Disputed Territories Explained: Borders, Battles, and Global Conflicts

In this episode of The Perspicacious Perspective, I explore some of the world’s most hotly contested territories—both land and sea. I dive into tense border disputes, strategic islands, resource-rich regions, and historically entangled enclaves, breaking down where these areas are, which nations claim them, and the events that sparked and sustain these conflicts.

I also examine the geopolitical and historical contexts behind these disputes, showing how centuries of diplomacy, wars, and cultural claims keep these regions in the global spotlight. This isn’t just geography—it’s a journey into the stories, strategies, and struggles that shape international relations and human ambition.

Golan Heights

Shebaa Farms

Cyprus

Nagorno‑Karabakh

Mount Halti

Kosovo

Olivenza

Gibraltar

Ceuta, Melilla, Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, Peñón de Alhucemas, Islas Chafarinas

Western Sahara

Somaliland

Abyei Area

Bir Tawil 

Kashmir, Jammu & Kashmir, Aksai Chin, Arunachal Pradesh

South China Sea

Taiwan

Senkaku Islands / Diaoyu Islands / Diaoyutai Islands

Liancourt Rocks

Kuril Islands

Essequibo

Transcript

Welcome to the Perspicacious Perspective.

My intentions in this episode are to inform you of all the disputed areas in the world that you ought to know about.

Naturally, with most of us populating areas of the world that have clearly demarcated borders, a lot of us are ignorant about those parts of the world where sovereignty over the land hasn’t yet been clearly established.

Let’s not forget that every area of the world was once a disputed territory in theory, and it was once normal for people to go out to war to either protect the land they’ve acquired, or to conquer new territory.

Obviously, the world has become considerably more civil and peaceful over time, but that hasn’t meant that nations haven’t disputed over territories they still believe to possess sovereignty over. So that’s what I’ll be addressing in this episode.

I’ll try to be as concise as I can, and tell you everything you need to know about why that area of the world is disputed including the necessary historical context.

I’ll start with the most infamously disputed region in the world: the Levant. The Levant, for those who might not know, are the countries that make up the Eastern Mediterranean region. So even though it technically includes the North African countries Libya and Egypt, as well as Europe’s Greek and Turkish regions, I’ll be focusing on the Golan Heights to start us off- which is disputed by Israel, Syria and Lebanon.

It might be a good idea to have a map up while you’re listening to this episode, but if it’s too inconvenient to do so, I’ll try my best to clarify exactly where these disputed territories are located in the world.

Golan Heights

So with that said, the Golan Heights can be found between Lebanon, Israel, Jordan and Syria. It borders Israel to the West, Lebanon to the North, Syria to the East, and Jordan to the South. It’s a plateau that’s roughly 1200 kilometres, and offers a strategic high ground overlooking northern Israel and southern Syria.

It was originally part of Syria who used the plateau to shell Israeli villages before the 1967 six-day-war where Israel captured the region from Syria. Syria tried to retake the Golan Heights from Israel in 1973 during the Yom Kippur War but were unsuccessful so Israel retained control of the plateau. Israel then passed the ‘Golan Heights Law’ in 1981, basically annexing the region, but the UN declared the annexation null and void. In 2019, under the Trump Administration, the USA became the only nation in the world to officially recognise Israeli sovereignty over the Golan Heights. The UN, the European Union, and most nations in the world still regard the Golan Heights as Syrian territory under Israeli occupation.

Shebaa Farms

The Shebaa Farms which is also known as Mount Dov, is a small strip of land that can be found on the border between Lebanon, Syria, and the northern part of the Golan Heights. It was under Syrian administration before 1967 though it was claimed by Lebanon at the time, and was then captured by Israel during the six-day-war alongside the Golan Heights.

In the year 2000, Israel withdrew from southern Lebanon but retained control of the Shebaa Farms, claiming that it’s part of the Syrian Golan. Lebanon argue it’s Lebanese land although the UN’s official maps place the region within Syrian territory, not Lebanese territory, which means they consider the region as part of the Golan dispute.

Cyprus

Let’s move across to the Eastern Mediterranean island: Cyprus; which is south of Turkey and West of Lebanon and Syria, again for those who don’t know or don’t have a map up in front of them.

