2.6: A Most Radical Writer: Thomas Paine, and the stunning victory at Trenton

He arrived in North American in December 1774 with a fever so devastating that he needed to be carried ashore.   This man also carried with him letters of introduction from none other than Dr. Benjamin Franklin, so there must have been something special about this individual.  The succeeding years would bear this out, for once Englishman Thomas Paine picked up his pen, flourishing oratory and dramatic inspiration were the results.  Using the remarkable Battle of Trenton as a framing device, this episode of History: Beyond the Textbook highlights the radical writer Thomas Paine and the efforts he undertook to help lead the United States to victory in the American Revolution.

Key People
Thomas Paine
Benjamin Franklin
John Adams
George Washington

Key Events/Works
Common Sense
The American Crisis
Battle of Trenton

The third season of History: Beyond the Textbook focuses on the stories of individuals who shaped "America's Crucial Years" of 1783-1790, and runs from October 8-December 24. Catch up on Season One, "America's Colonial Era," and Season Two, "America's Revolution," wherever you listen to your podcasts!

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Transcript

The year began with a little Common Sense, and ended with a river crossing that was immortalized in an 1851 painting that can be found in nearly ever textbook that covers early American history.  Not just the year in which the Declaration of Independence was written and signed, 1776 is stereotypically viewed to be one of the most crucial years in American history, and there’s certainly truth to this cliché.  One figure stands out as being directly, or indirectly, involved in nearly every significant event of that pivotal year, and it happened to be an Englishman who arrived in Philadelphia in December 1774 so ill that he spent the next six weeks bedridden and unable to support himself.  Thomas Paine had gone through a number of career changes and philosophical epiphanies before making the Trans-Atlantic voyage, but once he picked up his pen and found what he believed to be his calling, he made all the difference in motivating the American Army and Patriot populace in their fight against England.  On this episode of History: Beyond the Textbook, we look at Common Sense himself: Thomas Paine and the triumph at Trenton.

Act I: Trial before Trenton

The end of 1776 was fast approaching.  General Washington and the Continental Army were in a precarious position: that summer, thousands of Redcoats had descended on New York Harbor and essentially mopped the floor with the American forces.  About the only real success that could be counted among the American side was the evacuation of the Continental forces from the island, which was positive because these men would “live to fight another day.”  However, if leaving the battlefield is the most noteworthy accomplishment of your forces in a particular engagement, chances are that things haven’t gone too well for your side.  General Washington was aghast at the seeming lack of discipline of the men under his command, and external, as well as internal doubts, as to his ability to effectively lead were called into question.  The blinding optimism that opened the year with the publication of Common Sense and strengthened mid-year with the issuing of the Declaration of Independence was fading fast.  With New York City more or less operating as a Loyalist haven for now, and the duration of the war, the Howe brothers, Admiral Richard and General William, could concentrate their efforts on ending the war in such a manner that the Americans would “come to their senses” and realize that their notions of inalienable rights and independence were no match for British guns.  The British plan involved a march into New Jersey en route to Philadelphia, where the Continental Congress was in session.  While in New Jersey, which the Howes were led to believe contained a large Loyalist population, the brothers proclaimed that any American who swore an oath of allegiance to the British crown would receive a pardon, and apparently 3,000 took up this offer within three weeks.  A signer of the Declaration of Independence, Richard Stockton, even swore his oath while imprisoned by the British, although one year later, he changed his mind and swore another oath to the American side.  Even though on December 13, the British had decided that they would hunker down in their winter quarters and commence their offensive in the spring, it stood to reason that if a signer of the document announcing American intentions to sever their political ties to the British swore an oath to that same government, what were the realistic chances of the war effort moving forward?

Act II: Becoming a Paine

In Act I, we mentioned the optimism that a pamphlet called Common Sense brought to Americans, and many can at least identify the author of this radical literature: Thomas Paine.  Paine’s life and legacy have been somewhat diminished by interpretations of his ideology and the discussions that have arisen over his perceived views regarding religion and faith.  Many leaders of the Revolutionary Movement considered themselves to be men of the “Enlightenment,” sometimes called the “Age of Reason,” a term coined by Paine and is often lost in historical interpretations of his influence on American history.  Let’s start by taking a look at how this marginalized Revolutionary figure came to live in North America.

