2.9: Martha Washington, the Oneidas, and the Winter at Valley Forge

 Those present at the winter at Valley Forge in 1777-1778 included a veritable “who’s who” of future American political leadership, such as George Washington, Henry Knox, and Alexander Hamilton.  Prominent names are usually associated with this critical transition period, and rightfully so…but there were women who accompanied the army to this camp, and Indigenous allies also arrived as winter turned into spring to help the Continental Army with their war effort.  These last two categories of individuals are the ones we shall focus on in this episode of History: Beyond the Textbook: Martha Washington, the Oneidas, and the Winter at Valley Forge.

Key People
Martha Washington
Han Yerry
Two Kettles Together
Samuel Kirkland
George Washington
Marquis de Lafayette

Key Events
Valley Forge
Battle of Oriskany
Battle of Barren Hill

The third season of History: Beyond the Textbook focuses on the stories of individuals who shaped "America's Crucial Years" of 1783-1790, and runs from October 8-December 24. Catch up on Season One, "America's Colonial Era," and Season Two, "America's Revolution," wherever you listen to your podcasts!

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Transcript

If the Battle of Saratoga is the stereotypical “turning point” of the American Revolution, then the subsequent winter at Valley Forge can be considered a “turning point 2.0.”  Those present at Valley Forge included a veritable “who’s who” of future American political leadership: George Washington, Henry Knox, Alexander Hamilton, John Marshall, James Monroe…Joseph Plumb Martin, the “common” soldier whom we will explore in episode 2.11, was there.  So was Marquis de Lafayette, and drillmaster Baron von Steuben arrived at this time to help train the army.  Prominent names are usually associated with this critical transition period, and rightfully so…but there were women who accompanied the army to this camp, and Indigenous allies arrived as winter turned into spring to help the Continental Army with their war effort.  These last two categories of individuals are the ones we shall focus on in this episode of History: Beyond the Textbook: Martha Washington, the Oneidas, and the Winter at Valley Forge.

Act I: Mild Winter, Trying Times

“Valley Forge” evokes a place steeped in American mythology, a brutal winter in which the ragged Continental Army struggled to survive.  Yes, survival was a struggle…yes, it was winter, but “brutal” is subjective; if we’re talking temperature, the winter of 1777-1778 was fairly mild.  It’s more the position of Washington and his forces, and the challenges that they overcame, that makes Valley Forge such a sacred place within the framework of the American Revolution.  As always, a bit of context is in order before we explore the episode’s focal figures.  The British Army accomplished what they had set out to do in late 1776, before Trenton and Princeton delayed their efforts: they were in control of Philadelphia, the de facto American capital, beginning in September 1777.  Washington’s attempts to halt Britain’s advances failed at the Battle of Brandywine Creek, although the Americans could take solace in their victory at Saratoga.  The two sides would settle into their winter quarters: the British comfortable in Philadelphia, which they would control for 8 months, and the Americans at Valley Forge, 20 miles from Philadelphia in southeast Pennsylvania.  A fertile region, the 2,000 acres produced an abundance of wheat and livestock, and was one of the main suppliers of sustenance to Philadelphia.  Unfortunately, the farmers of the region often sold to the British since their currency was actually worth something.  It also didn’t help that American Quartermaster Thomas Mifflin had recently resigned, causing a logistical nightmare for American attempts to procure supplies.  The soldiers, many of whom were either recent immigrants or from low socioeconomic circumstances, often lacked basic necessities such as shoes and proper clothing.  The cramped living conditions also were a breeding ground for diseases such as smallpox and dysentery: of the 12,000 or so troops reported to have been present at this winter camp, 7,000 were labeled as “sick” in some capacity. The enemy occupied the seat of their government, and the soldiers lacked food and supplies…but disease existed in abundance.  What could have possibly occurred at this camp that helped strengthen the Continental Army?

Act II: Martha Sets the Tone

In episode 2.5, which focused on the Declaration of Independence, we looked at Abigail Adams as a means of understanding the role women played in the Revolution.  Our exploration of Martha Washington will further this analysis, and she provides a glimpse into the military side of the war.  To be fair, this isn’t necessarily an all-encompassing attempt to categorize how all women experienced the Revolution.  Many remained home and ran their households in the absence of their husbands, while some engaged in commercial enterprises: Abigail Adams did both of these.  And some traveled with their husbands and shared in their triumphs and struggles: Martha Washington falls more into this camp.

