The Volga - Part One

Today, we begin a three-part series on the history of the Volga River, the longest in Europe, and its relationship to Russia. If you'd like to support the podcast with a small monthly donation, click this link - https://www.buzzsprout.com/385372/support

Transcript

Copy Transcript Copied

Episode 284 – The Volga – Part One

Last time, we discussed the role of sport in Russia and the Soviet Union. Today, we go on to a completely different subject: the history of the Volga River and its meaning to Russia.

Aside from my extensive library, the primary source of information for this series of episodes is the book The Volga: A History of Russia’s Greatest River by Janet M. Hartley. Published in 2021, it is an absolute treasure trove of information about the mighty Volga.

I'd like to start by reading an excerpt from an 1839 book, Excursions in the Interior of Russia, by Robert Bremner. "The VOLGA! There is a mystery, a charm, in all mighty rivers, which has ever made us gaze upon them with an interest beyond that inspired by other great and glorious sights; but to look on the largest of the European rivers – the king of our fair tides and oft-sung streams – gave a thrill of joy surpassing all former pleasure of the kind. Those who know that the first glimpse of some great object which we have read, or dreamt of from earliest recollection, is ever a moment of intense enjoyment, will forgive the foolish transport that is felt while first standing on that commanding height, and devouring the majestic stream that rolls in such gloomy grandeur below.”

Before we get into the river's history, let's discuss its dimensions and other important facts. The Volga is the longest river in Europe at 3,531 kilometers or 2,194 miles long. It begins to the northwest of Tver, flowing through that city as well as going through Yaroslavl, Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Ulyanovsk, Saratov, Volgograd, and Astrakhan before emptying into the Caspian Sea. Within its drainage basin, five of the ten largest cities in Russia lie, including Moscow. Some of the world’s largest reservoirs are located near the Volga. It belongs to the closed basin of the Caspian Sea, being the longest river to flow into a closed basin and not into the ocean.

The Volga drains most of Western Russia. Its many large reservoirs provide irrigation and hydroelectric power. The Moscow Canal, the Volga–Don Canal, and the Volga–Baltic Waterway form navigable waterways connecting Moscow to the White Sea, the Baltic Sea, the Caspian Sea, the Sea of Azov, and the Black Sea.

The Moscow Canal, known as the Moskva-Volga Canal until 1947, was built between 1932 and 1937 by 200,000 gulag prisoners under the direction of the Soviet secret police and Matvei Berman. The building of the Volga-Don Canal was something that was thought of as far back as the 1500s but was not completed until 1952. This canal took four years to build, employing about 900,000 workers, including 100,000 German POWs and 100,000 gulag prisoners. The Volga-Baltic Waterway had its beginnings during the reign of Peter the Great, with expansions continuing under Tsar Alexander I. Another connection was added in the 1930s, when the infamous White Sea – Baltic Canal, which we talked about in the Gulag series, was constructed by prisoners at an enormous human cost between Lake Onega and the White Sea. It turned out to be too shallow to allow larger boats to pass through it, making it virtually useless for shipping cargo.

Within Russian culture, its importance can be noted by the river’s symbolic name, Volga-Matushka or Mother Volga. The word Volga comes from Slavic and Proto-Slavic roots. The word vlaga means moisture. The Volga's Scythian name was Rahā, meaning 'wetness'. The Greek author Herodotus recorded two more ancient Iranic names of the Volga: Oarus and Araxes.

The earliest peoples that made use of the Volga included the Khazars, Bulgars, Scythians, Slavic tribes of Vyatichs and Buzhans, Finnic, Scandinavian, Baltic, Hunnic, and Turkic peoples, the Tatars, Kipchaks. All of them would eventually be supplanted by the Rus. 