Since 1974, Cyprus has been divided into two main parts: the Republic of Cyprus- which is an internationally recognised government and has been a member of the European Union since 2004; and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. The UN buffer zone also known as the Green Line separates the two sides and is patrolled by UN peacekeepers.

So Cyprus was part of the Ottoman Empire from 1571 to 1878, when it was leased to Britain. During World War I, in 1914, Britain annexed Cyprus which became a British colony. The UK, Greece and Turkey guaranteed independence to Cyprus in 1960 with a power-sharing agreement between the majority Greek Cypriots and the minority Turkish Cypriots. Greek Cypriots then began pushing for unification with Greece whereas Turkish Cypriots favoured a partition since they feared being marginalised by the Greek Cypriots. By 1963, clashes broke out which led to the collapse of the power-sharing government, and UN peacekeeping forces were then deployed in 1964 to prevent a civil war.

In 1974, a Greek backed military coup overthrew the then president and installed a regime that supported the unification with Greece. Turkey then invaded Cyprus and took control of the northern 37% of the island. 160,000 Greek Cypriots then fled the north and 50,000 Turkish Cypriots moved to the north.

Since, the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus declared independence in 1983 which is only recognised by Turkey. In 2004, a referendum for reunification was implemented by the UN which was supported by the Turkish Cypriots but rejected by the Greek Cypriots. Nonetheless, the Republic of Cyprus still joined the European Union that year. So Cyprus remains divided, the UN maintains a buffer zone running across the island, and all reunification talks have failed to date.

Nagorno‑Karabakh

Now let’s head north-east to the Caucasus region which is the land you’ll find between the Black and Caspian Sea which is composed of part of Russia, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan.

Nagorno-Karabakh is a disputed region which centres on competing claims between Armenia and Azerbaijan over the mountainous and historically Armenian-populated enclave that lies within the internationally recognised borders of Azerbaijan. Both Armenians and Azerbaijanis claim deep historical ties to the region.

After the Bolsheviks took over in 1921, Stalin placed Nagorno‑Karabakh within the Azerbaijan SSR, even though its population was majority Armenian. Armenians resented this decision and frequently petitioned to be reunited with Armenia, but any tensions were quickly suppressed by the Soviet regime.

The first Nagorno‑Karabakh War commenced in 1988, as the Soviet Union weakened. The local Armenian population demanded secession from Azerbaijan and unification with Armenia. Violence erupted between Armenians and Azerbaijanis; and pogroms (which are the organized persecutions of an ethnic group) and ethnic cleansing occurred on both sides.

Nagorno‑Karabakh attempted to declare independence as the Republic of Artsakh in 1991, although unrecognised, and a full scale war between the newly independent Amenia and Azerbaijan took place from 1992 to 1994. Armenia and Artsakh forces took control of Nagorno-Karabakh and 7 surrounding districts, which meant forcing out 700,000 Azerbaijanis. A ceasefire was brokered by Russia in 1994 although no peace treaty was signed.

So even though Nagorno‑Karabakh was governed by the self-proclaimed Republic of Artsakh, which was supported by Armenia, it was still considered part of Azerbaijan by the UN and international community.

The second Nagorno‑Karabakh War from September to November in 2020 was a major offensive launched by Azerbaijan to reclaim parts of Nagorno‑Karabakh and all seven surrounding districts which were taken in the early 90s. More than 6000 people were killed and thousands of Armenians were displaced. Armenia ceded territory and Russian peacekeepers were deployed in the Armenian-controlled areas after a ceasefire was brokered by Russia in November that year.

In September 2023, Azerbaijan launched a one-day lightening offensive. The Armenian-backed government of Artsakh surrendered and by October, most of the 120,000 ethnic Armenians fled to Armenia fearing ethnic persecution. By January 2024, Artsakh’s de facto government formally dissolved.

Mount Halti

Now let’s move to the northern tip of Europe to the Scandinavian mountains where Finland’s north-west borders Norway.  

This is definitely the most peacefully disputed region you’ll hear about on this episode. So much so, it’s actually deemed as a symbolic border adjustment proposal, rather than a dispute.