Born Martha Dandridge in 1731, she went by the nickname “Patsy” well into her teens.  Her family enjoyed high social standing, but their level of wealth didn’t place them in the economic echelon of Virginia’s high society.  This posed a serious problem when young Martha was to be married for the first time: to be fair, her potential father-in-law John was by many accounts uncouth a bit of a jerk.  His son Daniel, two decades Martha’s senior, was completely smitten with her, but the elder Custis publicly claimed that there was no way any Dandridge would be privy to his great fortune.  Yes, publicly: he sought to utterly humiliate not only Martha, but the entire Dandridge family.  In a move that would foreshadow the courage she demonstrated the entirety of her life, 18-year old Martha sought a face-to-face meeting with John Custis and got it; nobody knows for sure how this happened.  However, the end result of this conversation was the blessing of Custis: the old man had changed his mind and consented to the marriage between Daniel and the daughter of Jack Dandridge.  This was a significant about-face because John Custis never changed his mind, so Martha must have presented a persuasive and strong-willed argument.  The two would remain married until Daniel’s untimely death in 1757, a loving marriage that produced two children.  Martha was in mourning, but she had a household to attend to, and an enormous amount of inherited wealth that was now at her disposal.

This inherited wealth, not to mention her beauty and good nature, made Martha Dandridge one of the most desirable matches in all of Virginia.  One of the two men who began to “call” on her was a five-year military veteran, and aspiring member of the planter elite, named George Washington.  Much has been written about Washington’s infatuation at this time with a family friend named Sally Fairfax, a woman with whom George corresponded at the same time as his courtship of Martha Custis.  Whatever George may have told Martha about his feelings towards Sally, we may never know since she burned their mutual letters upon his death, but he appears to have gotten over Fairfax with time.  It does seem clear that Martha was quite taken with George because she invited him back almost immediately following his initial visit.  She was a measured woman who wanted to ensure that she would be gaining a loyal partner with which to share her life, and that’s exactly what she got with George Washington.  The two married in 1758, moved to Mount Vernon, Washington’s estate on which he had just ordered extensive renovations, and began what they each hoped would be a happy, prosperous life as Virginia planters.  They certainly paid attention to the events surrounding the greater colonial world and were dismayed with what they viewed as the infringement on their rights.  George was a member of the House of Burgesses by this point, indicating his rising status in Virginia society, and Martha even transitioned production at Mount Vernon to make it a more self-sufficient plantation that could withstand the boycott of British material goods.  She was definitely in favor of sending a strong message to the British government, although perhaps not in favor of independence just yet.  Often traveling with her husband during his political engagements, she did not accompany him to the Second Continental Congress where he was appointed General of a new Continental Army, but she did join him in fall 1775 as his men were laying siege to British-occupied Boston.  If he was to spend ample time in Boston, then she would join him, plain and simple: she also set a standard that would be followed throughout the rest of the war.  If Lady Washington, as she was called, was to accompany her husband in the field, then the wives of any officer would be free to join the Continental encampments and provide a semblance of stability and home during these troubling times.

Act III: Oneida Allies

We began our acknowledgement of the Oneida role in the Revolution in episode 2.7, but that mainly addressed their role as foil to the Mohawk Joseph Brant.  It’s certainly safe to say that at the outset of the war, the Oneidas demonstrated the greatest amount of openness towards European ways as some had taken up Christianity, settled agriculture, and even the raising of livestock.  Not all Oneidas felt this way…not even close, but enough to indicate that a shift away from their traditional ways may someday occur.  Any potential shift would owe itself to the efforts, and geographic proximity to, missionary Samuel Kirkland, who had lived among them since 1764.  Kirkland openly supported the rebel cause, which explains why General Thomas Gage denied him passage to Haudenosaunee land after a trip to New England in May, but the leanings of many Oneidas became clearer when a proposal to join Loyalist allies in Canada was rejected.  This didn’t exactly mean that the Oneidas sought to support the rebels or disagreed with the Loyalists, but at the time that Bunker Hill was fought in June 1775, they pursued a course of neutrality.  Attempts by the British and Americans to draw the Haudenosaunee onto their sides occurred the rest of the year, but official neutrality would prevail.  However, individuals would side with, and support, whoever they felt would benefit them the most.  Oneida Chief Skenandoah, also referred to as Shenandoah, was a good friend to Kirkland, hence he openly fought for the Americans.  He also met with General Washington outside of Boston as it lay under siege, prompting the General to petition Congress to attempt to gain Indigenous allies.  That year, 1775, would culminate in a Grand Council at Onondaga where Mohawk, Cayuga, and Seneca chiefs would open debate on whether they should fight for the British…and the war belt used to convey this message was subsequently returned weeks later at Albany with a steadfast commitment to neutrality.  However, with more individual warriors seeking to side with the British, the Oneida, with the smallest population among the Haudenosaunee, would have a hard time maintaining this neutral status.

