009 - Temperament - Part 2 - Gray, Rothbart, Kagan, Eisenberg, Schermerhorn and Bates

In episode 8, I started discussing temperament theory with an introduction to Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess.  They first developed a temperamental formulation by following 141 children longitudinally and proposed 9 dimensions of temperament that can be reduced to three basic categories: Easy, Difficult, or Slow-to-warm-up temperament.  There were many researchers to follow and today I am going to compare and contrast a number of them, including Jerome Kagan, Jeffery Allan Gray, Mary Rothbart, and then highlight researchers who focussed extra attention on parenting and social development’s interactions with temperament - Nancy Eisenberg, Alice Schermerhorn and John Bates.

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The following is an outline of the content presented in this podcast:

Temperament - Part 2 - 

Gray, Rothbart, Kagan, Eisenberg, Schermerhorn and Bates.

Welcome to PsyDactic - CAPs board study edition.  I am your host, Dr. O'Leary, a child and adolescent psychiatry fellow in the national capital region.  This is a podcast I designed to help myself and other CAPs fellows study for their boards.  Anyone interested in human development and mental health will likely also get something out of it.  For a run-down on how it is produced, please see Episode 001.  I am using AI to assist me with the content creation and episode 1 explains how.  All the content in the podcast should be considered my opinion and no one else's. If you find errors in the content, I would love it if you could go to PsyDactic.Com and fill out a form there to let me know.

In episode 8 I started discussing temperament theory with an introduction to Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess.  They first developed a temperamental formulation by following 141 children longitudinally.  They proposed 9 dimensions of temperament that can be reduced to three basic categories.  A child can be classified as having an Easy, Difficult, or Slow-to-warm-up temperament.  There were many theorists to follow and today I am going to compare and contrast a number of them, including Jerome Kagan, Jeffery Allan Gray, Mary Rothbart, and then highlight researchers who focussed extra attention on parenting and social development’s interactions with temperament: Nancy Eisenberg, Alice Schermerhorn and John Bates.

Jeffrey Alan Gray:
It could be said that Jeffrey Alan Gray was more of a prominent figure in personality theory than temperament theory. He proposed a model that linked brain systems to individual differences in behavior and emotional responses. Temperament is certainly a basic aspect of personality and it is hard for me to separate the two in my head.  Gray proposes systems in the brain that could go a long way to explain temperament, so I include them here.

1. Brain-Based Systems:

• Gray's central idea was that personality and temperament arise from the interaction of three fundamental brain systems:
  • Behavioral Approach System (BAS): This system motivates behavior towards rewards and pleasure. People with a strong BAS tend to be impulsive, sensation-seeking, and optimistic.  This system is like an accelerator, driving us toward things we desire. It's activated by cues of reward and motivates us to seek pleasure and achieve goals. People with a strong BAS tend to be:  
    • Impulsive
    • Optimistic
    • Sensation-seeking
    • Driven by rewards
  • Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS): This system responds to punishment, novelty, and uncertainty, promoting anxiety and avoidance behavior.4 People with a strong BIS are prone to worry, fear, and cautiousness.  his system acts like brakes, making us cautious and vigilant in the face of potential threats or uncertainties. It's triggered by cues of punishment, novelty, and conflict. People with a strong BIS are often:
  • Anxious
  • Worried
  • Risk-averse
  • Highly sensitive to punishment
• Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS): This system is responsible for the response to immediate threat, triggering fear and escape behaviors.  This system kicks in when we face immediate danger and is less directly tied to personality traits but is crucial for understanding fear and panic responses.

2. Individual Differences:

• Gray argued that individual differences in the strength of these systems lead to variations in temperament and personality. For example, someone with a dominant BAS might be more extroverted and risk-taking, while someone with a dominant BIS might be more introverted and anxious.

3. Anxiety and Impulsivity:

• Gray's model was particularly influential in understanding anxiety and impulsivity. He proposed that anxiety is primarily related to the BIS, while impulsivity is linked to the BAS. This framework has been useful in understanding anxiety disorders and impulsive behaviors.

4. Neuropsychological Basis:

• Gray grounded his theory in neuropsychology, drawing on animal research, pharmacological studies, and human personality research. He sought to identify the specific brain regions and neurochemicals involved in each of the three systems.

