Episode 12: San Francisco, California

In this episode we trace San Francisco’s musical evolution from Gold Rush-era vice districts and immigrant performance traditions to jazz, folk, psychedelia, punk, funk, hip-hop, and alternative rock. It highlights how the city’s long-standing culture of nonconformity, cultural exchange, and experimentation helped shape one of the most distinctive and influential music scenes in American history.

Transcript

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By nineteen thirteen, East San Francisco's penchant for drunkenness, opium dens, and prostitution had earned the city the nickname the Barbary Coast. Since the gold rush, the area had attracted anyone looking to experience West Coast life full throttle. To clean up the city's image, the chief of police banned open dance floors in any establishment where alcohol was sold. To survive, venues masqueraded as legitimate dance schools. Men bought tickets for dance lessons, conducted in-between drinks, while musicians provided the city's soundtrack to debauchery. Fifty-four years later, a different soundtrack would be provided during the summer of love, which saw people flock to San Francisco and continue the city's tradition of nonconformity. Tonight, we examine the unique musical legacy of San Francisco, California. Welcome to the Music Scope. Europeans first arrive in the 1760s with a Spanish expedition from Mexico, establishing a military site and a Catholic mission. San Francisco would continue as a fairly remote trading port, changing hands from Spain to Mexico to the United States in 1848, where soon after large gold deposits were discovered, causing a massive gold rush whereby the city's population increased 25 times over, with fortune seekers needing tools of the trade and ways to escape the backbreaking work of mining for gold. For nearly 40 years, San Francisco operated as a typical western town, with most of the nightlife happening in small saloons and brothels, often with a pianist or a small string band employed to provide atmosphere. As the city grew, the northeastern corner of San Francisco became a well-established port of vice with plenty of music and dancing. An 1876 description by B. E. Lloyd described it as dance houses and concert saloons where blear-eyed men and faded women drink vile liquor, smoke offensive tobacco, engage in vulgar conduct, sing obscene songs, with riot-leven rowdies in all stages of intoxication. While Polite Society did its best to clean up the north side of San Francisco by exposing the abandonment of conventionality, the publicity it generated brought sizable revenue from adventure seekers. San Francisco's reputation for cultural diversity and distrust of social norms attracted authors, artists, opportunists, and musicians. By the turn of the century, San Francisco was on the map for touring musicians. Following the massive earthquake in 1906, the city was forced to rebuild. It presented an opportunity to provide the public with better venues for music and the arts. In 1909, a group of the city's financial elite formed the Musical Association of San Francisco, with a purpose of creating a permanent symphony orchestra for the city. Through donations and fundraising campaigns, they established the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra, who made its debut in 1911 and is still in operation today. The MASF were also able to fund construction of the Grand Opera House near Market and Van Ness Streets. Among San Francisco's diverse immigrant population was a sizable Italian community who helped stoke interest for an opera company. A dedicated venue was designed and approved by 1918, but funds to build it weren't able to be raised until it was pitched as a war memorial with space dedicated to veterans' affairs. The discussion of how much opera space versus that for veterans' affairs prevented construction from beginning for 13 years until 1931. Gaetana Marola, who had organized the company and conducted its first concert in the 1920s, had the honor of conducting Pacini's Tosca for the War Memorial Opera House's premiere in 1932. The Asian immigrant population of San Francisco has significantly influenced the music of the city and the United States, most notably through Chinese opera performances. In the early days following the gold rush, Chinese immigrants were banned from attending white audience performances. They took to establishing their own theaters and performance companies. Chinese theater was markedly different from Western opera. The audience did not treat the affair nearly as formally, and the performances relied less on lighting and stage constructs, and more so on the colorful costumes and physical acrobatics of the performers. By the late 1860s, there were over a hundred thousand Chinese people living in San Francisco. As white San Franciscans became more and more familiar and gained interest in Chinese theater, Chinese players began to adapt more Western-friendly performances. A decade later, the Transcontinental Railroad helped make San Francisco's Chinatown and its theaters a major tourist attraction in the West. Two major Chinese opera houses were established in the 1920s and only one block from each other. The Mandarin Theater, or Sun Sing as it was renamed, and the Great China Theater. Both attracted top performers from China and became a centerpiece of Chinese culture in San Francisco. Chinese music was very different to Western ears. The entire concept of notes was different, incorporating sliding tones between notes, often using a fifth above the tone being played, and using a 12-step scale instead of eight. Traditional Chinese music goes back almost 5,000 years, and its history is intertwined with theories of mimicking nature and the universe through both sound and mathematics. In San Francisco, Chinese music found a new audience and heavily influenced contemporary classical composers like Henry Cowell and Ernest Bloch. During World War II, over 80,000 Americans