Mount Halti, in fact was actually supposed to be gifted to Finland by Norway in 2015 ahead of Finland’s 100th anniversary of independence. A Facebook group called “Give Finland Mount Halti for its birthday” helped to launch the movement initially. Norway’s government politely declined the proposal, stating that “Altering the border would violate the Constitution.” They said that changing borders, even symbolically, sets a complex legal precedent, especially under Norway’s constitution, which treats the national territory as fixed. They highlighted the fact that the area is part of the traditional lands of the Sámi people, an indigenous population with cross-border cultural and herding rights, so changing borders could complicate land and reindeer herding arrangements. Still, the Norwegian government praised the sentiment and friendship behind the idea.

It would have made Halti’s summit part of Finland, and would have given the country a new highest point.

Kosovo

Now let’s head southward to the Balkans, which refers to the bunch of European countries you’ll find between the Adriatic Sea on the Mediterranean, and the Black Sea, which sits on Turkey’s northern coast.

Kosovo is the disputed territory in question, which became a part of the kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes- then later socialist Yugoslavia- although Kosovo was an autonomous province within the Republic of Serbia.

Their autonomy was revoked by Slobodan Milosevic in 1989, which led to mass protests by ethnic Albanians and a growing Kosovar independence movement. In the 90s, Serbian authorities conducted a campaign of suppression, removing Albanians from public sector jobs and universities.

The Kosovo Liberation Army launched an armed insurgency against Serbian forces in 1998 and Serbia (then part of Yugoslavia) responded with brutal crackdowns, and were accused of ethnic cleansing and atrocities in the Kosovo War that took place between 1998 and 1999. It’s estimated that over 10,000 Albanians were killed and 850,000 Albanians were displaced.

After failed diplomacy and increasing violence in the war, NATO launched a 78-day bombing campaign against Serbia without UN Security Council approval. Yugoslav forces withdrew and Kosovo was placed under UN administration and secured by NATO peacekeepers.

On February 17, 2008, Kosovo’s parliament unilaterally declared independence from Serbia.

Serbia argues that the declaration of independence is illegal under international law. They view Kosovo’s independence as a violation of Serbia’s sovereignty and territorial unity. While Serbia has threatened military involvement; NATO has increased troop presence to stabilize the region, and interestingly, both Kosovo and Serbia aspire to join the European Union.

Over 100 countries recognise Kosovo’s declaration of independence which includes the States, the UK, France and Germany. Those who don’t recognise Kosovo as an independent nation include Serbia, Russia, China, India, Spain, Brazil and South Africa.

Olivenza

So we’ll now move southwest to the Iberian Peninsula, the land between the western Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic ocean that comprises Portugal and Spain. Olivenza can be found in the western Spanish province they call Extremadura, which borders Portugal. Olivenza was part of Portugal since 1297, after the Treaty of Alcañices between the kingdoms of Castile and Portugal. For over 500 years, it was under uninterrupted Portuguese administration.

In 1801, France, under Napoleon, and Spain pressured Portugal to break ties with Britain. When Portugal refused, Spain, backed by France, captured Olivenza. Portugal was forced to sign the Treaty of Badajoz, ceding Olivenza to Spain. Portugal however, later declared the treaty invalid, arguing the treaty was signed under duress. After Napoleon’s defeat, the 1815 Congress of Vienna addressed several territorial issues in Europe including the return of Olivenza to Portugal. Spain signed the Final Act, but never fulfilled its recommendation. 

So Olivenza is controlled by Spain, but Portugal still claims it. Portugal never officially relinquished its claim, but has not pursued it diplomatically in modern times either. The area is peacefully administered, with no border conflict, and shared European Union membership has defused tensions in the area. The dispute is considered dormant and non-controversial and both governments avoid bringing up Olivenza in official settings, treating it as a historical anomaly.

Gibraltar

Olivenza is not the only disputed area in Spain. On the southern tip of Europe, you’ll find another disputed area on the Iberian Peninsular: Gibraltar.

Gibraltar is a British Overseas Territory on the southern coast of Spain. You’ll find Gibraltar at the entrance of the Mediterranean Sea from the Atlantic Ocean, which they call the Strait of Gibraltar. It has a population of just 30,000 people who are mostly British citizens.

