Turning Points in Russian and Soviet History - Part Two

Today, we finish our two-part series on the major turning points in both Russian and Soviet history. If you'd like to support the podcast with a small monthly donation, click this link - https://www.buzzsprout.com/385372/support

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Episode 280 – Turning Points in Russian and Soviet History – Part Two

Last time, we began our review of the most influential turning points in Russian history. Today, we complete our journey with both Russian and Soviet nexus points.

We begin on May 28, 1812, with the signing of the Treaty of Bucharest, ending the Russo-Turkish War of 1806-1812. As we heard in the series on Napoleon and Mikhail Kutuzov, the Treaty of Bucharest was a critical moment as there was a growing fear that the French Grand Armee was about to invade Russia and they needed to end the war with the Ottoman Empire. 

Napoleon sent emissaries to the Ottoman capital to try to convince the Turks to continue with their fight against Russia, but it was met with deaf ears. There were a lot of good reasons for both sides to end this war. The Ottoman Empire was getting beaten on all fronts. The terms that the Russians gave them at Bucharest was very, very generous. Had the French not been knocking on the border of Russia, there is a distinct possibility that the Tsar Alexander I’s army could have made it all the way to Constantinople. Even without that possibility, they could have lost a lot more territory than they did. 

For the Russians, the benefits were obvious. They knew that Napoleon was about to invade so they needed to avoid a two-front war as well as freeing up around 100,000 troops. Given that Tsar Alexander approved the Treaty of Bucharest on June 11, 1812, thirteen days before the French invasion, things were pretty dicey. Had they not signed, it is entirely possible that Napoleon could have forced the Russians to sue for peace. This would have completely changed the course of history, not just for Russia, but the whole of Europe.

Of course, this leads to the next nexus point. Actually, there are two dates that represent one turning point. June 24th and December 14, 1812. The first it the day that Napoleon crossed the Nieman River, invading Russia, and the second is the day that his army was forced out of Russia. The six months in between would inexorably change Russia forever. 

So, which date was more important? In my opinion, it is the exit of the Grand Armee on December 14, that changed Russia forever. Obviously, Napoleon’s invasion was a traumatic event, but when he left, and the Russian Army pursued him, what they saw in Europe opened their eyes. They saw that even the ordinary citizens lived better than the nobility of Russia. It would be the seed that would eventually lead to the Russian Revolution of 1917. It would begin with our next turning point.

This extension of the defeat of Napoleon and the first seedling of revolt occurred on December 14, 1825. It was the date where the Decembrist Revolt took place. As you may recall, the revolt was led by junior officers who were members of the Northern Society of Decemberists, an offshoot of the earlier Union of Prosperity. These men, mostly high born, were dissatisfied with the state of the average Russian in comparison to those citizens of Western European countries. 

After having their eyes opened in their pursuit of Napoleon and the Grand Armee, they realized that their government, led by the Romanov’s, was not benefiting the common man, or even the gentry. It was all about enriching the top 1%, and in particular, the Tsar and his family. The dissatisfaction continued to fester in the years following the defeat of the French.

The trigger for the revolt began with the death of Alexander I (or if you believe the myth, the conversion of the Tsar into Feodor Kuzma, the roaming starets. Alexander's presumptive heir, Constantine, had, unbeknownst to most people, privately declined the succession. His younger brother ascended the throne as Emperor Nicholas I. While some of the army had quickly sworn loyalty to Nicholas, a force of about 3,000 troops tried to mount a military coup in favor of Constantine. Of course, as we know, the attempted coup was crushed and many of the men involved were either executed or sent to exile in Siberia.

The influence of the attempted coup caused men like Alexander Herzen to place the profiles of executed Decembrists on the cover of his radical periodical Polar Star. Alexander Pushkin addressed poems to his Decembrist friends; Nikolai Nekrasov, whose father served together with Decembrists in Ukraine, wrote a long poem about the Decembrist wives; and Leo Tolstoy started writing a novel on that liberal movement, which would later evolve into War and Peace.

The seed of revolution, had turned into a seedling, and was now beginning to turn into a spreading weed throughout Russian society. Nicholas I believed that he had to react to this growing sentiment of anti-autocracy. Because of that, we came to the next turning point in 1826 with the establishment of the Third Section. The Third Section of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery was the secret police that would root out any subversive elements within Russia. This would lead to the exact opposite of what the Tsar expected. Instead of squashing the revolutionary fervor, it would feed it because of the resentment towards the increased level of censorship.

