here, I think it was the most fertile ground ever for the good news. Like, there was already a deep knowledge of creator,
and it was just like the story had to be told of creator's son. That's what some Native American Christians call Jesus' creator son. And so,
that ends up being the story, at least of the late the late 20th and early 21st century and It's something that I have to say like indigenous people. Yes the project.
It's called the Aboriginal healing movement That's the big kind of name for it. Yeah and communities are seeking to heal heal from alcoholism break. Yeah break addictions become good parents And a lot of that has to deal with with unpacking the rage and the grief that lies deep within.
That has even been passed on from one generation who, like, Kona's kind of devastated and didn't know how to parent and then pass that on, right? So people take healing seriously and cultural reconstruction.
And so I think if you live in a place like I do, and like you guys do, with Kona, with Kona, with Kona, with Kona, with Kona, with where there's a number of indigenous people and communities like support that cultural reconstruction.
Yeah. Because the best, healthiest new gospel encounters have come from people who are working to reconstruct the past, not move on and become like every other American.
Yeah. Yeah. So. Yeah. It's, it's so. We have some. an interesting opportunity right now because colonialism did do so much damage.
And I think that when I think of my experience with colonialism, it's less through the native lens and more through the African American lens 'cause that's my heritage,
my dad's black. And so there is so much that I think, like, I do think. think that the generational trauma reality is very apparent.
And as people who are inheriting this newer and I think truer missionary like paradigm,
we get to engage things in maybe ways that they probably should have been engaged a long time ago, but-- But now there's these newer opportunities for new conversations and I know we joked when we were talking and just kind of catching up earlier about how we often like to end things with something redemptive,
even if it's artificially redemptive, but I do think there is like a really cool kind of silver lining even with this being a really, really heavy topic. So,
and we may like to end things on in a real way, and that's because that's our deepest longing. Yeah. And it's the story that we're living in, is that we don't know what our ending will look like,
but we believe that it will end redemptively. It's a recurring theme in Christian history. We even see it in a microcosm in the first century,
you know, the Christian project. project begins, the New Covenant age, and really quickly the wheels are falling off in multiple areas.
And there's work to be done there to go, "Oh, wow." Either like, "Oh, that didn't work. Let's do it a different way." Or, "That was sin, and we need to change course." Change course completely.
Yeah. Well, thank you, Brad. This was worth the wait as far as topics go, even though it was a little bit of a downer. But I think it was necessary to be a downer for as heavy of a topic as it was.
Yeah, thanks for letting me spout about all that. Walk through the history, I appreciate it. Anytime. Well, let's wrap it up. But, listener, thanks so much for being with us.