In 1704, Anglo-Dutch forces captured Gibraltar from Spain. Spain would go on to cede Gibraltar to Britain “in perpetuity” in 1713 under the Treaty of Utrecht, however, the treaty also said if Britain ever relinquished it, Spain would get the right of first refusal (which basically means Spain would have the first opportunity to buy or lease Gibraltar). Spain never fully accepted loss of sovereignty over Gibraltar.

Spain considers Gibraltar a colonial relic and seeks its return under the principle of territorial integrity. They argue the Treaty of Utrecht is outdated. They claim that British expansion beyond the original “fortified city” (like the airport for example, on land reclaimed by Spain) violates the treaty. Spain opposes Gibraltar’s self-determination, saying the dispute is bilateral between states.

The UK however, asserts that Gibraltar is British by legal treaty, and has exercised sovereignty for over 300 years. They cite the right to self-determination since the people of Gibraltar overwhelmingly wish to remain British. In 1967, 99.64% of Gibraltarians who voted, voted to remain British, and in 2002, 99.97% of Gibraltarians who voted, rejected the UK and Spain sharing sovereignty over Gibraltar. Gibraltar by the way has internal self-government, with the UK responsible for defence and any foreign affairs.

Ceuta, Melilla, Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, Peñón de Alhucemas, Islas Chafarinas

Directly south of Gibraltar, just across the strait of Gibraltar lies one of the 5 Spanish overseas territories they possess: Ceuta; which is a city of 85,000 Spanish residents. Ceuta was taken by Portugal in year 1415 and was transferred to Spanish control in 1580.

Portugal and Spain began occupying parts of North Africa during the Reconquista and early colonial expansions between the 15th and 17th centuries.

Melilla is another city you’ll find in the north of Morocco which belongs to Spain. Melilla has a population of 87,000 people and this city can be found on Morocco’s north-eastern coast on the Alboran Sea which is part of the Mediterranean Sea. 

Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, Peñón de Alhucemas, and the Islas Chafarinas were fortified by Spain between the 17th and 19th centuries and can also be found on Morocco’s northern coast on the Alboran Sea. 

These are all Spanish fortified territories with military presence and have remained under Spanish control for centuries, long before modern Morocco was established. 

Morocco however views these territories as colonial relics and claims they should be returned.

Morocco gained independence from France and Spain in 1956, but Ceuta, Melilla, and the other Spanish territories were excluded from the decolonization process.

Similarly to Gibraltar, the populations of Ceuta and Melilla are overwhelmingly pro-Spanish and have repeatedly expressed opposition to Moroccan sovereignty. Spain cites UN support for self-determination and argues that residents have chosen to remain Spanish.

Ceuta and Melilla are the European Union’s only land borders with Africa, which makes them key entry points for migrants and asylum seekers coming from or through Africa.

Moroccan authorities have occasionally loosened border controls as political pressure tactics, which has resulted in mass stormings of the fences. For example, the 2021 crisis in Ceuta where 8,000 migrants crossed into Spain through Ceuta.

Western Sahara

Morocco actually deeply links Spanish policy on Western Sahara to the status of Ceuta and Melilla.

Western Sahara is an African region- the size of Colorado- that you’ll find south-east of the Canary Islands, which of course belong to Spain.

If you’ve ever wondered why the Canary Islands belong to Spain, considering how far deep into the African Atlantic the islands are, well it’s because the Spanish conquered the region in the 15th century, which means they’ve possessed the Canary Islands for over 500 years.

The Spanish also colonised Western Sahara in 1884 and developed phosphate mines and fishing rights.

In the 1950s and 60s, the Sahrawi nationalist movement emerged, and they began demanding independence. The UN called on Spain in the 60s and 70s to decolonise Western Sahara. Spain agreed to withdraw, and handed administrative control to Morocco, which obviously borders the north of Western Sahara, and Mauritania, which borders the east, southeast, and south of Western Sahara. This was done without UN approval.