The next nexus point occurred in December 1852. The Ottoman Sultan Abdulmejid I confirmed the Supremacy of France and the Roman Catholic Church over Christians in the Holy Land. This was done to create an alliance with France and Great Britain against Russian expansionism. This, of course, would lead to the disastrous Crimean War of 1853-1856.  

What is really sad is that the churches worked out their differences with the Ottomans and came to an agreement, but both the French Emperor Napoleon III and the Russian Tsar Nicholas I refused to back down. The war could have been averted, but Nicholas’s abject belief in the power of Russia post Napoleonic War, and fervent nationalism would severely damage the reputation of his country in the eyes of the world. It would further fuel the anti-monarchist movement because of the high casualty rate. 

Had Nicholas, and to a lesser degree, Napoleon III, agreed to the deal between the Roman Catholic and Russian Orthodox Church, the Crimean War might have been adverted. I say might, because Great Britain and France were very concerned about the expansion of the Russian Empire as it was at the cost of weakening the Ottoman Empire and encroaching on territories that were held by the French and British.

Our next turning point was the Treaty of Aigun, signed on May 28, 1858. Since we discussed this in episode 278, I’ll just skim over this. It was the treaty that set the border between Russia and China that was greatly disadvantageous to the southern neighbor. It would create tensions that almost led to a war between the two countries in the 1960s and 70s.

The emancipation of the serfs in 1861 was an important event but in my opinion, it was the way they were freed with all of the conditions that were attached. While technically the serfs were free, they had to pay for this so-called freedom. The land they were given was subpar, barely enough to survive, much less thrive. The nobility who owned the slaves were given government bonds to compensate them, minus any debts they owed which was often times pretty steep. No one really won and it caused more consternation within all levels of Russian society. Had the reforms been more equitable for all sides, the internal societal strain might have been lowered, reducing the tension that would lead to revolutions in the coming decades.

Because of the inadequacies of the emancipation, a number of attempts on the life of Tsar Alexander II would occur culminating in the successful assassination on March 13, 1881, our next turning point. It wasn’t so much the murder of the Tsar that became a nexus point, it was the reaction to it by his son Alexander III. The new Tsar was shaken up by his father’s brutal death, so much so, that in his opinion, he needed to strike back at the subversives who committed the crime. Anyone who he thought was engaged in anti-Tsarist activity, whether in action, words, or perceived thoughts, would be arrested. 

The new Emperor believed that remaining true to Russian Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality (the ideology introduced by his grandfather, emperor Nicholas I) would save Russia from revolutionary agitation. Instead, it would fuel it. The Narodnaya Volya, the organization that plotted and carried out the assassination of Alexander II, was obliterated during the hunt for the killers. Alexander Ulyanov, the older brother of Vladimir Lenin would be executed for his role in the assassination along with his four comrades – Pakhomy Andreyushkin, Vasily Generalov, Vasili Osipanov, and Petr Shevyrev – were hanged at Shlisselburg on May 8, 1887. This would deepen Lenin’s hatred of the Romanov autocracy, eventually leading to their end and death of Nicholas II and his family.

Our next turning point comes on May 3, 1882, when the May Laws against Jews was announced. As we mentioned last episode, Catherine the Great created the Pale of Settlement as a place for Jews to live and work. Alexander III, viewed the Jewish population as the instigators of anti-autocratic activity within Russia and wanted them out. 

Temporary regulations regarding the Jews were supposed to last for five years, but they continued until 1917. This led to a mass exodus of Jews from Russia. It is estimated that over 2 million left the country, many making their way to the United States, Argentina, and an area under Ottoman rule, Palestine. Anyone who has seen Fiddler on the Roof, has seen a glimpse into that time period. It would also serve to further radicalize those Russian Jews who would stay, like Leon Trotsky.

1905 would be filled with turning points in Russian history. The Russo-Japanese War, Bloody Sunday, Mutiny on the Battleship Potemkin, and the October Manifesto. All of these were examples of the incompetency of the government of Tsar Nicholas II. 

The defeat in the Russo-Japanese War pointed out how backwards the Russian Navy was, as well as the incompetence of their military officers. This would gain the attention of the Germans who believed that that flank of World War I, would not be a major obstacle. The poor showing was one of the impetuses for the protests that would happen in St. Petersburg in January 1905. This, along with the dissatisfaction of the working peasant class, those who were former serfs, led to the reactionary response that would be known as Bloody Sunday.

The Mutiny on the Battleship Potemkin was in part due to the abhorrent conditions that the men on the ship were subjected to as well as news of the losses at the Battle of Tsushima during the Russo-Japanese War. On June 27, 1905, Potemkin was at gunnery practice near Tendra Spit off the Ukrainian coast when many enlisted men refused to eat the borscht made from rotten meat infested with maggots. This would be the final straw for the men, especially when they were admonished by Ippolit Giliarovsky, the ship's second in command, who allegedly threatened to shoot crew members for their refusal to eat the tainted food.

