Ten emperors of Rome: The good, the bad and the ugly

This episode looks at the achievements and excesses of some Rome's best and worst Emperors. Enjoy

Transcript

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Welcome back to episode 2 of Just History and today I'm gonna be looking at the good, the bad, and the ugly of Roman Emperors. Um first of all, I would just like to thank everyone who downloaded the first episode. Um it was truly amazing and I'm just so grateful to be able to share this stuff with you and also the variety of where people have downloaded it from Melbourne to Lithuania to Brazil, all around Australia, um it is truly amazing. So thank you all. I think from here on in they'll mostly be around about an hour. I kind of got a little carried away last time, but in a good way. Also, I'd like to special thanks to Leo Cunz, my producer, and um and also being able to record at Songland Studio, and I'll put a link up on my page so you'll be able to find that as well. Also, send in some feedback and if you uh feel so inclined, you can support the podcast for the princely sum of three dollars a month, and obviously, as I said on the on the website, that'll keep the history flowing. So I'm going through the ten most famous Roman emperors. Now, the criteria itself is quite interesting, and of course, it inevitably led to me going down the rabbit hole of how many emperors were there? So who are we choosing from? And guess what? It all depends on how you measure it. So in the classical Western Empire, which existed from 27 BC to 746 AD, there is between 70 to 85, depending on how we measure what makes an emperor, with including co-emperors, it goes up to 96, including usurpers, it got blows out to 140 to 200, and then when we include the eastern half, the Byzantine Empire, it goes out to 180 to 207. So um, you know, it does lead to the question of how we ended up with the 10 that we did. So I'll go through who I came up with. Well, number one is of course Augustus. He was the first, so um he gets a gig. Uh he reigned between 27 BC and 14 AD, which was 41 years. The first emperor of Rome, Augustus established a principate and ushered in the Pax Romanus, which I talked about last week, which was a long period of relative peace and stability, but I'm not planning to go back over all of that again. Number two, Tiberius from 14 AD to 37 AD, 23 years. Augustus' stepson. Tiberius was a competent military leader but became increasingly reclusive and unpopular. And he withdrew to the island of Caprio, of Capri. Um, I've just got to mention I was in um I drove down that coast. I was on a bus trip to go to Pompeii, and it's a beautiful coastline, and I never actually got to Capri, but I got to go down that coastline. But the thing was, the bus driver, it's got these steep cliffs and a winding road, and the bus driver's got his radio on listening to Napoli play soccer, and he's quite invested in the soccer game as opposed to driving the bus. And as we're going down this winding road with the sheer cliff that would have taken us into the sea, game over, Napoli score, he's got both hands off the steering wheel, cheering, steering with his knees. So I've had a few run-ins with the Grim Reaper, I'm pretty sure that was one of them. Anyway, moving on. Number three, probably infamous, is Kil Caligula, and he ruled from 37 AD to 41. He only lasted four years. Known for his eccentricity and tyranny, his rule was marked by cruelty and excess. His rule had a genuine impact on how Roman life is often imagined to be. And I guess the point I'm making here, and this came about as recently as last night when I turned on Netflix and I'm watching a show about Spartacus. And you know, within ten minutes, everyone's got their clothes off, and there's an orgy. Um, and I think a lot of this comes from um Caligula's rule, um, and it really has had quite an impact on how people think about Roman life. But the reality was we're talking about, you know, um how the top point two five percent of the population behaved, and the sheer wealth that they had a access to, um, like any other age of history, we can't really um see this as the norm. The majority of Roman people were very family-oriented and it was quite a conservative, you know, society, um, very much based on patriarchy and family. Um, and I think one of the key clues there is that's why he lasted only four years, because the Romans had limited tolerance for his carry-on. Anyway, moving on, his number four, Claudius, from 41 AD to 54, he lasted 13 years. Despite being underestimated due to his disabilities, Claudius expanded the empire, notably conquering Britain, and implemented a whole range of um administrative reforms. Number five, Nero, fifty-four AD to sixty eight AD, fourteen years. Um again covered in last week's episode through the Great Fire. He was famed for his artistic pretensions and alleged tyranny. Nero's reign ended in chaos amid revolts and the Great Fire of Rome. Number six Vespian. He ruled from sixty nine to seventy nine AD, that's ten years. Vespian restored stability after the year of four emperors, which is probably podcast in its own right, and began the construction of the Colosseum, the founder of the Flavian dynasty. Under Trajan, the Roman Empire reached its greatest territorial extent, celebrated for his military conquest and public building projects. Hadrian from 117 to 138 AD, 21 years, known for consolidating the empire rather than the expanding of it. He also built, of course, Hadrian's Wall in Britain and also for his cultural patronage. nine Marcus Aurelius 161 AD to 180 AD nineteen years. The philosopher king, Marcus Aurelius, is remembered for his stoic writings in meditations and his commitment to duty during challenging times. And number ten, Constantine the Great. He was the first Christian emper emperor and also consolidated the Western and