5. Influence on Temperament Research:

• Gray's theory has had a significant impact on temperament research, providing a framework for understanding the biological underpinnings of individual differences in emotional reactivity, behavior, and self-regulation.

Key Contributions:

• Comprehensive model: Offered a broader perspective than previous theories, incorporating multiple brain systems and their interactions.
• Neuropsychological basis: Grounded temperament in brain function, paving the way for research on the neural correlates of personality.
• Understanding anxiety and impulsivity: Provided a framework for understanding these key dimensions of temperament and their relation to psychopathology.
• Influence on subsequent research: Inspired further research on the biological basis of temperament and its implications for development and well-being.

Mary Rothbart:

Mary Rothbart's model of temperament is one of the most influential in the field of developmental psychology. Here are the basics:

Core Concept:

Rothbart defines temperament as constitutionally based individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation. This means that temperament is rooted in biology, but it's also shaped by experience over time.

Key Components:

• Reactivity: This refers to how easily and intensely a child reacts to stimuli. It includes:
  • Positive reactivity: A tendency to approach new experiences with excitement and joy.
  • Negative reactivity: A tendency to respond to frustration or fear with anger, sadness, or discomfort.
• Self-Regulation: This refers to a child's ability to manage their reactions and behavior.6 It includes:
  • Effortful control: The ability to inhibit impulses, focus attention, and plan actions
  • Attentional processes: The ability to shift attention and sustain focus

Temperament Dimensions:  Rothbart's model includes several dimensions that capture these components of reactivity and self-regulation

• Extraversion/Surgency: Activity level, positive anticipation, impulsivity, sensation-seeking.
• Negative Affectivity: Fear, anger, sadness, discomfort, frustration.
• Effortful Control: Attention focusing, inhibitory control, perceptual sensitivity, low-intensity pleasure.

Development and Measurement:

Rothbart believed that temperament develops over time, with increasing self-regulation as children mature. She developed questionnaires to assess temperament in infants, children, and adults, allowing for research on how temperament changes and influences development.

Key Contributions:

• Comprehensive model: Rothbart's model incorporates a broader range of temperament traits than earlier theories.
• Emphasis on self-regulation: Highlights the importance of self-regulation in development and adaptation.
• Developmental perspective: Recognizes that temperament develops and changes over time.
• Measurement tools: Provides valuable questionnaires for assessing temperament across the lifespan.

Rothbart's work has significantly advanced our understanding of temperament and its role in social, emotional, and cognitive development. Her model continues to be influential in research and practice, helping us understand individual differences in children's behavior and tailor interventions to their unique needs.

Jerome Kagan:

• Theory: Kagan focused on behavioral inhibition, which is the tendency to react to unfamiliar situations with avoidance or withdrawal. He believed that this temperament trait has a biological basis and can predict later anxiety and shyness.

Key Contributions:

• Inhibited and Uninhibited Temperament: Kagan identified two primary temperament styles:
  • Inhibited: Shy, timid, and fearful children who tend to react to unfamiliar situations with avoidance or withdrawal.
  • Uninhibited: Bold, sociable, and outgoing children who are more comfortable with novelty and change.
• Biological Basis of Temperament: Kagan emphasized the biological underpinnings of temperament, suggesting that differences in brain reactivity and neurotransmitter systems contribute to individual variations in temperament.
• Longitudinal Research: He conducted extensive longitudinal studies to track the development of temperament over time, demonstrating how early temperament traits can influence later personality and behavior.
• The Role of Environment: While recognizing the biological basis of temperament, Kagan also acknowledged the role of environmental factors in shaping temperament. He emphasized the interaction between nature and nurture in shaping individual differences.

Eisenberg. Schermerhorn and Bates:

Schermerhorn and Bates:

• Focus: How temperament interacts with parenting and the environment to shape social adjustment and development.
• Key Concepts:
  • Emphasis on "Goodness of Fit": They highlight how the match between a child's temperament and their environment, especially parenting styles, influences their development.
  • Transactional Model: They propose a transactional model where child temperament and parenting mutually influence each other over time.
  • Temperament as a Predictor: They examine how temperament predicts social competence, peer relationships, and the development of psychopathology.
• Core Temperament Traits: They draw on Rothbart's model, focusing on dimensions like extraversion/surgency, negative affectivity, and effortful control.
• Measurement: Primarily use parent and teacher reports, and observational measures in lab and naturalistic settings.