The Polisario Front, was a Sahrawi nationalist liberation movement that had been fighting for the independence of Western Sahara since the 1970s- 1973 to be precise. Their primary goal was to end Spanish colonial rule in Western Sahara. Since Algeria, who borders Morocco to the East, fought its own long, brutal war of independence against France from 1954 to 1962, it strongly identified with anti-colonial liberation struggles as well as having longstanding tensions over borders and regional influence with Morocco, which is why Algeria has always backed the Polisario Front.

When Morocco sent 350,000 civilians and 20,000 troops into Western Sahara in 1975 to assert its claim, the Polisario saw it as an occupation and fought a guerrilla war against both Morocco and Mauritania up until 1991. Mauritania withdrew in 1979, relinquishing its claim, however Morocco annexed Mauritania’s portion.

The war ended in 1991 with a UN brokered ceasefire. Morocco controls 80% of the territory, which basically makes up most of the central and Western portion of Western Sahara, and the Polisario controls 20% of the territory- which is basically the eastern portion of the Western Sahara.  

The UN considers Western Sahara as a non-self-governing territory. They support a self-determination referendum that has never occurred because Morocco wants to include the settlers they sent to Western Sahara in 1975- but the Polisario only want the people listed in the 1974 Spanish census to be eligible to vote which has created somewhat of a deadlock on the dispute.

Polisario declared a ceasefire breakdown after a Moroccan military operation in a buffer zone in November 2020. So the conflict is frozen but not resolved. There’s occasional skirmishes, deep diplomatic rifts, and there seems to be high stakes over resources and regional power in this part of the Sahara desert.

Somaliland

Now let’s move eastward to the Horn of Africa which comprises Eritrea, Djibouti, Ethiopia, and Somalia.

Somaliland is a self-declared republic in the northwest of Somalia. Its northern coast sits on the Gulf of Aden, which sits on the south coast of Yemen in the Middle East. It’s been de facto independent since 1991, however no UN member state officially recognises Somaliland as an independent state, which is why you may have never heard of it before.

Somaliland was actually once a British protectorate in the 1800s, and the rest of Somalia was under Italian control at the time.

British Somaliland did actually gain independence in 1960 which was recognised by 35 countries, but their independence lasted only for 5 days. Somaliland voluntarily united with the former Italian colony to form the Somali Republic.

So what happened?

The Union between Somaliland and the rest of Somalia was rocky. Political power and resources were perceived to be concentrated in Mogadishu, in the south, Somalia’s current capital city. The 1980s dictator regime violently oppressed northern dissent, including that of the Somaliland people. After the dictator was overthrown in 1991, Somalia collapsed into civil war and a northern rebel group declared Somaliland’s independence. Since then, Somaliland has functioned separately from Somalia.

So Somalia insists Somaliland is a part of Somalia, Somaliland is not officially recognised by the UN or African Union, it has its own functioning government, currency, militia and police and has actually enjoyed more stability than Somalia for over three decades.

So even though the world treats it as part of Somalia, Somaliland operates like an independent country. 

Abyei Area

To the West of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa is Sudan and South Sudan. On the border between the two nations is an area called Abyei- which is a disputed territory.

The First Sudanese Civil War between 1955 and 1972, and the Second Sudanese Civil War between 1983 and 2005, revolved partly around the north-south divide. Abyei’s mixed population means both sides claim historical ties.

A Comprehensive Peace Agreement in 2005 ended the second civil war in Sudan. The agreement gave Abyei a promise of a referendum for Abyei residents to choose whether to join the north or the south, and that they would have joint administration until the vote.

In January 2011, South Sudan voted overwhelmingly for independence. The Abyei referendum never happened since Sudan and South Sudan couldn’t agree on who qualified as a voter. In May 2011, Sudanese forces seized Abyei, displacing tens of thousands of people indigenous to the area. Two months later, South Sudan became independent without a settled Abyei status.

It’s important to note that before South Sudan’s independence, Abyei was part of Sudan’s oil-producing regions. Control of Abyei meant control over part of the oil revenue and pipeline routes. Also, two ethnic groups with different national loyalties claim rights to the land.

Currently, Abyei is under special UN administration. The United Nations patrols the area and is officially “jointly administered” by Sudan and South Sudan, but in practice the arrangement is dysfunctional. Both sides maintain an unofficial military presence.