Eastern halves of the Empire. Now the next thing that cropped up was of course the historiography that is the sources that we're using and with all things Roman um and Roman history, it's always important to remember that we're relying on what has survived, and you know, there's only a finite supply. So I'll just quickly run through what they are. We've got Tactius, his histories and annals. Tacti Tactius provides detailed a detailed account of the Roman Empire, including the reigns of the emperors like Tiberius, Nero, and Dominitian. His writing highlights the themes of political intrigue, moral decline, and the complexities of imperial rule. Suetonius brings a combination of anecdotes and details about the lives of the emperors. Then we have Cassius Dio, who wrote Roman history. Cassius Dio, a Roman senator, covered from the founding of the Roman Empire up to the third century and has detailed narratives of Augustus, Nero, and Marcus Aurelius' reigns. Plutarch, he wrote parallel lives, and mostly focuses on Greek figures, especially particularly useful for Alexander the Great, but we'll say that for another day. He focuses on Julius Caesar and Pompey in particular. Then we have our secondary sources, Appian, he wrote a Roman history which looked at the civil wars and the rise of the Empire. We have Livy, who wrote Ab Urbay Condita. Livy's monumental work covers the history of Rome from its foundation to the early emp empire. Also looks more broadly at the Emperor. I also wanted to mention a few modern authors. And also she also, you know, challenges a lot of the orthodoxies or of you what we've all considered to be fact about Rome. One of her most recent works is SPQR, A History of Ancient Rome, and The Emperor of Rome, and also the Twelve Caesars. I'd strongly recommend all of those. Adrian Goldsworthy, The Complete Roman Army, and Pax Romona Romana, Tom Holland, he's a popular and accessible author. Also, I wanted to just throw in a few that influenced me when I was younger. Um one of the first things I wrote one was Ellen Massey, I read, I should say, was Ellen Massey's The Caesars, and that was um published in 1983, and that went through I guess the twelve big names, and that was definitely one of the first things I'd read on um Roman Emperors and I guess the im you know influence the way I thought about it and also I guess ignited an interest that's continued onwards. Also, I I read Gibbon's Decline of the Roman Em Empire, which was written all the way back in 1776 to 78. Now, some of this I guess has been seen as outdated, but um it probably was the first attempt at writing a modern history where he rather than just cobbling together a whole series of anecdotes, um, he made a genuine attempt to um double-check the facts, used archaeological findings, used actual documentary history. Um and he concluded that uh decline and fall of the Roman Empire was in fact caused by the rise of Christianity and the adoption of Christianity, in that he essentially argued that uh Romans lost their edge, um that they became passive to some extent. Now modern scholars have more or less rejected this argument, but these things have to start somewhere. Also, I guess he also explored the notion that there was a sudden decline and fall of the Roman Empire. Um now a couple of things need to be pointed out. Um he did have a largely Eurocentric view of the Roman Empire, so as far as he was concerned, the Western half was the half that mattered, and frankly, the eastern half didn't really count. So he saw, you know, the fact that the eastern half continuing on for another thousand years after the western half disappearing as being not so relevant. Um and again, this view that it suddenly fell over has been largely rejected by more modern scholars, and that they saw it as a more accurately depicted as a gradual decline. Augustus, originally known as Octavian, was a pivotal figure in Roman history and his contribution to the Roman Empire Empire was vast. He in many ways I guess defined what it meant to be an emperor and in also became the template that the following emperors were measured against. Um his first an important step was establishing the Principate. Uh Augustus established the Principate, a system of government that maintained the facade of the Roman Republic while concentrating power in his hands. He became the first Roman emper emperor marking the transition from the Republic to an imperial system. As I said, it's under his rulership that the Pax Romana begins. Augustus initiated the Pax Romana, Roman peace, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability across the empire, allowing trade and culture to flourish. Because he worked out that there's no way that the whole thing could be done by one person or centrally. And also he introduced a census and taxation. Augustus conducted a census to improve the tax collection and ensure fair taxation which helped stabilize the economy. He also introduced a standing army, he established a professional standing army, and created the Praetorian Guard to protect the Emperor, enhancing military stability. He also expanded the borders, securing and fortifying them, particularly in regions like the Balkans. He em initiated extensive building projects including roads, bridges, aqueducts, and public buildings, enhancing urban infrastructure throughout the whole empire. And I guess it's an obvious point, but um I mean one of the defining features of Roman culture and Roman expansion is what they built and what has survived. Um and that not only did the all of These all of this building improved people's lives, but it also was a way of Rome being able to signify that they were here, that they had taken over. He also introduced a range of religious form reforms, the restoration of traditional values, he revived traditional Roman religious practices and institutions, emphasizing moral