The Analytical Zen Podcast
Biography and Research: See Orcid.org/0000-0001-8344-6582 (presenting 100+ academic works)
Dr. Geraldine M. Dowling PFHEA, SFHEA has over 20 years of experience in forensic lab work, forensic/clinical and analytical toxicology, food safety and drug residue testing, method validation and ISO 17025 laboratory accreditation. She also has more than 10 years in academia as a university educator. She was past elected member of Academic Council at Atlantic Technological University and member of the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Working Group. Her research spans forensic and clinical toxicology, with a focus on forensic science, medicine, clinical practice, metabolomics, lipidomics, drug testing, drug harm reduction, laboratory accreditation and additionally teaching education pedagogies (universal design for learning and community based learning).
Dr. Dowling is an internationally recognized researcher and gives international lectures. She is a Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy (SFHEA), awarded for her excellence in teaching, research and leadership. She is the creator and host of The Analytical Zen Podcast, designed to make complex scientific concepts accessible to students and the public (available on platforms like Spotify, Apple Podcasts).
She serves as Vice Chair of the United Kingdom and Ireland Association of Forensic Toxicologists (professional body), representing forensic practitioners across England, Ireland, Wales, Northern Ireland, Scotland and the Channel Islands. She is also the elected regional representative for Ireland with the International Association of Forensic Toxicologists, a member of the Society of Forensic Toxicologists (USA) and an elected member of the London Toxicology Group Committee.
Dr. Dowling has trained professional staff and students in ISO 17025-accredited national government laboratories in Ireland and abroad, including The State Laboratory, Teagasc and the Marine Institute. She is a Principal Investigator, supervising postgraduate students (PhD/MSc).
Dr. Dowling was an invited contributor to the Irish Government's "Emerging Drug Trends and Drug Checking Working Group", which aims to introduce safer harm-reduction strategies.
She is a contributing author, reviewer and editor for international journals, including Drug Testing and Analysis, Journal of Analytical Toxicology and Forensic Science Review. She has written, edited and co-authored four books.
Dr. Dowling is the current Editor-in-Chief of the IACFT Journal [ISSN 3088-6600] and Outgoing Editor-in-Chief (2026) of the Science Undergraduate Research Experience Journal [ISSN 2990-8167].
She is a Visiting Professor of Toxicology and Forensic Science at Kingston University, holds a Visiting Senior Lecturer appointment (2024) at King’s College London, UK and holds a Honorary Senior Lecturer appointment (2023) at Barts and The London School of Medicine & Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, UK. She previously held an Adjunct Assistant Professor appointment (2020) at Trinity College Dublin.
Dr. Dowling’s work has had a lasting impact, with Ireland’s Marine Institute applying her methods in aquaculture monitoring since 2006 and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) adopting her research for drug monitoring since 2011. Her work as Principal Investigator, along with that of the students she supervises, has resulted in multiple validated methods being accredited on several occasions by the Irish National Accreditation Board (INAB) and used nationally. In addition, selected work she developed has been used in international proficiency testing schemes.
The Analytical Zen Podcast
Paper-Based Electrochemical Biosensors for a Smarter World: From Health to the Environment
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What if you could transform the way we gather and interpret critical data in resource-limited settings? Join us on the Analytical Zen podcast as we chat with Professor Stefano Cinti, a trailblazer in the realm of sensors and biosensors. Stefano's journey from hesitant beginnings to becoming a passionate advocate for analytical chemistry is nothing short of inspiring. In this enlightening episode, we delve into the symbiotic relationship between traditional analytical methods and groundbreaking paper-based technologies. We unravel the world of paper-based electrochemical sensors, uncovering their unique properties—like porosity and adaptability—that lend themselves to innovative designs.
These sensors open up a new frontier of possibilities, promising enhanced portability and sustainability in scientific diagnostics. Go to the website uninanobiosensors.com where people can read all the latest research.
Join the conversation at The Analytical Zen Podcast! Reach out to us via email at theanalyticalzenpodcast@gmail.com.
The opinions expressed by the guests are their own and do not necessarily reflect the views of The Analytical Zen Podcast.
Innovative Paper-Based Electrochemical Biosensors
Dr Geraldine M. Dowling SFHEAThank you , welcome . Welcome to the Analytical Zen Podcast , where we delve into the minds of leading scientists and professionals . I'm your host , Geraldine M . Dowling . What should you expect in the Analytical Zen podcast ? Well , we'll dive into cutting-edge research and topics that inspire curiosity , the latest in forensic and clinical toxicology pursuits and engage in conversations and perspectives from disciplines outside of these fields . Today , we're diving into a fascinating topic of paper-based electrochemical sensors .