Bir Tawil 

On Sudan’s northern border with Egypt, there is another disputed territory called Bir Tawil. It’s a desert area with almost no permanent population or infrastructure. It’s located south of the Hala’Ib Triangle, another disputed area between Egypt and Sudan- which borders the Red Sea to the East.

The 1899 "Political Boundary" was a straight line along the 22nd parallel north- which was the official border between Egypt (a British protectorate at the time) and Sudan (a condominium under joint British-Egyptian rule).

The 1902 "Administrative Boundary" was a boundary drawn by the British administration to accommodate the nomadic tribes’ grazing patterns: this shifted the administration of some areas between Egypt and Sudan.

So the Hala’Ib Triangle lies north of the 22nd parallel border but was administered by Sudan under the 1902 line, and Bir Tawil lies south of the 22nd parallel border but was administered by Egypt under the 1902 line.

Egypt claims the 1899 boundary as the official border, so it claims the Hala’Ib Triangle to the north but not Bir Tawil- which lies south of the 22nd parallel. Sudan claims the 1902 administrative boundary, so it claims the Hala’Ib Triangle to the north but not Bir Tawil (which lies south of the 1902 line). So both claim Hala’Ib Triangle but neither of Egypt or Sudan claim Bir Tawil because in doing so, they would undermine their claim to the more valuable Hala’Ib Triangle.

Bir Tawil is one of the few pieces of land on Earth that is unclaimed by any country. 

Kashmir, Jammu & Kashmir, Aksai Chin, Arunachal Pradesh

We’ll now head to the Himalayan region in South Asia where Jammu and Kashmir are one of the 3 disputed areas in South Asia.

Jammu and Kashmir are controlled by India, Pakistan and China as the Himalayan mountains act as a sort of natural border between the three nations. It was a princely state under British India with a mostly Muslim population but ruled by a Hindu Maharaja. At independence from the British Raj and partition in 1947, the Hindu Maharaja initially wanted to remain independent but in October 1947, tribal militias from Pakistan invaded Kashmir.

After India and Pakistan fought a war in 1947 to 48, the UN brokered a ceasefire, established the Line of Control dividing the region, and called for a referendum that never happened.

So India claims the whole of Kashmir, Pakistan claims Kashmir as a Muslim-majority region which is why they administer part of it, and even the Kashmiri’s themselves are divided. Some want independence, some favour Pakistan, and some favour India.

Aksai Chin lays on the other side of the Himalayan mountains which borders China’s autonomous region Tibet. It’s a high-altitude desert area controlled by China but claimed by India as part of Ladakh, which is the region that separates Aksai Chin and Jammu and Kashmir. China built a strategic road connecting Xinjiang and Tibet through Aksai Chin in the 1950s. This led to the Sino-Indian War of 1962, which culminated in China gaining control of Aksai Chin.

Arunachal Pradesh is another region on the Himalayas toward the north-eastern part of South Asia that borders Bhutan to the south-west, Bangladesh to the south, and Tibet to the North. China claims that Arunachal Pradesh is part of South Tibet, based on historical and cultural grounds however India administers the Arunachal Pradesh region completely.

So these regions along the Himalayas are disputed due to unclear accession after the partition of British India that created India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh; due to conflicting religious and ethnic identities; due to strategic geopolitical interests of India, Pakistan, and China; and due to unresolved political status and autonomy issues within the regions themselves.

South China Sea

Now let’s move over to East Asia on the South China Sea- which is East of Vietnam and South of China, where there are three islands, and various submerged banks, reefs, and Exclusive Economic Zone overlaps that are disputed. None of these islands have any permanent residents but these areas are disputed by China, Taiwan, Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia and Brunei since about 1/3 of global maritime trade passes through the areas, the areas are rich fishing grounds, and the areas possibly possess large oil and gas reserves. 

The islands in question are the Spratly Islands- which have hundreds of reefs, shoals, and islets scattered across the central South China Sea; the Paracel Islands; which is a cluster in the north of the South China Sea; and the Scarborough Shoal- which is near the Philippines.

Taiwan

Now let’s head over to the East China Sea which is east of China.