values and civic duty. Also, he developed a cult of personality around himself as emperor. Augustus fostered the cult of personality around himself, promoting the idea of his divine favor and connection to the gods. He also codified the laws, he enacted various laws that aimed at improving social order, including laws that promoted marriage and family values and punishing moral decay. So his legacy was Augustus set a precedent for future emperors, establishing the role of emperor as central to Roman governance. His reign is often viewed as the golden age of Rome, influencing Roman culture, governance, and identity for centuries. Augustus' adept combination of military strength, political savvy, and social reform laid the foundation for the Roman Empire's success and longevity. His reign marked a significant turning point in history, transitioning Rome from a republic to a powerful empire. Number two, Tiberius. Tiberius, the second Roman Emperor, ruled from fourteen AD to thirty seven AD. His reign is often characterized by a mix of military success, administrative efficiency, and increasing paranoia. Here's a detailed look at Tiberius' reign, including his accomplishments and the challenges he faced. His background was he was born in 42 BC. Tiberius was the son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla, who later married Augustus, and he was adopted by Augustus in 4 AD as part of the succession plan, becoming his heir after the death of Augustus's other heirs. Now the interesting thing about Tiberius, when he became emperor, one of the early on he said, I wish I could give it back. So the signals there from early on that he was to some extent unwilling, an unwilling emperor. His administrative accomplishments were he was known for his administrative skills, maintaining many of the reforms initiated by Augustus. And in many ways his capacity to just keep things running was one of I guess his strong points. He also continued to work on tax reforms. He focused on consolidating the Empire's finances, ensuring stable revenue through efficient tax collection and fiscal discipline. So he continued to just keep things ticking over. His military achievements included Tiberius successfully managed military campaigns in Germania and conducted operations in eastern provinces securing the empire's borders. Unlike Augustus, Tiberius was less interested in expanding the empire, preferring to solidify its current boundaries. However, he did have to deal with, I guess, increasingly complex relationship with the Senate. Tiberius initially maintained a cooperative relationship with the Senate, but his later years were marked by increasing tensions and distrust. He gradually expanded the powers of the emperor at the expense of the Senate, leading to resentment among senators, and who was also not afraid to remote remove those that spoke out against his reign, hence his reputation for tyranny. The major challenges and controversies of his reign were, as I said, his increasing isolation. Following the death of Augustus, Tiberius became increasingly withdrawn and retreated to the island of Capri, which fueled r rumors and speculation. The fact that he spent so much time out of Rome, I guess logically led to the question, um, well, what's he doing on the island of Capri? Um and as we all know, it's a valid question to ask, perhaps, when people retreat to islands, and of course, um all sorts of rumors sprang up around his uh personal likes and dislikes, and um and there was a certain amount of controversy about his behavior on Capri. Uh his final years and death, as his reign progressed, Tiberius became more detached from government, leading to increasing instability. He died in 37 AD under circumstances which remain unclear and possibly suspicious, with some suggesting foul play. He left a mixed legacy characterized by both effective government and tyrannical tendencies due to his willingness, as I said, to remove, I guess, the opponents or critics of his reign. The reign of Caligula, one of the most infamous emperors, Caligula born Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus, reigned as the third Roman Emperor from thirty seven to forty one AD, a mere four years. His rule is often remembered for its extravagance, cruelty, and erratic behavior, leading to a notorious legacy. His early life and rise to power, he was born in twelve AD and was the son of Germanicus, a beloved general and Agrippina the Elder. He grew up in the shadow of his illustrious family. He also was given and his name Caligula actually means little boots, and he got this nickname from the troops and soldiers of Rome and he was a favorite amongst the troops. So that's actually what Caligula means. Caligula began his reign with a series of reforms that earned him the favor of the public and the military. He granted bonuses to the troops and hosted extravagant games. He also reversed some of Tiberius' repressive policies and released political prisoners and restored certain freedoms. So it all started quite well, and I guess in some ways he wanted to clearly uh differentiate himself from particularly the second half of Tiberius' reign. However, things started to go downhill shortly after. Caligula's reign became infamous for its extravagance including monumental monumental construction projects and lavish banquets, which strained the Imperial Treasury. He often engaged in bizarre public spectacles such as racing chariots and hosting extravagant parties which contributed to his reputation for success. Now this was very much at odds with what um I guess the Roman people had seen with Augustus and even Tiberius because whatever Tiberius did or didn't do, at least he had the good sense to be on Capri while he was doing it. Um whereas Callegal is very much about um doing it publicly, and I think in many ways was quite interested in seeing just how far he