Dr Geraldine M. Dowling SFHEAJoining us today is an Associate Professor at the Department of Pharmacy University of Naples , Federico II . He obtained a PhD in Chemical Sciences in 2016 in the group headed by Professor Palisci at the University of Rome , torre Vergata . He leads the Uni Nanobiosensors Lab at the University of Rome , torre Vergata . He leads the Uni Nanobiosensors Lab at the University of Naples , frederico II , and his research interests include the development of electrochemical sensors , portable diagnostics , paper-based devices and nanomaterials . During his research activity , he had the opportunity to spend a period abroad in Finland , uk , us , germany and Spain .
Dr Geraldine M. Dowling SFHEAHe has published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals with a H-index of 37 and greater than 5,000 citations . In 2018 , he was named Best Young Researcher in bioanalytical chemistry . In 2019 , he was named the best young researcher in analytical chemistry both by the Italian Chemical Society and in 2022 he was awarded with the Early Career Award from the International Society of Electrochemistry in Analytical Electrochemistry . In 2022 , he was awarded with Biosensors 2022 Young Investigator Award and in 2023 , he was recognized as the Sensor Division Early Career Award of the Electrochemical Society or the ECS . In 2024 , he was included in the ACS Measurement Science Rising Stars and from 2021 , he is regularly included in the world's top 2% of scientists . He is the coordinator of the Chemical Cultural Diffusion Group of the Italian Chemical Society Group of the Italian Chemical Society . He is the chair of Amic Biomed , a multidisciplinary conference for young chemists in the biomedical sciences . He is very active in communicating science to non-specialized audiences through TV shows , radio and magazine . Please welcome to the Analytical Zen Podcast , professor Stefano Cinti .
Professor CintiThank you , Geraldine . I'm very glad to be here . Thank you for the nice introduction . Thank you for the invitation to this amazing podcast .
Dr Geraldine M. Dowling SFHEACan you tell us a little bit about your background ?
Professor CintiYes , of course . So my background is a chemist background . So I got my master's degree and my PhD in chemistry in the University of Rome , tor Vergata and Santa Barbara , and then also in Spain and the UK , and then I got a position in Naples , that is , in the south of Italy , and since five years so starting in 2019 , I started to create my group , my school , as I say , in sensor by sensor , inspired by my mentor , that is , professor Palisky . As I say , in sensor biosensor , inspired by my mentor , that is Professor Palisky , as you see in the introduction . And then today we are a good group of 12 people postdoc , phd students , masters , undergrad students and then we are making a lot of work , a lot of amazing work in the field of sensors and biosensors .
Dr Geraldine M. Dowling SFHEAStefano , did you always want to get into the analytical science field ?
Professor CintiSo , to be honest , when I was an undergrad , so the analytical chemistry was a kind of subject that I really didn't like . So when I had to choose for my master thesis , my idea was to okay , I want to give a chance to this subject . So I started to go in the analytical chemistry laboratory and then I get in love with that . So now it's my work , now it's something that I really believe in and I try to to convince people that is very important that not only in the lab but also in the real life stefano , can you give our listeners an introduction to paper-based electrochemical sensors ?
Dr Geraldine M. Dowling SFHEAcan you explain what paper-based electrochemical biosensors are and how they differ from traditional sensors ?
Professor CintiYes , of course . So I think that first , to begin with , the difference about paper-based and traditional sensors , I should explain what is a sensor and biosensor . So , from definition , sensors and biosensors are small analytical device that incorporate a recognition element that is in close contact they say intimate contact with a transducer , so in my case the transducer is the electrochemical one . So I develop electrochemical sensor and biosensor and the difference is that when you have a recognition element that is non-biological like you know , it could be polymers , nanoparticles you have a sensor . When you have instead a recognition element that is a biological , like a DNA or a protein or kind of enzyme , so you have a biosensor . So the main difference with the traditional sensor is essentially the material , the substrate . So in this case , when we develop the paper-based electrochemical sensor or biosensor , what we use is paper as the substrate on what we make the device . And of course , when I say paper I am general , so we can have more porous paper , more robust paper , different kinds of paper depending on the needs that we have .