Taiwan is an island off the southeast coast of mainland China, separated by the Taiwan Strait with a population of 23 million people. It’s officially called the Republic of China. Taiwan has its own government, its own military, its own constitution, and its own economy — which operates like an independent country. The People’s Republic of China in Beijing claims Taiwan as a province of China, not a separate sovereign state.

After the Chinese Communist Party defeated the Kuomintang- the Nationalist Party in 1949 in the Chinese Civil War, the Kuomintang fled to Taiwan and continued to call themselves the Republic of China. The Chinese Communist Party declared the People’s Republic of China on mainland China. From this point, there were two governments claiming to be the legitimate government of all of China.

So mainland China think Taiwan is a breakaway province that must be reunified with the mainland, by force if necessary; and modern Tawain’s stance is that while originally claiming all of China, over time Taiwan shifted toward only governing its island and some outlying territories. Many in Taiwan now see it as a completely distinct entity from China.

So initially, many countries and the UN recognized the Republic of China in Taiwan as the legal government of all of China; including the mainland, then in 1971, they lost their seat to the People’s Republic of China in Beijing, mainland China. Today, only 12 UN member states recognise Taiwan.

Many people attribute the dispute surrounding Taiwan’s sovereignty to the fact that Taiwan is a major semiconductor manufacturing hub, making it strategically vital; and since it produces most of the world’s advanced microchips.

Senkaku Islands / Diaoyu Islands / Diaoyutai Islands

The Diaoyu Islands are what the Japanese call the Senkaku Islands, and what the Taiwanese call the Diaoyutai Islands.

These islands have no permanent civilian populations, and are just northeast of Taiwan, which is also on the East China Sea. China claims the islands were part of China from the 14th to the 16th centuries, but Japan claims they belonged to no one when they found them in 1885. 

After WWI, after the islands were under Allied occupation, the US returned the islands to Japan in 1971 since the islands had been administered by Japan formerly. The US does not take an official position on the sovereignty of the islands.

So the islands continue to be administered by Japan, but both mainland China and Taiwan claim sovereignty over the islands too.

Liancourt Rocks

The Liancourt Rocks can be found east of South Korea on the Sea of Japan (which the Koreans call the East Sea). They’re two main islets and about 35 smaller rocks. Their surrounding waters are rich in fish and possibly undersea natural gas deposits and was named “Liancourt Rocks” after a French whaling ship that almost ran aground there in 1849.

South Korea claims historical records from as early as the 6th century and argues Japan only began claiming the region in 1905 during the Russo-Japanese War, shortly before the annexation of Korea — framing it as part of Japan’s imperial expansion.

Since the Korean War armistice in 1953, South Korea has maintained continuous control, stationing a small police detachment and facilities like a lighthouse and helicopter pad. There are 2 registered South Korean civilians- a fisherman and his wife- who live there intermittently mainly for symbolic sovereignty reasons.

Japan argues the islets belonged to no one before 1905, when they incorporated the islets for strategic reasons during the Russo-Japanese War. 

After WWII, the 1951 San Francisco Peace Treaty required Japan to renounce Korea and other territories, but did not explicitly list Liancourt Rocks as part of Korea.

Kuril Islands

The Kuril Islands are a strip of islands that run from the north-east of Japan to the south-east of Russia, just south to the Sea of Okhotsk which have a population of between 20 to 25 thousand people. The islands are a volcanic archipelago that the Japanese call the Northern Territories.

Before the 20th century, control of the islands fluctuated between Japan and Russia. The 1855 Treaty of Shimoda gave Japan control over the four southernmost islands and Russia the rest of the Kuril Islands. The 1875 Treaty of Saint Petersburg gave Japan full control of the Kuril Islands in exchange for ceding Sakhalin Island to Russia; which is northwest to the Kuril Islands and sits just east of the Sea of Okhotsk, and has a population of 500,000 people. The Kuril islands were Japanese-administered until the end of WWII. 

When the Soviet Union declared war on Japan in 1945, they invaded the Kuril Islands. They then annexed the islands and expelled the Japanese residents. Japan renounced claims to the Kuril Islands but the treaty did not specifically mention the four southern islands. The Soviet Union did not sign the treaty and considered the islands part of its sovereign territory, administered as part of Sakhalin Oblast.