could push his own authority, and I also think he quite enjoyed shocking the Roman um public. His Caligula's behavior became increasingly erratic, leading to paranoia and a sense of impending betrayal. He executed or exiled many perceived enemies. His reign also saw acts of extreme cruelty including public executions and torture, often for trivial offences. His whims often dictated life and death for many. His political and military actions included he launched a military campaign and an invasion of Britain which ended in retreat. Now this is kind of amusing because in ancient times they used to consult the augurys or that is the will of the gods before they started any major venture like like an invasion of Britain, and the troops did not like the signs, and they more or less refused to get on the boats. So he's standing there with his army in Gaul with his invasion army. So he decided, partly to humiliate them, he ordered them all to start collecting seashells, and they decid he decided that they would attack the sea, which he declared a success. So you could be this was the beginning and a pretty clear symptom of his increasing mental instability. He also continued on with the idea he ought with the cult of personality, he proclaimed himself a living god and demanded worship which ain't which alienated many traditional elites. After four years of increasingly erratic behavior, now he did he was assassinated. Um and there was increasing disquiet amongst the Senate and the Praetorian Guard, which was his personal bodyguard. In 41 AD he was assassinated in a conspiracy led by the officers in the Praetorian Guard and Senators. Now, if you go to the capital and the Palatine Hill in Rome, you can go and stand on exactly the spot where Caligula was assassinated, which was which is quite amazing, because what the emperor had was his own personal passageway from their palace to um the Senate, and it was at the end of this passageway where he was killed, so you can go and have a look at that. So overall Caligula's reign is seen as a cautionary tale of absolute power and its potential too corrupt. His initial popularity was overshadowed by his later excesses and cruelty, leading to a legacy of infamy that endures in historical accounts. The chaotic nature of his rule and the circumstances leading to his assassination highlight the vulnerabilities of imperial power. The reign of Claudius. Claudius, the fourth Roman Emperor, ruled from forty-one AD to fifty-four AD. His reign is often marked by significant administrative reforms, political expansion, and a cultural renaissance, alongside challenges stemming from his initial reputation as an unlikely emperor. Claudius was born with a stammer, um and in many ways was able to survive Caligula's rule by very much staying in the background, and some have argued by him overemphasizing his lack of ability to step up and become emperor, which allowed him to not be killed during Caligula's reign. The key aspects of his reign included efficient government. Claudius reorganized the imperial administration, introducing reforms that improved efficiency and reduced corruption in provincial governance. Like any decentralized system, he had to introduce or improve the levels of oversight of regional governors because these people had often been left to run their own show and certainly proceeded to line their own pockets all over the empire. So he dealt with that. Also, he implemented legal reforms that included changes to the judicial system that allowed for greater access to justice for the lower classes. Um, I guess across many periods of history. If you don't have money, then you're gonna have difficulty accessing, you know, effective legal representation. And Claudius uh went about addressing this, not saying everyone had equal access, but he certainly improved it. Also, military expansion, probably best known for his invasion of Britain in 43 AD, which marked the beginning of Roman rule in the region. He personally led the military campaign and established a Roman presence that would last for centuries. Now, I guess probably partly in many ways, um what Claudius so desperately wanted to do was show that he was a capable and active military leader given that he'd been written off in many ways as someone who was even capable of being a Roman Empire and let alone successfully leading a military campaign. And it was successful, and it led to um the conquering, particularly of the southern half of Britain, but that took quite a long time to complete. His cultural contributions included he promoted literature and the arts, fostering a cultural renaissance. He supported writers and historians, including the historian Tacticus Tacitus, who I discussed earlier. His reign also saw significant public works projects, including the construction of roads, aqueducts, and public buildings enhancing urban infrastructure. So again, this is a recurring theme that I guess one of the hallmarks of the good emperors, if you like, was their commitment to continue to build infrastructure all over the empire, thus improving the lives of citizens all over the empire. Now, this is not just pure benevolence either. It's ensuring that people feel the benefits of being a Roman citizen. As Claudius aged, he became more reliant on advisors, particularly Agrippina and her son Nero, leading to concerns about the influence of those around him. Claudius died in fifty four AD, again with speculation surrounding his death suggesting he might have been poisoned by Agrippina to ensure Nero's ascendancy as emperor. His reputation, Claudius is often viewed as an effective ruler who expanded the empire and enacted significant reforms. However, his reliance on advisors and the circumstances of his death cast a shadow over his legacy. His death marked the beginning of Nero's reign, which will lead to a very different period for the