Dr Geraldine M. Dowling SFHEAStefano , what are some of the key advantages of using paper in the sensor design , particularly regarding portability or maybe sustainability ?
Professor Cintiability . Yes , yeah , this is true . So the the main , the main aspect was the uh , the important features , that is , that paper is characterized with . Because , depending on the kind of paper , on the topology of paper , you can have a very porous paper that can allow you to load reagents to make some reaction happen , to make a species to diffuse in a channel or more channels , so you can make like a origami like structure . So by folding the paper-based substrate or in any case , if you want to have a more robust paper , so perhaps less porous you can , you can choice for the office paper that can give you other possibility in the way of realizing this kind of sensor . So the decision to use paper is that with respect to the traditional one sense , to the traditional one platform , so paper can add some information , some feature .
Dr Geraldine M. Dowling SFHEAAnd could you elaborate for our listeners ? How does the porosity of the paper enhance the analytical capabilities ?
Professor Cintiare same , but of course , depending on the , on the manufacturing of the paper , you can choose different porosity sizes . So it means that perhaps , if you want to avoid some gross impurities , some aggregates , some I don't know I think also to the red blood cells to arrive to the detector , that is , in this case is the electrodes , you can avoid the , their , their diffusion , basing on the like , on the um filtration by the the port sides , and this is a really important feature , because of course you are not going to add anything from the , from the outside , but you you find this kind of features , like the capacity of filtering inside the paper . This is very like a fortunate feature that the paper is characterized with .
Dr Geraldine M. Dowling SFHEAStefano , could you elaborate on how paper-based sensors can pre-treat samples and load reagents within the device ?
Professor CintiYes , so there are many opportunities to do this . So for the listeners , what I suggest is to imagine to drop a sample , like even water , onto a piece of paper . So what happens is that the drop is starting to diffuse , of course in all the directions . So in this case we are able to decide a direction , a main direction to make the sample flowing into the device . And imagine that this sample can encounter during its flowing other species that can react with or can encounter different channels . So perhaps the samples can be split into two or three or , as you want , channels . And another possibility is that on the same channel you can drop different kind of species , that perhaps you want to make some multi-reaction or multi-detection . So the possibilities are huge and for this reason again , paper-based devices offer a kind of a lot of possibilities .
Professor CintiSo that are just limited in my , in my opinion , just limited to the , to our creativity . So if you think something , so you can realize on paper , so without any expensive procedure , but just thinking to what is going to to do a liquid into a porous substrate and this is very important because at the end the knowledge comes from our day life , so we know that when that we use paper , perhaps to absorb liquid . So and the same . This is the opposite . So we are going to use paper , in this case , to exploit the absorption of the diffusion of water-based solution , in particular to make that arrive to a certain target . That is an electrode , that is a detector .
Dr Geraldine M. Dowling SFHEAWhat is the process for creating these all-in-one paper-based sensors , from design to manufacturing ?
Professor CintiYeah , there are two main techniques that we need to use , but , of course , as I say always in my presentation , so when I present this kind of technology to a broad audience , is that it depends on the facilities . It depends really on the facilities that you have and on the analytical needs . So , if you want something very precise , very small , very robust , very , that you want to incorporate some gold , nanoparticles or some polymers or some enzymes , so so the choice of the of the techniques to to make the paper-based strip depends on this . But in my case , what we use is the screen printing to make the electrode and the wax printing to make the testing area on the paper base .
Professor CintiAnd because screen printing is kind of technique that is is called also serigraphy or thick film printing , and it allows to to print film printing and it allows to to print a kind of paint that in , in our case , is a conductive paint made of carbon , silver , gold , that is going to make , that are going to realize the , the , the sensor , the conductive electrodes . So we need the screen printing to make this kind of electrodes and we need the wax printing to create the testing area where the electrode will be screen printed . And why we need the wax printing . We need the wax printing for the features of before . So we need to create a place where the solution can stay without leakage , without diffuse in other parts of the paper that is not the place of the electrode , the place of the detector . So combining these two screen printing and box printing you can manufacture the electrodes of the size that you want , of the shape that you want and even with the geometry that you like .
Dr Geraldine M. Dowling SFHEACan you walk us through how reactions occur within the paper-based sensors once a sample is introduced ?