of Japanese descent were forced to enter detention centers across the West Coast. Many did not return home for years. At the same time, many African Americans were leaving the Deep South for cities with more promising jobs and less inherent racism. San Francisco was among them, with its shipyards providing well-paying jobs during the war. With this forced shift, San Francisco's black population grew and moved into many of the neighborhoods formerly occupied by Japanese Americans, most notably the Fillmore District. By the 1950s, the area was a thriving black community that featured nightclubs and restaurants that operated around the clock. San Francisco soon became a stop on the schedule of many of jazz's cultural elite and became one of the centers of evolution of Bebop. Charlie Parker, Thelonious Monk, Dizzy Gillespie, Duke Ellington, and Billy Holiday all made regular appearances in San Francisco. This would help ignite an era of jazz fever, with locals flocking to jazz clubs to catch sight of musical pioneers moving through town, as well as to discover and support local artists. Two pianists in attendance, Vince Garaldi and Dave Brubeck, would both find fame, albeit on separate paths, starting in San Francisco's jazz clubs like the Blackhawk. Dave Brubeck got his start in the U.S. Army, serving in Europe in World War II. After volunteering to play piano for a Red Cross event, he was thrust into the role of band leader, forming one of the first racially integrated bands in the armed forces. When he came out of the military, Brubeck returned to his native California to go back to school and switched his major from zoology to music. Soon Brubeck had formed his own groups and began to record for Fantasy Records. In the early 50s, his quartet recorded several live albums. He signed to Columbia Records following a falling out with Fantasy and released Jazz Goes to College, which would explore odd time signatures. This approach would be the centerpiece of his Time Out album, with many of the songs in odd meters, including the hit Take Five, which is performed in Five Four Time. Timeout would be the first jazz album to sell over one million copies. Brubeck would continue to enjoy success throughout the 60s. While his recordings through the early 60s were the peak of his success, he would continue to perform and record until his death in 2012. Vince Giraldi came from San Francisco's North Beach area and had two uncles who led big jazz bands. Giraldi served in the Armed Forces in Korea as a cook and upon his return became involved with San Francisco's jazz scene, leading his first group in 1955. He was picked up by Fantasy Records and produced two albums for the label before being dropped. Fantasy released one further single in 1959, the Latin Tinge Samba de Orpheus, as a single, but the B-side, Cast Your Fate to the Wind, became a hit and spent 19 weeks on the Top 100 chart, even earning a Grammy for Best Original Jazz Composition. Fantasy would reignite their relationship with Garaldi and release several albums of Garaldi's collaboration with Brazilian guitarist Bolacete. In 1963, TV producer Lee Mendelson heard Cast Your Fate to the Wind and recruited Garaldi to score a peanuts documentary called A Boy Named Charlie Brown. While the project was ultimately shelved, Garaldi released the soundtrack album in 1964. It features Linus and Lucy, which would become the theme for Charlie Brown specials for decades to come. The following year, they worked together again for A Charlie Brown Christmas, released by CBS in December 1965. The soundtrack has become one of the best-selling holiday albums in the world and forever cemented Giraldi's association with the Peanuts Gang. Giraldi always appreciated his relationship with Peanuts and would go on to work on various Peanuts projects throughout the 1970s. In 1976, at the age of 47, Giraldi had a sudden heart attack after complaining of severe indigestion for several days. It came as a shock as he had just finished playing his first set of a nightclub gig. He's buried in Coloma, California. The jazz scene in San Francisco was housed chiefly in the Fillmore district. After the end of World War II, the city began to see an influx of writers, artists, and even former GIs who were attracted by San Francisco's access and openness to foreign cultures and new ideas. Among this influx of Bohemian-influenced artists were a group of writers dedicated to beat poetry. It's a form of poetry with central themes of nonconformity and suspicion of the status quo. They wrote about the hard, gritty realities of city life and gave unflinching perspectives of drugs, sex, and culture. Although the movement started in New York, by the mid-50s, San Francisco was the de facto center of the beat movement. The beat movement found a soundtrack in San Francisco's jazz scene, with nightly bebop crescendos matching neatly with the disenchanted words of Jack Kerouac and Neil Cassidy. The city cemented its role in counterculture when the City Lights bookstore published Howl and Other Poems by Alan Ginsburg. The book was seized on charges of obscenity, which ultimately were overturned in a landmark Supreme Court case. San Francisco became a beacon for all things counterculture, poetry, music, art, theater, and coffee shops where radical ideas were discussed between writers and would go on to influence the city's culture. The beat generation showed that the American mainstream media wasn't the only game in town. In fact, the mainstays of San Francisco's music would be RB, jazz, and folk music. Central to the city's development as a folk music hub were small clubs dedicated to providing a safe place for artists to speak out against the dangers of post-World War II complacency and over-modernization. While New York had Grenwitz Village, San Francisco's North Beach neighborhood became the home of folk and counterculture on the West Coast. The Hungry Eye was a nightclub in the heart of North Beach, whose owner Enrico Benducci worked