Roman Empire. The reign of Nero. Nero, the fifth Roman Empire ruled Emperor ruled from fifty four AD to sixty eight AD. His reign is famously marked for extravagance, artistic ambition and notorious cruelty, culminating in significant downfall that altered the course of Roman history. His background was born in thirty seven AD, Nero was the son of Agrippina the Younger and Naeus Dominus Aquibarbus. He was adopted by his stepfather Claudius, becoming heir to the throne. After Claudius' death in fifty four AD, Nero ascended to the throne at the age of sixteen. Initially he was popular. He ruled with the gardens of his advisors, including the philosopher Seneca and the prefect Burus. His early reign was marked by relatively moderate policies and public welfare initiatives. Nero was a patron of the arts, famously participating in public performances including music and poetry, which endeared him to some segments of the population. However, others thought that this was highly improper and really not part of what an emperor should be doing. Nevertheless, um he persisted. Military and foreign affairs, Nero's Jane saw both successes and failures in military campaigns, including conflicts in Britain and against Parthia. His military decisions, however, were often criticized. Nero in many ways was erratic. So sometimes he got right, sometimes he got it horribly wrong, and he was certainly not the first Roman emperor to come unstuck against the Parthians, which I might have mentioned last week, as a civilization were incredibly difficult to beat because they matched up well against Romans legions because they used a combination of horse archers who, if you charge them, just rode away and then had what we called cataphracts, which were heavy cavalry covered in armor that was specifically designed to literally crunch their way through Rome's legions. So what they would do was wear down the Romans through constant bow fire and then eventually they would charge with the cataphracts and it proved effective. So it often meant that Rome's achievements in Pattia were at best temporary. Over time Nero became increasingly preoccupied with personal interests, leading to a neglect of military affairs and growing discontent amongst the army. Now, as I said in last week's episode, I guess the beginning of the end for Nero was the Great Fire of Rome, and I talked about that in some detail last week. But um as I said, uh he was certainly accused of ordering the fire to be leaked to clear the way for his brand new palace and also and then scapegoated Christians and basically blamed them for starting the fire. Um but yeah, it led to you know quite widespread unpopularity. And also, in combination with Nero's later years, were marked by increasing tyranny, including the execution of political rivals, including his former mentor Seneca, and his own mother Agrippina, who he viewed as a threat. His Nero famously publicly participated in various artistic competitions and performances, and as I said, this did not go down well amongst traditionalists, and also led to, you know, I guess in many ways, the farcical situation of where the other con contestants really had to weigh up whether winning the competition was a very good career move or not. So as you can imagine, people tended to let Nero win. Um his downfall was caused by a combination of factors. As his tyranny escalated, public opinion turned against him. The military facing discontent began to falter in their loyalty. Several uprisings occurred during his reign, the most notable being the revolt of Vindex in Gaul and the subsequent actions of General Galba. Facing imminent overthrow, Nero fled Rome and ultimately committed suicide, famously declaring what an artist dies in me. His death marked the end of the Julio Claudian dynasty. The reign of Vespian. Vespian, the founder of the Flavian dynasty, reigned as Roman Emperor from 69 AD to 79 AD. His rule marked a critical period of stabilization and reconstruction following the chaos of the year of the four emperors. Now just to follow that up a little bit, the year of the four emperors after after the end of Nero really saw for the first time the um you know the crown the title of emperor being offered around and and for the first time it saw the Praetorian Guard, the guard that had been set up to protect the emperor, effectively being able to choose who they liked as emperor. And again, um certainly something worth having a look at in the future in more detail. Born in 9 AD in the Sabine region, Vespian came from a relatively modest background. He had a successful military career, notably in Britain and also during the Jewish wars. Vespian seized power during the tumultuous year of the four emperors in 69 AD, emerging victorious after a series of civil wars and claiming the throne amid the chaos. Restoration of order was his first major challenge. Vespian focused on restoring stability to the empire after the civil unrest that followed Nero's death. He worked to reinstate confidence in the imperial government. He also strengthened the military by ensuring loyalty through pay increases and benefits, which enhanced the troops' morale and effectiveness. As I said, the army was feeling increasingly neglected in the latter half of Nero's reign, and Vespian quite sensibly and clearly saw that a large amount of any emperor's power came through military might and being able to back up his position with the use of force, and he was smart enough to work this out. He also introduced and also addressed financial stability. Vespian implemented significant fiscal policies to restore the Empire's finances largely through Calligular and Nero's uh rather uh chaotic spending um that the Empire had and the M the finances of the Emperor had taken quite a hit. So he set about fixing that. Um he also initiated extensive public works including once again Rhodes Temples