Thomas Paine, initially spelled without an “e” at the end, was born January 29, 1737 to a Quaker father who was a staymaker, meaning he made a specific type of clothing, and a mother whose family was considered to be among the elite in Thetford, England.  Historian Craig Nelson describes the town as “a place sailed by and ridden through on the river or road to somewhere else,” which is hardly a description of a place that would produce an Enlightened theorist.  He attended school at age 6, and the status of his matrilineal line would open up more educational opportunities for him…yet at age 12, he began a 7-year apprenticeship in his father’s craft, something his parents had hoped to avoid.  The Seven Years’ War broke out as his apprenticeship came to an end, and Paine traveled to London where he served as a naval privateer for six months, earning about 30,000 pounds for his efforts.  Entranced by the city, Paine would stay and attend lectures to learn about any and all new developments in what he viewed as a rapidly changing world, and read all he could get his hands on since books were proliferating on a scale never before seen in Europe.  Though his time in London would have a profound affect on his intellectual view of the world moving forward, it also did a number on those privateer earnings, which were depleted by 1758.  The following years saw Paine struggle to find his niche as he became a journeyman staymaker upon leaving London, losing his young wife and infant during childbirth.  He also worked for a time as an Exciseman, or tax collector, a position that was pretty universally despised and gave him common ground with Samuel Adams.  Paine also joined a discussion group called the Headstrong Club at this time and began his political activism with a petition to Parliament called The Case of the Officers of Excise, a request to increase the salaries of these vital, yet maligned, workers.

However, this petition would get him in trouble with the authorities, and the years (PLURAL) that he spent in London advocating for his cause meant that he wasn’t fulfilling his excise duties…so he was fired.  He was now jobless, facing debt for which he could be thrown into prison, and didn’t enjoy many economic prospects.  He did have friends he had cultivated during his time in London, and one of these friends brought him into contact with Dr. Benjamin Franklin.  Shortly following Paine’s fall 1774 meeting with Franklin, he boarded a ship bound for Philadelphia and arrived in December with two things: a fever that forced him to be carried ashore, and a series of letters written by Franklin vouching for this Englishman.  Paine had gone from the crown jewel of the infant British Empire in London to the crown jewel of the American colonies, for Philadelphia was the Continent’s most populous city, enjoyed a high concentration of wealth, and featured a harbor that remained open throughout the winter, so it was a bustling center of commerce and a common port of entry for prospective immigrants.  Paine arrived at a time when Americans were seething following the implementation of the Intolerable Acts, and he dove in to learn all he could about this new place, even mirroring his time in England by eventually joining the American Philosophical Society.  Continuing his newly-revealed literary talents, and assisted by the good word of Franklin, Paine became editor of the new Pennsylvania Magazine, and in months, readership grew along with Paine’s reputation.  He declared that this was what he was meant to do with his life, and used his position to champion specific causes, the most controversial being the immediate emancipation of all slaves (keep in mind that slavery was legal in Pennsylvania, and would remain so until gradual emancipation laws were passed in 1780).  As events would lead America down the road to war, Paine would spend more time attacking English actions via his pamphlets, and less time editing the Pennsylvania Magazine: he had bigger fish to fry.

Act III: A Little Common Sense

Paine spent little time editing the Pennsylvania Magazine because he was busy crafting the political pamphlet for which his name would be forever associated: Common Sense.  Physician Benjamin Rush, with whom Paine would enjoy a great working relationship, would in hindsight claim that he was the one who suggested the title, but this claim is in doubt.  It is clear that Paine spent a large portion of the second half of 1775 composing this essay that was designed to explain the relationship between Great Britain and her American colonies.  It is believed that he developed many of his ideas through hours of conversation with his contemporaries, but many were of his own design, and the literary tone and flourish certainly belonged to him.  The rhetoric of Common Sense was viewed to be so inflammatory that it was rejected by numerous Philadelphia printers, and once it was printed, Paine didn’t even put his name on the first edition, attributing its authorship to “an Englishman.”  What were the contents of this writing that caused such a stir?  Paine stated that an island had no right to rule or govern a continent, anyone in an inherited or appointed position of power owed that power to the people, and that, in his words, “in America, THE LAW IS KING.”  Yet it wasn’t just his message that packed a punch into these 47 pages, but the way he presented his message that was so revolutionary.  Common Sense was written in such a persuasive way that one could not simply remain passive or neutral once absorbing its words.  Whether you read it individually or listened to a reading of it, as often happened with pamphlets during this era, you had to choose a side: sitting on the fence was out of the question.  And Common Sense became an overnight sensation: the first 1,000 copies sold in days, and it would sell between 150-250,000 copies by the end of 1776.  Due to a dispute with his first publisher, Paine found another printer, lowered the price, and donated all profits to the Continental Army so they could afford mittens.  Here was a man of words and actions, a man who was willing to preach Revolutionary ideals and contribute whatever he could to ensure their success.