For the Khazars, between 750 to 965, the Volga was at the heart of their lands. As Arab traveler and historian Al-Masudi wrote in 943: “The Khazars have ships which they sail on the river, above their city Itil, into the great river which traverses it… This river, which flows from the land of the Bulgars, carries vessels from both kingdoms… The pelts of black and red foxes… are exported from their country… The black furs are worn by Arab and non-Arab kings, who esteem them more than they do sable, ermine, and other similar furs… The upper reaches of the Khazar river (the Volga), communicate with a gulf of the Sea of Pontus, also called the ‘Sea of the Rus’ because the Rus, who are the lonely ones to sail it, live on its shores. They form a numerous pagan nation that doesn’t recognize authority or revealed law. Many of their merchants trade with the Bulgars.”

The Bulgars became the predominant power as the Khazars were fading. One of the reasons was their conversion to Islam, which made trade with their Muslim brethren easier. As one contemporary wrote about their trade, which passed the Khazars, “Sables, miniver, ermines and the fur of the steppe, martens beavers, sported hares, and goats; also wax, arrows, birch bark, high fur caps, fish glue, fish teeth, castoreum, prepared horse hides, honey, hazelnuts, falcons, swords, armor, wood, Slavonic slaves, sheep, and cattle.” 

The Rus began using the same trade routes along the Volga and became a significant rival to their neighbors. We have two of the earliest descriptions of the people known as the Rus. "I saw the Rus, who had come for trade and had camped but the Volga River. I have never seen bodies more perfect than theirs. They were like palm trees. They are fair and ruddy. They wear neither coats nor caftans, but a garment which covers one side of the body and leaves one hand free. Each of them carries an axe, a sword, and a knife and is never parted from any of the arms we mentioned." While this description is positive, the next isn't. "They are the filthiest of God's creatures. They do not clean themselves after urinating or defecating, nor do they wash after having sex. They do not wash their hands after meals. They are like wandering asses… Each of the men has sex with his slave while his companions look on."

These unclean Rus did begin to dominate their neighbors and, through increased trade, began to enrich themselves. While the Volga was the most important river in the region, it was not the only one. The Dnieper allowed the Rus to reach Constantinople, while the Don allowed more widespread trade. They could now head off in any direction, trading with a broader customer base. By the mid-to late-ninth century, the Rus were now the dominant power, and they used the Volga to increase their wealth and strength.

As we know, two cities in the land of the Rus benefited the greatest in the early days from the trade on the Volga, Kyiv and Novgorod. Kyiv was one of the most populated cities in Europe, with some estimates coming in at between 30-60,000, with Novgorod having a population of between 25-30,000.

Over the next century, Kyiv rose in significance and then began its rapid decline. Vladimir-Suzdal began its assent in 1108, overtaking Kyiv later in the century. Vladimir-Suzdal was situated on the Klyazma River, emptying into the Oka and finally into the Volga. It was an ideal location as it was far enough away from Kyiv to avoid that city's control but closer to the Volga and the important newly founded town of Nizhni Novgorod in 1221, which was at the confluence of the Oka and Volga. From there, Vladimir-Suzdal could raid the lands of the Bulgars, pillage their territory, and seize slaves with which to sell on the markets on the Caspian Sea. 

This reign of superiority of Vladimir-Suzdal would come to a sudden end in 1238. The Mongol army would burn the city to the ground, along with numerous other cities. Kyiv would be devastated entirely in 1240. Towns along the Volga that met the same fate included Gorodets, Kostroma, Nizhni Novgorod, and Yaroslavl. After they took control of the land of the Rus in its entirety, the Golden Horde based their capitals along the Volga River as well as the khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan.

The Mongols have been rightfully accused of mass destruction and genocide in their attack on Kyivan Rus. They also demanded large sums of tribute be sent to them from the various cities. With the coming of Ivan the Great, though, Moscow would be the sole collector and chief enforcer for the Horde. This gives us an insight into the present state of why Putin's Russia is behaving as it is now. 