Japan claims the four southern islands are not part of the Kuril chain and thus were never legally ceded to the Soviet Union. They argue that these islands were Japanese territory before WWII and were illegally occupied by the Soviet Union. They view the dispute as an obstacle to signing a formal peace treaty to officially end WWII hostilities with Russia.

Russia claims sovereignty over the entire Kuril chain, including the four southern islands, based on wartime agreements and effective control since 1945. They consider the islands strategically important for military and economic reasons and they refuse to return the islands, viewing the claims as settled by history and international law.

The islands are valuable to the two nations because the islands control access to the Sea of Okhotsk and parts of the Pacific the islands; the islands have rich fishing grounds which surround the islands; they have potential offshore oil and gas deposits; and since 1945, Russia has installed military bases there, including radar and air defence installations.

So there’s been no formal peace treaty between Japan and Russia due to this dispute; there’s been occasional talks over joint economic activities but there’s been no resolution to the dispute; Japanese leaders periodically raise the issue as a national priority; however Russia has expanded infrastructure and military presence, reinforcing its control over the region.

Essequibo

We’ll move on to the last disputed region I’m gonna talk about on this episode which is in the Americas.

It’s in South America and the dispute is between Guyana and Venezuela over the Essequibo region.

The dispute dates back to colonial times when the area was contested between the British colony of British Guiana (now Guyana) and Venezuela (then part of the Spanish Empire). The Treaty of 1814 transferred control of British Guiana from the Dutch to Britain, but Venezuela contested the exact boundaries. Venezuela claimed the territory west of the Essequibo River based on Spanish colonial claims, however Britain expanded its claim eastward. Tensions particularly grew during the late 19th century due to gold discoveries.

In 1899, an international arbitration tribunal (composed of representatives from Britain, Venezuela, and the United States) awarded most of the disputed territory to Britain’s British Guiana.

Venezuela accepted the ruling for decades but later challenged it, claiming that the arbitration was unfair and biased. Venezuela argues the 1899 arbitration award was null and void, alleging that there was collusion and unfair proceedings. It claims the Essequibo region as its rightful territory based on historical and geographical grounds and they assert that the discovery of oil offshore in the area near the disputed territory strengthens its claim.

Guyana maintains the 1899 arbitration award is final and binding under international law and exercises full sovereignty and administration over the Essequibo region today. The country has developed oil resources offshore in recent years, which they believe to increase their stakes to claim the region.

So in 1966, Venezuela and Britain attempted to peacefully resolve the dispute, but failed to reach an agreement. In 2018, Guyana referred the dispute to the International Court of Justice, but Venezuela refuses to participate in proceedings, arguing the court has no jurisdiction. The International Court of Justice ruled in 2020 that it has jurisdiction and will hear the case. The dispute has increased tensions between the two countries, especially with recent offshore oil discoveries by Guyana.

The area is hotly disputed because it’s rich in natural resources, including: gold and diamonds from river mining; offshore oil and gas reserves, with major discoveries by companies like ExxonMobil near the disputed maritime boundary; and control over the territory and adjacent maritime zones impacts economic development and energy resources.

The dispute remains unresolved and is currently before the International Court of Justice. Guyana continues to exercise effective control and asserts legal sovereignty over both west and east of the Essequibo river today.

So these are the territories that are disputed around the world today. I’ve obviously skipped Israel and Palestine for 2 reasons, firstly, because a lot of us will know about what’s going on over there and secondly, because I’ve done another episode on Israel and Palestine where I go through the history of the conflict in a bit more detail.

I’ve also not mentioned the Crimea and Donbas dispute because it’s already led to a full scale war between the Ukraine and Russia, which I’ve also done another episode on- so check that out if you’re interested in the history behind that conflict.

I enjoyed doing the research for this episode so I hoped you learned a thing or two yourself. Subscribe if you wanna hear more content like this as I plan going forward to post more episodes that can give you a new perspective on the world. 

Anyway, I hope this episode’s given you a more perspicacious perspective on the disputed regions around the world.

Until next time. Peace out.