and the Coliseum. As I said, he conducted the Jewish war between 66 and 73 AD, which had begun under Nero. He sent his son Titus to complete the siege of Jerusalem, leading to its destruction in 70 AD and solidifying Roman control in Judea. His military campaigns reinforced Roman power in the provinces and ensured the loyalty of the military, which was crucial for maintaining order. Overall, Vespian was known for his pragmatic approach to governance. He emphasized efficiency and competence in administration, often appointing capable officials regardless of their social status. In many ways, really favoring a meritocracy where he made decisions based on people's abilities. He died in 79 AD, reportedly uttering the famous last words I think I am becoming a god, reflecting both his imperial status and the divine associations of emperors. The reign of Trajan. Trajan, the Roman Emperor, ruled from ninety eight AD to one hundred and seventeen AD, is often regarded as one of the greatest emperors in Roman history. His reign is characterized by military expansion, extensive public works, and a commitment to social welfare. Born in fifty three AD in Italica, modern day Spain, Trajan was of a prominent family. He had a distinguished military career serving under Emperors Vespian, Titus and Domitian. After the death of Nerva in ninety-eight AD, Trajan was adopted as his successor. His accession marked the beginning of a period of prosperity and expansion for the Roman Empire. Some key military expeditions included the Dacium Wars. One of Trajan's most notable achievements was his successful campaign against Dacia, modern day Romania. The wars, which went from 101 to 102 AD and 105 to 106 AD, resulted in the annexation of Dacia, significantly expanding the empire's territory and wealth. Also, like others, he had Parthian campaigns. Trojan also launched campaigns against the Parthian Empire, achieving victories and briefly annexing Armenia and parts of Mesopotamia, further extending Roman influence. Again, like many of the good emperors, efficient governance. Trajan focused on improving the administration of the empire. He reinforced the authority of provincial governors and implemented reforms to enhance local governance. He made significant strides in legal reforms promoting justice and fairness, including measures to protect the rights of the poor, and again public works and infrastructure. Trajan is renowned for his extensive public works, of course the big three roads, bridges and aqueducts, and his most famous construction is Trajan's Forum, which included a monumental column commemorating his victories in Dacia, which you can still go and see today. He was a patron of the arts, Trajan supported literature architecture, fostering a cultural renaissance during his reign. His building projects and patronage of the arts left a lasting impact on Roman architecture and culture. He was known for actively engaging with the populace and his legacy is seen as he is often included in the list of five good emperors, a term used to describe a period of relative peace and prosperity in the Roman Empire. Under Trajan, the Roman Empire reached its maximum territorial extent. His reign is viewed as the high point in Roman history characterized by military strength, economic prosperity, and cultural achievements. Trajan's legacy is one of military success, administrative efficiency, and a commitment to public welfare, solidifying his places as one of Rome's truly great emperors. Trajan's health began to decline in his later years, and he faced increasing challenges managing the vast territories he had acquired. Before his death in 117 AD, Trajan adopted Hadrian as his successor, ensuring a smooth transition of power. Hadrian would go on to be another of Rome's renowned emperors. Trajan's reign is often seen as the golden age for the Roman Empire, characterized by military conquest, administrative efficiency, and cultural flourishing. His emphasis on public welfare and infrastructure development left a lasting legacy, helping maintain stability and prosperity in the empire. The accomplishments of his reign set a high standard for future emperors and defined a period of Roman history that is celebrated today. The reign of Hadrian. Hadrian, the Roman Emperor from 117 AD to 138 AD, is best known for consolidating and strengthening the Empire's borders as well as for his cultural and architectural contributions. His reign marked a significant shift in Roman policy, emphasizing stability and consolidation over expansion. He was born in seventy six AD in Italica. Hadrian was from a prominent family and well educated in various fields, including philosophy and literature. He succeeded Trajan after the latter's death in 117 AD. Initially Hadrian was viewed as a capable leader continuing many of Trajan's policies while introducing his own. One of his first steps was he concluded that the Roman Empire was now large enough. And in many ways, some historians suggested that at this point, I guess, was the beginning of the decline of the Roman Empire because up to this point it had been based on a model of continuous growth. And this is where that story ends or certainly slows down. One of Hadrian's significant decisions was to abandon some of Trajan's eastern conquests. He recognized the difficulties of maintaining control over such expansive territories, especially in Parthian Armenia. Instead of further expansion, Hadrian focused on fortifying the empire's existing borders. He constructed walls and fortifications, the most famous being Hadrian's. Wall in Britain marking the northern limit of Roman control. Well, actually, that's not entirely accurate because later on they did also build another wall well north of Hadrian's Wall called the Antonine Wall. However, um now Hajian's Wall uh I've had the good fortune of visiting it. It's a truly amazing