As we learned in our Joseph Brant episode, the Mohawk, Seneca, Cayuga, and Onondaga would pretty much end up allying with the British.  Brant’s influence aside, the Mohawk’s geographic position as guardians of the Eastern Door meant that they bore the brunt of colonial attempts to settle on, and in some cases, take, their land.  The other three didn’t directly deal with colonials as much, and their proximity to Fort Niagara, located at the convergence of Lakes Erie and Ontario, brought them more under the sway of the British.  The Tuscarora were the newcomers to the Haudenosaunee having joined in the 1720’s after they were pushed off of their southern lands.  The Oneidas acted as their sponsors and gave them lands on which to settle, so they felt an obligation to “follow their lead.”  These splits hardened as 1775 turned into 1776, and it intensified the efforts of General Philip Schuyler, then head of the Northern Army, to continue to call meetings with Haudenosaunee sachems for the purpose of a formal military alliance.  Subsequently, Loyalist John Butler would counter with meetings of his own in which he declared that only by allying themselves with the British government could a redress of their grievances occur.  Internal meetings between the sachems revealed the true fracture that they were headed for as the non-Oneida Haudenosaunee chastised them for their close relationship with the Americans.  One Cayuga sachem even claimed about the rebels, “Should they conquer in the present contest, they would no sooner turn about and fall on the Indians.”  The Oneidas as a nation would still push for neutrality, but their desires would fall on the unconvinced ears of their brethren.  At the same time that the Declaration of Independence was written and issued, the Oneidas furiously sought to preserve their centuries-old political and social systems, but these efforts grew bleaker by the day.

Individual Oneida actions often ran counter to official policy, as well.  Take the efforts of Han Yerry, an Oneida who appears to have been ethnically Mohawk and German, but was considered an Oneida and became Chief Warrior of the Wolf Clan.  He was held in high esteem by his fellow Oneida, made more so by his marriage to Two Kettles Together, a woman who would play her own prominent role in the war via combat and intelligence.  These two favored the Americans from an early date and convinced others to sway in this direction.  The two would fight against their kin at the Battle of Oriskany, that bloody affair led by Joseph Brant’s forces that realistically broke Haudenosaunee neutrality.  Considering the Oneidas to be allies, the Americans specifically praised the efforts of Han Yerry and Two Kettles at Saratoga where they and other Oneidas played a key role in harassing Burgoyne’s forces.  Still, the actions of these individuals didn’t change the hesitation of the Haudenosaunee to directly engage one another in combat.  Many would return to their homes after their service in late 1777 as winter was coming, and most wanted to be in better position to better protect that which mattered most to them.

Act IV: Winter of Determination

Prior to Valley Forge, Martha Washington would join the General at New York, listen to the public reading of the Declaration of Independence in Philadelphia, and attempt to provide a semblance of comfort at the winter encampment of Morristown in March 1777; we already have a good enough idea of what the Oneidas were up to prior to Valley Forge, but since this location is our focus, that’s where we’ll resume our story.

The Continental Army arrived at Valley Forge in December 1777 following a grueling snow-covered march, and Martha Washington arrived the following February.  Her arrival caused a wave of cheers among the American troops: partially because they had come to expect her presence at winter camp, but also because her arrival signaled a pause in combat operations.  By the time she arrived, General Washington’s headquarters lay at the Potts residence, a stone house that was a step up from a crude tent, but cramped nevertheless.  While Washington busily spent the winter solidifying his status as the symbol of the independence movement, and the troops spent their days drilling under the demanding yet amusing Baron von Steuben, Martha took the lead in accomplishing tasks that were essential to the survival of the Continental Army.  For instance, she roused the women in camp to take up knitting and clothing production, taking the lead in helping to churn out fresh socks for the soldiers.  She also made visits to the hospital to provide comfort to the ill, and helped organize the entertainment that broke up the monotony of winter quarters.  It was said that those who met with her “retired full of hope and confidence,” a statement by a French officer that encapsulates what Martha Washington brought to the Army during the American Revolution.  The firm and strong-willed demeanor on display when 18-year old Patsy Dandridge reasoned with elderly John Custis had only hardened over time: officers and soldiers alike were awed by her presence and inspired by her actions.  And the officer who mattered the most, General Washington, considered her to be his rock: the one person he could show his often closed-off emotions to, and the one he could rely on when he needed a boost.  She was by his side in May 1778 when word reached Valley Forge of the alliance with France, and with a new outlook on the war, not to mention a newly trained American army, Martha parted ways with George that June as he began his summer campaign.