Common Sense would also lead to an increased amount of reactions from the emerging American elites.  In discussing its merits, General Washington felt that the pamphlet would finally compel the Congress to advocate for separation from Great Britain, while John Adams declared in a letter to Thomas Jefferson, “History is to ascribe the American Revolution to Thomas Paine,” a stunning admission from a man who certainly hoped to assure his place in that history.  There were responses and rebuttals to Paine, but they paled in comparison to the growing cries that his ideas of a new democratic type of government should be implemented.  We learned last episode that John Adams wrote his own pamphlet called Thoughts on Government as a retort to the anti-Declaration faction in Congress; he also wrote it as a response to Common Sense, which he felt went too far in the direction of providing “power to the people.”  Yet it was Common Sense that implored Virginia’s Richard Henry Lee to ask Congress to issue a document declaring, “these United Colonies are, and of a right ought to be, free and independent states.”  A direct line can be drawn from the influence of Common Sense to the drafting of the Declaration of Independence, voted into action on July 4, 1776.  1776 certainly was an incredible year for America, and an Englishman who had been on the Continent for barely one year helped jump start its momentum.

This Englishman would also help end it on a high note, though not without some serious hiccups in between.  Remember, between the Declaration of Independence and Britain’s decision to spend the winter in New Jersey, the fiasco at New York occurred.  Paine was actually part of the Army during this time: he had volunteered his services back in July 1776 and ended up serving as aide-de-camp to General Nathanael Green beginning in September.  Additionally, acting as what would now be called a “war correspondent,” he wrote of the fighting in and around New York and sent these articles off to Philadelphia for publication.  Soldiers and officers respected Paine for his willingness to share in their hardships, admired him for his work in advocating for The Cause, and affectionately referred to him as “Common Sense.”  That fall, Paine also developed a sincere friendship with Washington himself, partially due to Paine’s relentless public support of the latter, but also due to their shared altruistic personality traits.  Paine watched with the General as Fort Washington, on modern-day Manhattan Island, was overwhelmed by British forces, and retreated with the Continental Army to their position due west of the Delaware River, across from Trenton, New Jersey.  At this critical juncture, Paine decided that he needed to write another inspirational pamphlet, one that would lift the spirits of what were by all accounts his countrymen.  In mid-December, Paine walked the 35 miles to Philadelphia to oversee the publication of this piece, knowing full well that he was putting his life in jeopardy by doing so.  Rumors of an impending British invasion had thrown Philadelphians into despair, and amidst the chaos, Paine, in his own words, “sat down, and in what I may call a passion of patriotism, wrote the first number” in a series of essays that would bear the name The American Crisis.  There were to be 13 in total, but the first one is most remembered for its stirring prose and impactful message of hope.

Act IV: On to Victory

The American Crisis begins with these immortal words: “These are the times that try men’s souls.  The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of their country; but he stands it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman.”  And that’s just how it starts.  Paine’s emotional essay sought to inspire a nation that was seemingly teetering on the edge of annihilation and in desperate need of a pick-me-up.  He proposed a light at the end of the metaphorical tunnel by emphasizing the “orderliness” of the retreat from New York and the lack of fear he witnessed in the American camp along the Delaware.  It was reassuring and uplifting all at once, and served as a challenge to Americans to rise to the occasion that was presented to them.  Prior to the Revolution, Philadelphia boasted over 20 printing presses, adding to their reputation as the “capital” of the American colonies, but it took Paine over one week to find someone who was willing to mass produce The American Crisis.  The Pennsylvania Journal published it one week before Christmas, and two Philadelphia printers fired off 18,000 copies as quickly as they could.  Paine set the initial price at two pennies per pamphlet because he wanted as wide of an audience as possible, and he went as far as to inform other printers that they could print and distribute his newest pamphlet to their heart’s content without any worry of compensating Paine.  Copies were subsequently rushed to the Continental Army’s camp where Washington and his officers were planning an incredibly bold move.  Across the river in Trento were about 1,500 Hessians, mercenary soldiers from the German-speaking areas of Frankfurt and Kessel.  Contrary to the perception of mercenaries as mere “soldiers for hire,” these men were true professionals who took extreme pride in their courage and valor under fire: they were not men to be taken lightly.  In anticipation of a river crossing to surprise these forces, Washington ordered that The American Crisis be read aloud to his troops, so the Army gathered in small groups on December 23 to hear the newest words of Thomas Paine.