um construction and it goes from one coast to the other and uh and standing on the wall makes you understand um what a gives you well some idea of what it would have been like as a Roman legionary to stand probably what they viewed as the most godforsaken corner of the empire, staring out into the mist, I guess hoping that that the Scots wouldn't appear and attack them, but often um it was a military deterrent but also a way of regulating trade in that it controlled who couldn't could and couldn't cross the border, and also it acted again as a physical demonstration of Roman power quite effectively. Um and with a bit of luck next year I am certainly planning to walk the whole thing and uh and no doubt I would like to turn that into some kind of event, whether it's a podcast or a video or something, but certainly something I've got in mind for the future, but more on that another day. Um he also uh famously re rebuilt the Partheon, completing it in around 126 AD. The architectural marvel remains one of the best preserved buildings from ancient Rome, known for its massive dome and Oculus. Um again, I've had the good fortune to visit this building and um and even my teenage sons who weren't necessarily always universally impressed by some of these landmarks that we visited, I mean, most notably saying when confronted with the Eiffel Tower, geez, it's not that big, which was kind of amusing. But they were certainly impressed by the Partheon, and it is a truly beautiful building, um, and if you ever get the chance, or if you're ever in Rome, make sure that you go and have a look. It's absolutely must see. Um so there's the Partheon. Also, he was engaged in cultural and intellectual patronage. Hadrian was a patron of the arts and letters, encouraging cultural development throughout the empire. His reign saw a flourishing of philosophy, literature, and the arts. He was also influenced by the Stoic philosophy and maintained a personal interest in intellectual pursuits, fostering a cultural environment that celebrated learning and creativity. So I guess an interesting part of the narrative of these ten emperors is that you see considerable diversity how that they all had their own areas of interest and that they're all able to to some extent put their own stamp on it. Now, um some took it um in the direction um such as Caligula's sexual activities. Nero obviously saw himself as an artist. Um Hadrian was more intellect interested in intellectual pursuits. So um and I guess that's an important part of the narrative. Uh later years, Hadrian's health began to decline in his later years and he faced increasing challenges. He died in 138 AD in Bay, modern day Italy. Before his death he adopted Antonius Pius as his successor, ensuring yet again another smooth transition of power. And again, this was a hallmark perhaps of the better emperors in that they took clear steps to ensure a successor and ensure that there was a clear and obvious successor to their own reign. The reign of Marcus Aurelius. Marcus Aurelius, known as the philosopher emperor, ruled as the Roman Emperor from 161 AD to 180 AD. His reign is often celebrated for its philosophical pursuits, military challenges and commitment to duty and virtue. His early life and ascension. Born in 121 AD in Rome, Marcus Aurelius came from a prominent family. He was educated in philosophy, particularly Stoicism, which profoundly influenced his views and leadership style. On um Stoicism, again, it's certainly something you could do a whole series of podcasts on, but I think it's often misunderstood to some degree as a philosophy, and that it's considerably more complex than just merely having a stiff upper lip. Um it's about thinking about life in um, you know, practicing, I guess, a series of virtues and also seeing your role in life as what you can do with your life that is good and being able to participate, I guess, in society and contribute in a way that's meaningful. Now that is a very short summary of what is quite a complex area of philosophy. Um but certainly worthy um meditations is definitely worth a read if you ever get the opportunity. Um he faced a range of military challenges. Shortly after ascending the throne, Marcus faced significant conflict with the Parthian Empire. He successfully led campaigns culminating in the cap in the capture of the Parthian capital. Also, he led the army in Macri in the Macriomanic Wars between 167 and 180 AD. Following the Parthian conflict, Marcus dealt with invasions by Germanic tribes, including the Marco, Mani, and Quadi. These wars were marked by a series of battles across the Danube frontier, testing the Roman military and Marcus's leadership, governance and administration. To address the challenges posed by ongoing conflicts, Marcus implemented military reforms, including improving the training and pay of soldiers. He recognized the need for a strong and loyal military. Again, another emperor that recognized that he derived a large part of his foul his power from a happy and capable military. Marcus also promoted a sense of duty among citizens and officials, emphasizing the importance of serving the common good. His governance was characterized by fairness and commitment to justice. He also focused on measures to support the welfare of the lower classes, including initiatives to provide food and resources during times of crisis, particularly during plagues. Now there was a series of plagues that uh erupted during his reign, and that certainly caused, as you would imagine, some ongoing difficulties. But I guess one of the reasons he's been seen as a good emperor that he certainly diligently and tried to address these issues rather than just pretending it wasn't happening. Also, in his personal life, Marcus married Faustinia the Younger, who with whom he had several children. Their relationship was complex as Faustinia was known for a