Professor CintiYes , essentially , when you introduce your sample onto a paper-based device . So you should imagine that this kind of drop that is containing these pieces is flowing , it's flowing towards the end and the end is represented by the electrodes . In fact these are electrochemical sensors . So in this time , in this distance , everything can happen , but of course not only good things , because of course what we should also know is the composition of paper . So sometimes the main challenge are also to to avoid like other other , like side reactions that can can can involve your species of interest . But in any case you can decide channels . You can decide like the pad for absorbing the sample or for perhaps , as in the case of blood samples , you can design some kind of strip that allows you to separate , perhaps , the serum from the blood . So there are a lot of opportunities even in this .
Dr Geraldine M. Dowling SFHEAStefano , what are some specific applications of paper-based electrochemical sensors in healthcare , environmental monitoring or other fields ?
Professor CintiYeah , thank you for this question . I could talk for this for a long time because it's kind of a plethora of applications in all the fields that you mentioned and even in the other , like agricultural , industrial , pharmaceutical . So really the good things related to the world of sensor , not only of paper-based but of the sensor that if you know the target that you want to detect and if you can design a kind of recognition element that can be bio or non-bio , so in theory you can realize a sensor for everything , realize a sensor for every everything . And of course I can make some , some example , very , very fast example .
Professor CintiSo in the in the field of health care , in our lab we are realizing a lot of sensor for microRNA that are related to cancer , for to breast cancer , so the our aim is to detect like a droplet of blood and then perhaps we can detect just few amount oil in water bodies or pesticides in agricultural to monitor perhaps the use of these pesticides , to reduce the excessive use . And in other fields , like in the quality control , we are making very important work with some other collaborators , like the pharmaceutical technologies that they make . You know , the vaccine make made with the microRNA that are that now are very famous after COVID-19 , and our question was but we can control if some , if the amount of the microRNA encapsulated is right or not . So in order to provide an online method , avoiding the traditional one like the spectrophotometric , so we can do so .
Dr Geraldine M. Dowling SFHEAReally , the applications are as large as you can think , as you can think how do you envision Stefano these sensors , addressing current limitations in analytical devices used by communities or researchers ?
Professor CintiYeah , I envision the use of sensor will be more spread , of course , in our society , because sometimes you know , at least in the measurement science , in the analytical science , there are kind of
Paper-Based Biosensors
Professor Cintitwo categories . No , who works with the traditional techniques like mass spectrometry , hplc or this kind of you know huge instrumentation but even with a huge history , and also there are people like me that work with the portable solution . People like me that work with the portable solution . So sometimes in a lot of conference , so there are people working with sensor they say , okay , I'm going , I want to have sensor to replace the , the mass spectrometer , but in my opinion this is not possible . So there are different use for that and these two categories need to work together . They are complementary , so needs to work together . They are complementary .
Professor CintiSo what I say to my students every time I propose the sensors as a innovative , because even if the glucose strips or the pregnancy test , no exists since 50 years , so for in some environment , in sorry , in some places , like the pharmacy department where I am here , so sensor represents a novelty . So when I talk , the first things that I say , hey , this is not a kind of replacement of mass spectrometry , because imagine that you want to to sample a toxin or you want to to sample a pesticide , in in the field . So you cannot bring your mass spectrometry , your mass spectrometer , sorry , but what you can say is to take the sample and central laboratory . So of course it it . It is represented by an high cost , also cost , also time duration , so you have to wait a lot of time .
Professor CintiSo my opinion is that perhaps you can use the sensor as a first check , as to say , okay , I can analyze 100 samples and perhaps just 30 of these needs to be sent to a specialized laboratory . So this is a case that can be applied to everything . Of course , there are some times that you need a qualitative response , you need a quantitative response , you have to be in accordance with the limit of detection . So , in any case , I think that this approach , the sensors approach and the traditional approach needs to work together in order to avoid any loss of time , any loss of money and to have a faster response money and to have faster response .
Dr Geraldine M. Dowling SFHEAStefano , what challenges have you encountered ?
Professor Cintiin the development and the deployment of paper-based sensors . Yeah , I think that , as in all the things you know , you have pros and cons . Of course the porosity of paper is a very good feature for realizing this , but on the other face of the metal , the porosity is something that can reduce the concentration , that can reduce the presence of your sample on the area that you want to analyze . Because , of course , if you imagine , if the listeners can imagine , a channel , of course during this channel all the samples will be divided , so it will not be just in one position , that is , the detector . Of course it will arrive , but of course , for the time of diffusion can be a kind of limitation if you want something very , very , very fast . So perhaps you can wait sometimes to have the concentration at the end of the strip , sometimes to have the concentration at the end of the strip and in , in other case , even some some challenge are represented by the , the presence of some impurities in the paper .