Did it work?  Well, it had to.  In addition to needing a military victory to boost troop morale, Washington needed one just as much to boost troop numbers: the Continental Army that listened to The American Crisis on December 23 numbered about 5,000, but the end of the year loomed large in terms of expiring enlistment dates.  About 1,500 soldiers had signed contracts to serve in the Army for one year, and that term was up at the end of 1776.  Victory, hopefully sped up by Paine’s oratory, meant that this pamphlet that was rushed into production took on a different kind of tone, one that meant survival as much as independence.  The attack commenced on Christmas night when American troops were to cross the Delaware at four separate points, bringing horses and 400 tons of artillery with them.  To make this crossing in the winter was one thing, but to do so with all of that gear, no artificial lights, essentially rowing blind…the entire crossing took about four hours, with the march to Trenton commencing at about 4 AM.  Heavy snow and sleet had delayed the operation, and this weather persisted as the Americans marched four hours to their destination.  Popular mythology contends that the Hessians were still feeling the effects of partying a bit too hard the night before; this wasn’t the case as the Hessian commander had around-the-clock patrols in the vicinity in the event of an assault on their position.  If anything, perhaps Hessian exhaustion from the heightened state of alert maybe played a role in the battle to come.  At 8 AM, the American artillery rang out, and the Hessian soldiers in Trenton closed ranks to resist.  The end result was the capture of nearly 900 Hessians and their war material, and the loss or injury of 100 more.  The Americans officially had 5-8 killed or wounded, depending on one’s source; one of the wounded was Lieutenant James Monroe, an 18-year old who served at New York, and would become America’s fifth president, with plenty more experiences in-between.  As news of the American victory spread, it almost seemed too good to be true; so good that loyalists refused to believe it, and British officials sought to assign blame for it.  Oddly enough, news of Trenton back in Europe stirred up a debate on the practice of using mercenaries in warfare given the Hessian presence in America.  Ultimately, it, along with victory at Princeton one week later, were the wins needed to uplift the Continental Army and prove to Britain that this war wouldn’t end quickly…and the pen of Thomas Paine made it happen.

Speaking of Thomas Paine, he didn’t physically fight at Trenton or Princeton, so what else does he contribute to the Revolution, and beyond?  Well, besides the work he had already completed, which led to re-enlistments and fresh recruits, Paine wrote American Crisis II in the aftermath of these two battles when Admiral Howe proposed pardons for all Americans in exchange for returning to the colonial status quo with Great Britain.  As you can guess, Paine had little patience for this plan, and this essay would mark the first published usage of “The United States of America.”  Paine was nominated by John Adams to serve as secretary to the Committee of Foreign Affairs, and he found himself embroiled in controversy for his attacks on Silas Deane, a member of the original delegation to France to negotiate an alliance between the two nations.  Deane was accused of corruption and recalled to Philadelphia, prompting the appointment of John Adams as his replacement.  Dean had his detractors, Paine among them, and the whole episode divided the fledgling American government.  He wrote of the event multiple times, even attempting to implicate financier Robert Morris in the corruption.  This time around, his blunt assessment of the situation got him into trouble rather than elevating him as Common Sense and The American Crisis had done.  He also inadvertently revealed America’s alliance with France before it became public knowledge, leading to his dismissal as secretary of the Committee of Foreign Affairs.  Vindication would have to wait until 1867, decades after Paine’s death, when British archives revealed that Deane and his secretary were working as British spies throughout the war.  It meant little in the short term as Paine would never receive an official position within the American government again.  He continued to write for the remainder of the war, and even journeyed back to Europe as secretary to Colonel John Laurens, who requested his assistance in securing annual war loans from the French.  The mission was a success, and shortly thereafter, the Americans were an improbable victory at Yorktown, but Paine would feel ignored in the wake of this victory.  Paine would eventually cross the Atlantic again where he became involved in, of all things, the French Revolution, but Paine’s direct influence on the American Revolution had come to an end.  He published The Last Crisis in 1783 on the eight-year anniversary of Lexington and Concord, and its words form a fitting conclusion to Paine’s contribution to independence, “As the scenes of war are closed, and every man preparing for home and happier times, I therefore take my leave of the subject.  I have more sincerely followed it from the beginning to end, and through all its turns and windings: and whatever country I may hereafter be in, I shall always feel an honest pride at the part I have taken and acted, and a gratitude to nature and providence for putting it in my power to be some use to mankind.”