From Janet Hartley’s book The Volga: A History of Russia’s Greatest River, we have this explanation of what I mean. "The Mongols have been accused of causing depopulation and the economic collapse of towns, and of ruining trade and artisan skills. Indirectly, the Mongols have been blamed for what have sometimes been perceived of the more negative aspects of the way in which the principality of Moscow evolved. The charge was that, in order to defeat the khanates, Moscow had to adopt facets of the social and political organization of the Mongols, and in particular inherited attitudes and the practice of ‘oriental despotism’ from them.”

One of the things that the Mongols did that was positive was to promote trade, especially on the Volga. Its principal capital, Sarai, was situated on the lower part of the river. It was the main trading port in all directions. Silks and spices would flow from China and Central Asia to the north via the Volga and to and from Persia and India via the Caspian Sea. The Rus would send firs, caviar, and salt down the Volga to Sarai for trade and to pay tribute.

According to Hartley, “Merchants traveled from Sarai up the Volga, through Rus lands to the Baltic ports. It is said that, in 1474, some 3,200 merchants and 600 envoys journeyed from Sarai to Moscow, where they sold 40,000 horses to the local inhabitants. Sarai was home to many merchants from numerous cities and countries – from Nizhni Novgorod and other towns on the Volga, but also from places much further afield, such as China, Hungary, and Genoa.”

One of the negatives of being such a trading mecca was seen in the mid-14th century with the arrival of the Black Plague. Both Sarai and Astrakhan were devastated by the disease as the Volga was a crucial waterway in helping the transmission of the plague. This would be the beginning of the weakening of the Golden Horde. They would face an even more significant threat later in the 14th century by the forces of Tamerlane, also known as Timur. He would sack Sarai and attack several cities along the lower Volga, causing trade to be diverted from there.

The Golden Horde began to splinter, with individual khanates taking over. These included the Crimean, Kazan, and Astrakhan khanates. Kazan would be the premier trading outpost in the middle Volga, with Astrakhan being in the lower section. While they traded with the burgeoning Muscovite state, they were also significant competitors as well, especially in the slave and fur trade.

Astrakhan was positioned on the Volga delta that emptied into the Caspian Sea. The fish population was immense, especially with sturgeon, which provided the delicacy of caviar. They also traded with the Muscovites, sending ambassadors to Moscow. They would bring horses and silks, while the Russians would exchange those goods for furs, swords, and saddles. 

Around the mid-1400s, Kazan threatened Moscow and other Volga towns, especially Nizhni Novgorod. In 1444 and 45, the Kazan Khanate defeated the forces of Veliki Kniaz Vasily II, forcing him to pay a large tribute. In a few decades, the Kazan khanate would diminish in power as it would be challenged by the big boy on the block, the Dutchy of Moscow.

As I mentioned earlier, Moscow's rise was partly due to its being the primary collector of tribute to the Horde. Over the years, they siphoned off much of the taxes they amassed, making them wealthier than their rivals. This allowed them to create a strong army, finally eradicating two of their main competitors on the Volga, Kazan, and Astrakhan. The only city that could have rivaled Moscow would be Tver. However, as we saw a couple of episodes ago, this did not happen, causing them to lose power, ceding it to their rival Moscow. 

Ivan III and later Ivan IV decided to put pressure on Kazan to come under the control of Moscow. They would fail until October 2, 1552, when Russian troops entered the fortress of Kazan and slaughtered almost the entire population. The middle and western bank of the Volga was now in the hands of the Tsar of All Russia, Ivan the Terrible. 

Tsar Ivan would install a puppet Khan in Astrakhan, but he would prove to be disloyal early on. Together with a rival Turkic people, the Nogai's, Russian troops would take the fortress at Astrakhan easily, removing the second major threat. Ivan would force all of the Tatar inhabitants of Kazan to leave the area, which to this day are not to be found within 30 kilometers of the city. 