Professor CintiSo I I realize a lot of sensors for even metals that can be cadmium , you know , mercury , lead , and sometimes for cadmium you can work with paper , sometimes with other metals , with that can be copper or can be iron . You have some a very big background , high background , so it can limitates your , your application that perhaps with traditional sensor you can , you don't have this problem . So you know , I think that there are challenges . That depends particularly on the target , even if I can take , if I can talk on ph . So all the paper and this was something that I didn't know before I started to use and in the community we are interrogating so how we can change the ph of the paper . Of course the paper has a proper pH . So if you're going to make a kind of a redox reaction or you want to analyze oxidative spaces or like the reduced form , so you should consider the pH that perhaps can change and then can reduce or improve your sensitivity .
Dr Geraldine M. Dowling SFHEAStefano , how do you see the future of paper-based biosensors evolving in terms of technology and application ?
Professor CintiYeah , I think that the technology is mature for the transfer to the market and you know , it depends on what people want to make with the paper-based sensor . So if I think to the most sold sensor , that is the blood glucose test , that is the worldwide most sold electrochemical sensor , so I say that it can be replaced by plastic , it can be replaced by by paper . So in my opinion it can start , not like an industrial level , to make this conversion . If I think perhaps to people that say that you know that can use paper base for making wearable , so I would say that I'm not really convinced on this because for to be something applied to the skin when you are moving , when you're doing exercise , so you need something that is not fragile . And paper , you know you can cut even just with your hands , so it depends . You know you can cut even just with your hands , so it depends . But I think that in terms of the technology , I mean I think that the technology is mature to be translated to the market .
Empowering Communities With Paper-Based Biosensors
Dr Geraldine M. Dowling SFHEAStefano , how can paper-based electrochemical sensors empower individuals or communities , particular in resource-limited settings ?
Professor CintiYes , thank you for this question . So , as you said in one of the first questions , you mentioned the sustainability and the main role associated with the main future associated with the paper is the sustainability . But it's not just a sustainability . That can be economic or environmental , because , of course , in terms of money , the paper is is cheaper than plastic . In terms of environmental , the disposable , the , the of disposable of paper is better than plastic . So perhaps you can burn paper , um , instead you have to accumulate plastic .
Professor CintiSo and but also there is a kind of social sustainability that is associated with paper base , because the idea is to make , is to use paper-based substrates to make something that can be really an only one sensor , only one , only one platform .
Professor CintiSo what we want is that the end user is not going to make anything . I just want that the end user added the sample that he wants to , or he or she wants to analyze . So I don't want the is going to to adjust the of citizen to the science , to the monitoring . In fact , this can be also included in that field , that is , the citizen science , because of course , in my idea , in my dream , perhaps also in 10 years , 20 years , so everyone can be equipped with some reader that can be attached to a phone with some strips to monitor the quality of water , quality of air . Like something happened already with the coral reef there are kind of cities and projects going on that when scuba drivers are going to make photograph of the coral reef and then send it to a database . So I think that in the future the same can be done even with this kind of sensor .
Dr Geraldine M. Dowling SFHEAHow can the broader scientific and engineering community support the advancement of paper-based biosensing technology ?
Professor Cintisupport the advancement of paper-based biosensing technology . Yeah , I think that to support the advancement of paper-based technology we need essentially to staff two main things . So the first is the interdisciplinary collaboration because I mean , perhaps I am an analytical chemist so I'm not very well focused on the materials , even if I work with a lot of materials and nanomaterials . But perhaps having some nanomaterials that behaves like an enzyme offers to me a possibility to have some , a sensor with a higher shelf life , because perhaps in the research community , like I don't know , I can say a billion of sensors and biosensors have been developed in a laboratory scale . But of course , sometimes there are a lot of problems regarding the stability . Of course , what we have in mind is always the glucose strip for diabetes patients . But this is a kind of extraordinary case because the enzyme , the glucose oxidase , is a kind of you know , super . It's a super enzyme that can work on the Malaya or down to the sea . So it's kind of an extraordinary example that cannot be replicated , cannot be reproduced by all the other enzymes . So for this reason , sometimes the first limitation for the marker transfer or for a wide use is the stability . So first , I think that people that work in the material science should develop some mimicking material like synthetic biological element that can have the same function but with longer stability .
Professor CintiAnd something is being done , because perhaps , if you think to aptamers so aptamers are synthetic oligonucleotide sequences that now is replacing , by time by time , the antibody .