strong character and influence. So it seemed as unusual for the Empress to obviously have such influence as she did over the over his rule. Also, Marcus faced numerous personal challenges, including health problems and the toll of continuous military campaigning which affected his physical and mental well being. Death and succession. In his later years, Marcus Aurelius continued to face military pressures while managing the complexities of governance. His health declined, but he remained committed to his duties until his last day. He died in 180 AD in Vindobonia, modern day Vienna. Marcus Aurelius is often remembered for his dedication and resilience, and before his death he anointed his son Commodius as his successor. Now, if you watch Gladiator, you'll be aware that Marcus Aurelius appears in the early sections of that movie and uh Commodius is the emperor that the hero um fights against in the in the Coliseum. Now Commodius doesn't make the top ten and it's fair to say as the movie shows, which is correct, that he was increasingly unpopular. The reign of Constantine The reign of Constantine the Great. He reigned from three hundred and six AD to thirty three hundred and thirty seven AD. He is seen as one of the most significant figures in Roman history. His reign marked a transformative period characterized by military success, religious reform, and substantial administrative changes. His early life and rise to power. Born in around two seventy two AD in Narsius, modern day Serbia, Constantine was the son of Constinus Chloros, a Roman emperor and Helena. He grew up in a military environment and was educated in the traditions of the Roman Empire. In three hundred and six AD, Constantine was proclaimed emperor by his troops. His rise to power involved a series of military campaigns and political maneuverings against rival claimants, culminating in his sole rule by 324 AD. A key part of his success was military success. One of the pivotal events of Constantine's rise was his victory over Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge, which solidified his control over the Western Roman Empire. This battle was also notable for Constantine's reported vision of the cross and of the words in this sign conquer. After defeating Licinius in AD three twenty four, Constantine became the sole ruler of the Roman Empire unifying the East and the West. He was the first Christian emperor. Constantine issued the Edict of Milan which granted religious tolerance for Christians and restored confiscated property. This marked a significant shift in religious policy as Christianity moved from a persecuted persecuted faith to one supported by the imperial authority. He also set up the council of Nicosia in 325 AD. Constantine convened the first council of Nicosia to address the Aran controversy and establish a unified Christian doctrine. The council produced a Nicene Creed, which is the foundations for the Christian Orthodox beliefs. Constantine also established Byzantium as the new capital of the Roman Empire, renaming it Constantinople. The city would later become a major center of trade culture and Christianity. He implemented various reforms to improve governance, including reorganizing provincial boundaries and establishing a more efficient taxation system which enhanced the Empire's financial stability. Again, there were military reforms which included creating a more professional standing army, increased the number of troops and improved their training and equipment, and this saw a significant shift in the style of Roman the Roman troops away from the traditional legionary that had served so well, largely because I guess the changing face of Rome's enemies that they recognized they had to adapt. And this led to them really in short becoming lighter armed and more mobile. In his own personal life, Constantine's personal life was complex, marked by multiple marriages and familial tensions. He married Minerva and Lauta Faustia, with whom he had several children, including Crispus and Constantine II. His reign was not without internal conflict, particularly with family members, and he executed his own son Crispus and later his wife Fausia under suspicious circumstances which many have argued marred his legacy. His death and legacy. Okay, so there's the top ten. Um and I guess let's just think about some of I guess the patterns that emerge. Um and really what we see is you a large part of being seen as a successful Roman Emperor came from military success. That if you could expand the empire or at least effectively defend the empire from its external enemies, I guess that was success. Also, another constant is building um you know the infrastructure that allowed the empire to continue to function. And really, I guess in many ways this can be best characterized as the big three. Um it's about roads, it's about public buildings, such as temples, coliseums, aqueducts. All of these um were both physical reminders of what it meant to be Roman, what Rome brought to its various citizens across its empire, and also brought, you know, substantial day-to-day benefits of living in the Roman Empire. Also, um the better emperors also applied themselves to legal reform, um ensuring a degree of equity for the lower class citizens, because again, they worked out a key part of ensuring stability and avoiding revolts and uprisings was allowing all well all citizens some degree of legal representation. So I guess not all of it's necessarily exciting and um it's a mixture of military conquest and just pragmatism really and the ability to restore order really underpinned I guess large parts of the Roman Empire and its history. Um I hope you've enjoyed this podcast. As I said, um if you are interested in subscribing, that'd be great. But most importantly of all, keep downloading, keep coming back, the podcast will keep coming, and thanks for listening.