The capture of these two remnants of the Golden Horde was seen by the contemporaries as the victory of Orthodox Christianity over Islam. A Russian chronicler of the time wrote the following: “With the aid of our Almighty Lord Jesus Christ and the prayers of the Mother of God… our pious Tsar and Grand Prince Ivan Vasilevich, crowned by God, Autocrat of All Russians, fought against the infidels, defeated them finally and captured the Tsar of Kazan…. And the pious Tsar and Grand Prince ordered his regiment to sing an anthem under his banner, to give thanks to God for the victory; and at the same time ordered a life-giving cross to be placed and a church to be built, with the uncreated image of our Lord Jesus Christ, where the Tsar’s colors had stood during the battle.”

With the taking of Kazan and Astrakhan, the Russians now had complete control of the Volga. From the source northwest of Tver, all the way down to the Caspian Sea, the entirety of the river now lay in Russian territory for the first time in its history. Author Hartley points out that Russia went from a land inhabited mostly by people of the Rus to a multi-ethnic, multi-national empire. They would now rule over not just Orthodox Christians but also Muslims and any other religions of their rapidly expanding territory.

While the two cities of the Khanates were taken, that did not remove the threat that their people could exert over the invading Russians, far from it. Hartley shares the four main ways in which the Russians would assert control over the Volga region. 

• • Through force, and particularly a military presence.
• • Through government and the establishment of administrative organs of the Russian state.
• • Through ideology, by the extension of Orthodoxy, with the construction of churches and monasteries and with conversion policies towards Muslims and pagans.
• • And finally, through assimilation by incorporating non-Russian elites into the Russian state through service to the state and land grants.

This last part was crucial to the expansion of Russia into territories of non-Russian people. It showed a flexibility to allow toleration of different people. One of the first groups along the Volga River to be assimilated into the Russian state was the Finno-Ugric peoples. The Mordvins were one of these settlers around the area of Nizhni Novgorod. We are unclear how many lived there at the time, but estimates from the late 1700s are somewhere around 114 – 176,000. In 2020, they estimated that 700,000 people in the Russian Federation claim Mordvin ancestry.

While the "official" stance of the Russian government was that they were fully Russian if they agreed to abide by the laws of the land and pledge allegiance to the Tsar, there was official disdain over the centuries for many of these people. Descriptions of the Mari, a Finno-Ugric people, were pretty disparaging. Here are some examples, "much inferior to those of Russia, as well as in regard to comeliness, as in gaiety of temper, and vanity of dress." Or, "have commonly brown, harsh hair, a thin beard, and lean face; it is very rare to find a pretty woman amongst them.” Finally, “they are a disloyal, thieving, and superstitious people, they are barbarous, treacherous, and cruel, and much given to sorcery and robbery.”

Another people who had a significant presence in the lower Volga River region are the Chuvash. Today, they represent over 1.5 million people within the Russian Federation who identify as Chuvash. Today, they have their own republic within the Federation. They are a Turkic people, although little is known about their origin.

The obvious largest of the new ethnic groups that were absorbed into the Russian Empire were the Tatars. They are still the largest non-Slavic peoples, numbering about 800,000 in the 1795 census out of 40 million in the entire country. Today, they number over 5 million of Tatar background.

Of all of the non-Slavic people, the Tatars were considered to be more sophisticated. Baron August von Haxthausen wrote this about them in the mid-nineteenth century. "The face is oval, the eyes black and animated, and the nose noble and curved, the mouth of a refined expression, the teeth excellent, and the complexion that of the Caucasian race… all their movements are active, graceful, and often dignified: the women are small, and disfigured by paint… The character of the Tatars is amiable; they are sociable, honorable, friendly, confiding, orderly, and cleanly. The old antipathy to, and mistrust of, the Russians still prevail, but to the government they are loyal and obedient.”

Well, I hope you enjoyed today’s episode. Join me next time as we post an interview with Professor Paul Robinson, from the Graduate School of Public and International Affairs, University of Ottawa, who recently published a book on Russian Liberalism. Then, the following week we will continue our journey or the history of the Volga River. The series will be a three-part one as there is so much more to share.

So, until next time, Dasvidania eh Spasiba za Vinyamineya.