Professor CintiSo perhaps it's something that can be , that can happen , and also from the technology , instead from the engineering community . I think that what should be done it's something that allowed to have a clear match about a clear connection and an easy connection among the strip and the reader . So , even now , if we think to the portable reader , if you go to the pharmacy and you buy the strips for glucose , they give you as a gift because of , of course , you are going to buy the strips , but I mean , if I think in the future of citizen science , everyone should have some reader . Perhaps we can also think to have this reader included inside in the smartphone . So , and something can be , you know , something that should be still thought , but it is a possibility . So , from an engineering point of view , in particular for the electronic and electrical engineering point of view , I think that should be . We need big efforts in producing this kind of portable reader producing this kind of portable reader .
Dr Geraldine M. Dowling SFHEAStefano , what motivated you personally to work on developing paper-based electrochemical sensors ?
Professor CintiYeah , the motivation is to provide people some easy and facile and user-friendly device to have response . So I want that they get response when they need and about their health , about the water they are drinking , about the soil they are working with their soccer team . I don't know if it's important , but this is my main motivation . I want to give people simple stuff , simple advice . I want to avoid loss of time . I want to avoid loss of time , I want to avoid loss of money and I want that all people , all citizens , can be part of the decision process . And in which way ? Giving information . Information in this case , like chemical information , case like chemical information .
Dr Geraldine M. Dowling SFHEAStefano , what advice would you give to students or researchers interested in exploring the field of biosensors ?
Professor CintiThe advice that I can give , and that I daily give to my group , is that to think to something that is not realized at the portable field , so I mean something that is not that . To think that is something that is not realized at the portable field , so I mean sometimes there are . I mean that in the analytical science there are a lot of methods , a lot of procedures that now require a lot of time , a lot of experience . Perhaps they require for genetic detection , or perhaps so my suggestion is to don't think to something very difficult , but think something that is already existing but can be translated to something easier , even if the advantages will be reducing the analysis of one hour so you got the , you arrive to the goal .
Professor CintiSo my opinion is to have a very good background on what is existing now in the analytical science , in all the field . If you are interested in the clinical or in the industrial , so it's not matter , but having a clear knowledge of the background can help you to design the better solution .
Dr Geraldine M. Dowling SFHEAStefano , how can listeners learn more about the advancements in paper-based sensors and stay connected to your work ?
Professor CintiOh , yes , so if listeners will be interested in knowing more , be will be interested in in knowing more , so they can , they can visit my website that is the uninanobiosensorscom , and where we play , where we post our , all our research , all our grants , that you can see the face of the people working in in the lab with the related project and also reading the publication and also having information on our events that we , that we make for the society , so we participate to festivals , to science festivals we make and we make meeting with school , high school students . So with with this website , they they can know everything on or even to stay in touch , even with my group . We have a social media on Instagram , on X , so the Uninano by Sensor , and so we are waiting for you to talk with you and to interact with you , of course , Stefano , is there anything you'd like to share with our listeners ?
Professor CintiYes , as a conclusive remark I would like to share that I think that the word of sensors and biosensor should not think to something very far from our life , because when I ask my students , have you ever heard about sensors and biosensors ? They say no . I say think , please . Do you know someone in your family , your friends , that is diabetic ? Yeah , yes , I know , I know the sensory biosensors .
Professor CintiSo the thing that I'm saying that biosensors are already within our life and imagine that one day we can have something for all the necessity can help to improve our life , and not only because I'm an analytical chemist . Of course , I am a very fan of the biosensor , but I think that , in any case , when I talk with the people that are non-expert in my field , they remain surprised because they say okay , it's possible , so we can do this . We can do this . Yes , in theory , you can do everything . Of course , as we said before , we need a very close interaction among different expertises or , of course , industrial partners , but also and it's very important from the citizens . That can be the final user and can be the reason why we develop this kind of sensor .
Dr Geraldine M. Dowling SFHEAThanks , so so much , Stefano . You've given us a huge amount to think about .
Professor CintiThank you , geraldine . It's been a real pleasure to be here , and I hope you enjoyed the voyage into the biosensor world , and so thank you again .
Dr Geraldine M. Dowling SFHEAStefano , thank you so much for agreeing to come on to the Analytical Zen podcast , and that's a wrap up of our episode today on the Analytical Zen podcast . Tune in next time as we explore another captivating topic and stay curious .