The Oneidas arrived at Valley Forge later than Martha Washington, but the role they played was certainly no less important.  Early in 1778, before Martha’s arrival, a delegation of Congressmen at Valley Forge were not only apprised of the conditions in which the men were living, but Washington informed him of his desire to invite Oneida and Tuscarora warriors to join the Army at Valley Forge.  It was clear by this stage that the Oneidas were friends of the rebels, or at least not friends of the British, and Washington requested their assistance in countering British actions surrounding Philadelphia.  They had already performed admirably in service to The Cause, and it was common knowledge that the mere participation of Indigenous fighters in combat struck terror into the hearts of the enemy.  Among the primary concerns in receiving this assistance was the distance between their homelands and Valley Forge, and the unavailability of the traveling warriors to defend these lands.  It was the Marquis de Lafayette who proved essential in raising up the requested Oneida for the long trek, convincing them that leaving their lands for the time being was worth it, so the help did arrive.  A party of about 50 mostly Oneidas answered the call, and after a sendoff from Grasshopper, an esteemed Oneida, they were off, along with a formal apology to Washington and Lafayette that they couldn’t send more men.  It was recorded that the whole party “behaved well enough” on their journey, and they even made a few friends along the way; at nearly every stop, white settlers feared the presence of so many fully-armed Indigenous fighters in their midst.  However, nothing came of these fears as the Oneidas were polite, hunted and ate their catch, slept through the night, and were on their way.  The 250-mile journey ended on May 15, 1778, when the party passed through the initial defenses at Valley Forge.  Their initial orders were to assist the forces of Colonel Daniel Morgan, whose riflemen proved decisive at Saratoga, to scout and harass the enemy.  However, formalities were in order: each of the warriors personally met with George Washington, and Han Yerry was even invited to supper with the officers on his first full day at the camp.  One of the Oneida’s most thoughtful and appreciated contributions came courtesy of the only woman in the party, Polly Cooper.  The Oneidas had enjoyed a bountiful harvest the previous year, and thus brought with them hundreds of bushels of white corn.  Oral tradition states that the famished troops initially attempted to eat the corn raw, but Cooper prevented this as it would cause significant gastrointestinal issues.  She was present to prepare the corn into soup, which was no easy task, but one at which Cooper was an expert.  She shelled the corn and mixed it with available forage for a soup that wouldn’t feed the entire army, but was still greeted as a massive gesture of friendship.  Polly Cooper allegedly refused payment for her services, but Martha Washington gifted her with a shawl that remains in the hands of Cooper’s descendants to this day.

So what of the paths of the Oneidas and Martha Washington after Valley Forge?  Martha Washington would spend the remaining summers of the war at Mount Vernon, but loaded up her carriage every fall with her essentials and set a course for wherever her husband happened to be.  Remember, she was his rock, and they loved each other, so they would be together wherever the war took them.  In total, the two would spend 5 of the 8 years of the war at each other’s side.  During one of her sojourns back home, it was suggested by Esther de Berdt Reed, wife of the man who had attempted to get Benedict Arnold removed as Military Governor of Philadelphia, that Patriot women should engage in fundraising to assist the Army.  Martha would herself contribute money and collaborate with Martha Jefferson on efforts to collect from rural Virginia churches.  Martha would eventually lose her son Jack, from her previous marriage, to typhus during the siege of Yorktown, and her husband wouldn’t return home until Christmas Eve 1783, one day after he formally resigned his military commission.  Their lives would continue to be tethered for the next two or so decades, and the precedents that George would set as president, and she as First Lady, will be explored in future seasons.

As for the Oneidas?  Just days following their arrival at Valley Forge, the warriors participated in the Battle of Barren Hill, the only battle in which the collectively fought with Washington as their commander, although Lafayette led them in battle.  Their bravery was noted as they covered the retreat of the rebel forces, and a plaque at the battle site reads: “This plaque honors six Indian scouts who died in battle May 1778,” a rather informal testament to their contributions.  Most who were present at Valley Forge returned home in June where the continued to primarily assist the Americans in brutal frontier fighting that completely shattered the traditional ways of the Haudenosaunee.  Indigenous concerns were not exactly at the top of the priority list during negotiations to end the war, and the post-war years would yield land loss and attempts at healing.  In October 1784, the Treaty of Fort Stanwix would formally acknowledge Oneida contributions in the war, claiming, “the Oneida and Tuscarora nations shall be secured in the full and free enjoyment of these possessions.”  This gave them immediate prominence among the Haudenosaunee, although it would take much more than this acknowledgement to heal the rift between them and their brethren.  By and large, the federal government would seek to treat the Oneidas well for their wartime service, but the state of New York sought their homelands.  This affected their social and spiritual livelihood, and with white settlers closing in, traditional hunting became unviable, while land sales provided a pragmatic means to sustain life.  Still, some remembered what they had done to help found a new nation: Washington remembered, and he sought a favorable treaty with the Oneidas while president.  Lafayette remembered, and specifically requested an audience with them when he returned to America in the mid-1800’s.  And we remember, because it takes true courage to see a goal through to the end, especially when those closest to you have chosen another path.

In our next episode of History: Beyond the Textbook, we shift our geographic focus to the south during what has been aptly termed England’s “Southern Strategy.”  We’ll analyze the infamous actions of British officer Banastre Tarelton during this time, as well as the Patriots who stood in the way of his subjection of the American South.