Eisenberg:

• Focus: The role of temperament in emotional development, self-regulation, and social competence.
• Key Concepts:
  • Emotionality and Regulation: She emphasizes the interplay between children's emotional reactivity (especially negative emotions like anger and sadness) and their ability to regulate those emotions.
  • Effortful Control: She highlights the importance of effortful control in managing emotions, inhibiting impulses, and behaving prosocially.
  • Socialization: She examines how parenting and social experiences influence the development of self-regulation and social competence.
• Core Temperament Traits: Focuses on effortful control, impulsivity, and emotionality (particularly negative emotions).
• Measurement: Utilizes parent and teacher reports, behavioral observations in social contexts, and physiological measures.

Similarities:

• Emphasis on Socialization: Both emphasize the role of parenting and social experiences in shaping the development of temperament and its outcomes.
• Self-Regulation: Both highlight the importance of self-regulation in social and emotional adjustment.
• Developmental Perspective: Both view temperament as dynamic and influenced by ongoing interactions with the environment.
• Links to Psychopathology: Both investigate how temperament contributes to risk and resilience for mental health problems.

Contrasts:

• Emphasis: Schermerhorn and Bates focus more broadly on the "goodness of fit" between temperament and environment, while Eisenberg emphasizes the specific role of emotional regulation and social competence.
• Transactional Model: Schermerhorn and Bates explicitly propose a transactional model, highlighting the bidirectional influence between temperament and parenting. While Eisenberg acknowledges this interaction, she focuses more on how socialization impacts self-regulation.

Comparing and Contrasting 

Gray:

• Focus: Broader theory of personality and emotion, encompassing multiple brain systems.
• Key Concepts: Three brain systems: Behavioral Approach System (BAS), Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS), and Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS).
• Core Temperament Traits: Individual differences in the strength of these systems lead to variations in impulsivity, anxiety, and fearfulness.
• Measurement: Drew on animal research, pharmacological studies, and human personality questionnaires.

Kagan:

• Focus: Behavioral inhibition, particularly related to fear and anxiety.
• Key Concepts: Inhibited and uninhibited children, high/low reactivity in the behavioral inhibition system (BIS).
• Core Temperament Traits: Primarily focused on reactivity to novelty and the tendency towards shyness or boldness.
• Measurement: Physiological measures (heart rate, cortisol) and behavioral observations in response to unfamiliar stimuli.

Rothbart:

• Focus: Detailed model of temperament with multiple dimensions, including both reactivity and self-regulation.
• Key Concepts: Reactivity (e.g., fear, frustration, positive affect), self-regulation (effortful control, attention focusing).
• Core Temperament Traits: A wider range of traits, including:
  • Extraversion/Surgency: Activity level, positive anticipation, impulsivity.
  • Negative Affectivity: Fear, anger, sadness, discomfort.
  • Effortful Control: Attention focusing, inhibitory control, perceptual sensitivity.
• Measurement: Parent and teacher questionnaires, some behavioral observations.

Eisenberg:

• Focus: Temperament's role in social and emotional development, particularly related to self-regulation and social competence.
• Key Concepts: Emotionality (intensity of emotional reactions), regulation (ability to manage emotions and behavior).
• Core Temperament Traits: Emphasis on effortful control, impulsivity, and emotionality, particularly negative emotions like anger and sadness.
• Measurement: Parent and teacher reports, behavioral observations in social contexts.

Schermerhorn and Bates:

• Focus:  The "goodness of fit" between temperament and environment and the interaction of temperament with parenting style.
• Key Concepts: Transactional Model: They propose a transactional model where child temperament and parenting mutually influence each other over time.
• Core Temperament Traits: Similar to Rothbart's model, focusing on dimensions like extraversion/surgency, negative affectivity, and effortful control.
• Measurement: Primarily use parent and teacher reports, and observational measures in lab and naturalistic settings.

Similarities:

• Biological Basis: All acknowledge that temperament has a biological foundation, though it's shaped by experience.9
• Developmental Significance: All emphasize that temperament plays a crucial role in social, emotional, and personality development.
• Individual Differences: All focus on understanding individual differences in children's emotional and behavioral responses.