While the mutiny wasn’t a watershed moment, it was another incident in 1905 that showed how disorganized and vulnerable the Tsarist government was. This would put a great deal of pressure on Nicholas II, which led to the October Manifesto. Officially "The Manifesto on the Improvement of the State Order", it was a document that served as a precursor to the Russian Empire's first Constitution, which was adopted the following year in 1906. Although it seemed to provide for a consultative government, Nicholas almost immediately regretted signing it, working to take away any teeth that it had, grasping on to the autocratic belief he had that Russia was his, and no one had the right to tell him what to do. This of course would set into motion the events that would lead to the downfall of the Romanov Dynasty.

Our next critical moment was the formation of the Okhrana, the Russian secret police on February 9, 1907. While the Third Section would be the first Tsarist secret police, the Okhrana was the culmination. It would not only spy on the people, it would be the blueprint for the Soviet secret police, starting with the Cheka. It would create a lot of double agents, many of whom would be found out about under the Stalin administration, something that would cost many their lives. Of course, Stalin himself was very likely to have been an informant.

On February 22, 1917, we have another turning point with the strike at the Putilov Plant in Petrograd. It would be the initial strike that would help to take down the government of Tsar Nicholas II, and would begin the slide into the Russian Revolution and the ascension of the Bolsheviks seven months later. While this was the spark that lit the fire, there would be many sparks over the coming months. The fire was inevitable, the collapse of the Romanov Dynasty would burn down. 

This would be our next turning point as eight days later, on March 2, 1917, Nicholas II would abdicate. Had he not, or had he not taken control of the military and been away from St. Petersburg, things may have taken a different turn. Could his presence have made a difference? Probably not, but it may have allowed a stronger government to form which may have been able to counter the Bolshevik takeover.

This brings us to an eight-day event that was the nexus point for the rise of the Bolsheviks and that was the days between August 27 and September 4, 1917, known as the Kornilov Affair. There are a lot of turning points in Russian and Soviet history, but this one may rank number one as the stupidest decision ever made. 

General Lavr Kornilov took control of the Russian Army when he was named commander-in-chief by Prime Minister Alexander Kerensky in July 1917. This was in reaction to the July Days protests that swept through Petrograd. Kornilov would mobilize troops outside of the capital to end any and all revolutionary behavior. Kerensky saw this as a threat to his government and ordered Kornilov to return to Petrograd and disband his troops. He refused.

I what can only be described as a major blunder, Kerensky decided to release a number of Bolsheviks from prison in August, which, in and of itself, wasn’t an issue. What was the problem is that he armed them upon their release. This would come back to haunt him and lead to his eventual overthrow. Had the Provisional Government held firm, and not released and given weapons to the Bolsheviks, it is very likely that they would never have had the firepower to take control of the government, and the Soviet Union would never had existed.

Our next turning point occurred on October 25, 1917 (old calendar). It was the day that the Bolsheviks began the October Revolution and overthrew the Provisional Government. The lack of any resistance was the key factor. The Bolsheviks were not very large in number, but they did have one thing that gave them the edge over their opponents, strong leadership. Had anyone else stood up to them in a forceful way, they never would have succeeded.

The signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk is our next turning point which occurred on March 3, 1918. It took Russia out of World War I, gave up a tremendous amount of territory, but it allowed the Red Army to strengthen, which in turn, allowed it to eventually win the Russian Civil War. Without that treaty, the Bolsheviks would have been highly unlikely to have held on to power.

We move four years into the future, with the signing of the Union Treaty, a document that formed what became the Soviet Union on December 30, 1922. This would last until December 26, 1991, a total of 69 years. The treaty would solidify the claims by the Bolsheviks for control of this immense country. 

1928 presents us with three turning points: the start of the 1st 5-year-plan, the beginning of collectivization of Soviet farms, and the arrest of Leon Trotsky. The Five-Year Plan was aimed at turning the Soviet Union into an industrial power, something that had it not done, would have allowed Nazi Germany to take the country when it invaded in 1941. The collectivization of the farms, cost millions of lives, but was part of the five-year plan. Both changed the fundamental nature of Russia and all of the countries under the USSR banner. The arrest of Leon Trotsky on January 17, 1928, ended any threat to the authority of Joseph Stalin and would be countless tens of thousands under the watchful eye of the NKVD.

Another threat to Stalin was eliminated on December 1, 1934, another nexus point. The assassination of Sergei Kirov would remove the last threat or perceived threat to Stalin. A supremely charismatic and powerful Bolshevik, Kirov had to go. There is debate as to Stalin’s role in the murder, but he was the one man who benefited above all. The key to this being a major turning point is the subsequent start of the Great Purge which cost the lives of one million people between 1936 and 1938.

Our next three turning points involved the Soviets and Nazi Germany. The first occurred on August 23, 1939, the signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, also known as reaty of Non-Aggression between Germany and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. It shocked the world at the time, but it served as a time where the Soviet Union could shore up its still weak military as they knew it was only a matter of time before Hitler ordered the invasion of the USSR. That would occur on June 22, 1941, with Operation Barbarossa. Over ten million combatants would be involved in the coming war with the Germans suffering 1 million deaths and the Soviets losing 4.5 million. This does not even come close to estimating the civilian losses that would come about.

The loss of men in the ensuing war would not be recovered for decades. The losses would culminate in our next turning point which occurred in 1943 which was the failure of the Nazi Wehrmacht in taking Stalingrad. Many view this as not only a turning point in Soviet history, but the event that proved that Germany, could, and would be defeated. The surrender of the 6th Army by Field Marshal Paulus occurred on February 2, 1943.

With the war over, we come to our next nexus, the failure of the Berlin Blockade of 1948 and 49. The Soviets believed that they could split the Western allies and drastically weaken Germany by denying access to Berlin. They did not count on the resolve of the West and the success of the Berlin Airlift. It was a major rebuke of Stalin’s policy, and would lead to West Germany joining NATO in 1955.

March 5, 1953, the day Joseph Stalin died is another obvious choice for a turning point. It would end the fear tactics that the Soviet leader used for decades. For a few months, there was uncertainty as to who would take the mantle piece from Stalin with Lavrenty Beria stepping up at first, but with his arrest and December execution, that would not occur which, in and of itself is another turning point.

Stalin’s shadow over all of Soviet life would begin to deteriorate with the speech given by Nikita Khrushchev on February 25, 1956, known as On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences, popularly known as Khrushchev's Secret Speech. It would repudiate many of Stalin’s repressive policies, which would also precipitate the ideological split with Communist China.

The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 would change things forever between the USA and USSR as well as causing the eventual ouster of Nikita Khrushchev in 1964. These two turning points would lead us to the Brezhnev Era of Stagnation. Within that period, another turning point would occur with the signing of the Salt 1 Treaty and the beginning of détente in 1972.

SALT I led to the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and an interim agreement between the two countries. This would help lower tensions between the US and USSR and lead to SALT II. The US Senate would not ratify the treaty in protest of another turning point, the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan which occurred on December 24, 1979. It would last for a little more than nine years, ending with the Soviet troop withdrawal which ended on February 15, 1989. It would cause the rise of the Taliban and Osama Bin Laden, which would eventually lead to catastrophic events of 9/11.

My next turning point may seem like an inconsequential moment, but it isn’t, it was the Gorbachev-led anti-alcohol campaign that began in 1985. Many of you may know, alcohol has a long relationship with the Russians, going back to the days of Vladimir the Great. But that is not what makes this particular campaign as influential as it was. The Soviet government derived a large chunk of its funding from the taxes generated from alcohol sales. This massive reduction in revenue significantly affected the deficit that the country was facing. It would never recover financially. This decision by Mikhail Gorbachev would lead to our last two turning points.

The first is the August 1991 attempted overthrow of Mikhail Gorbachev. While he and his family were on vacation in Crimea, a group of senior Communist Party figures—the "Gang of Eight"—calling themselves the State Committee on the State of Emergency launched a coup d'état to seize control of the Soviet Union. It was both dangerous, and in the end, a laughable attempt to reverse the many reforms Gorbachev had ordered over the previous six years. In the end, it failed, but its immediate beneficiary would be Boris Yeltsin. While he had opposed Gorbachev in the past, his rallying support from the people of Moscow would save his rival. 

This would of course, lead to our last turning point, the resignation of Mikhail Gorbachev and the end of the Soviet Union on December 25, 1991. I’ve shared my views on the many whys of the collapse of the USSR. Financially, it was destitute. The way it collapsed and the lack of financial support from the West would eventually lead to the situation in Ukraine and Russia today.

Well, I hope you enjoyed today’s episode, join me next time when we discuss Russian Conflicts after 1991 including Chechnya, Georgia, and Ukraine.

So, until next time, Dasvidania eh Spasiba za Vineyamineya.