to maintain a high standard of original performers and not just acts regurgitating pop culture on a smaller scale. The Hungry Eye became a key club for any performer outside of the mainstream. Comedian Lenny Bruce explored edgier comedy that would influence a generation. Folk music found a home there when it was the target of McCarthy's persecution in the 1950s. Among those acts who took the stage were three recent college graduates, the Kingston Trio. Their performances at The Hungry Eye would help them find a signature sound and thrust folk music into the mainstream, creating a path to popularity for artists like Joan Baez and Bob Dylan. The Hungry Eye fostered artistic development, banning hecklers and creating a safe place for up-and-coming singers like Barbara Streisand, who used the club as a launch pad for her career in 1963 with a series of dates that gave her nationwide acclaim. At the same time, the Hungry Eye was giving folk musicians exposure on the stage, Faith Petrick hosted the San Francisco Folk Music Club, which started as folk music jams in her home. Petrick saw folk music as an integral piece of American and world culture. Instead of commercial success, she focused on the preservation of folk music's ability to tell a tale. Her dedication to historical authenticity and activism greatly influenced the folk music, shifting from old-timey ballads to contemporary social and political commentary, creating a powerful vehicle for protest. San Francisco's reputation as a safe harbor for nonconformity continued to attract artists who are not afraid to go against the music industry's status quo. Its tight-knit folk community, along with the influence from the beat movement, ingrained a spirit of experimentation and art's authenticity over commercialism. This approach countered the often more rigid commercial centers like Los Angeles, less than 400 miles away. By the mid-60s, this spirit, combined with the prevalence of a new drug, LSD, rang in the start of the psychedelic era. The first inklings of a new direction came from the Charlatans, a San Francisco-based band who were known for wearing clothing influenced by 19th century fashion and Native American clothing. The group performed a six-week residency in Virginia City, Nevada. It was notable for the promotional poster, whose art would greatly influence the well-known posters of San Francisco's psychedelic era. It would also be the first time that musicians would perform under the influence of LSD. Once they got back to San Francisco, that influence would spread as well. While the Charlatans music was considered primarily folk and blues, other bands would emerge, who were chiefly graduates from San Francisco's folk scene and who had decided to plug in and go electric. Quicksilver Messenger Service was one of the earliest bands to emerge with a new psychedelic sound. Folk progressions and strumming were mixed with jazz-influenced rhythms and extended electric guitar soloing. A contemporary group of Quicksilver was The Grateful Dead, who had formed around the same time. The Grateful Dead were also heavily influenced by the folk scene, particularly lead guitarist Jerry Garcia, who played multiple instruments found in folk music, including banjo and lapsteel. The Grateful Dead were the prototype for the jam band, with the band improvising and extending songs to well over 10 minutes, and Garcia soloing in a style heavily influenced by jazz players such as Miles Davis, Bill Evans, and others. The band would last over 35 years and become one of the largest-grossing touring acts ever, influencing a generation of bands who pushed the envelope of improvisation and extended soloing. While The Grateful Dead grew its audience slowly through word of mouth, the Jefferson Airplane were the first psychedelic band to find mainstream success. Formed in the spring of 1965, they achieved a sound influenced by folk music as well as contemporary melodic pop like The Beatles and The Birds. Singles like Somebody to Love and White Rabbit brought psychedelia to the mainstream and the mainstream to Hate Ashbury. As the influence of counterculture and hallucinogenic drugs expanded, bands like The Grateful Dead and Jefferson Airplane provided a soundtrack. San Francisco's established alternative scene appeared as an ideal paradise to young people across the United States. Its coffee shops, independent radio stations, and underground press provided a central headquarters for the counterculture movement. In the period of 1966 to 1967, San Francisco scene was an enormous cultural export across the globe, influencing everyone from the Four Tops to the Beatles. As the city's music scene exploded, it brought legions of new groups into the spotlight. Blue Cheer took the heavier elements of the psychedelic sound and slowed it down, making it heavier than anything else at the time. Their album, Vincibus Eruptum, released in 1968, along with efforts by Cream and Jimi Hendrix, was the precursor to heavy metal. Of all the successful bands from San Francisco in the 1960s, the most successful is typically not associated with the city due to its rootsy, bluesy sound. Credence Clearwater Revival sound is more associated with the Deep South, due to John Fogarty's raspy blues holler style of singing. They started off as the Blue Velvets and were signed to Fantasy Records, who changed the group's name to the Gollywogs, which they never liked. By 1968, they had changed their name to Credence Clearwater Revival and started to gain airplay on San Francisco radio with Suzy Q. Other radio stations around the country took note, and soon the band was on its way to fame. The band was often seen as the U.S.'s answer to the Beatles, with 14 consecutive top 10 singles and five consecutive top 10 albums. As Psychedelia blossomed in the city, it needed larger venues. A transplant from New York, Bill Graham, had a unique talent for promoting shows and negotiating use of underutilized venues. In early 1966, he formed a loose partnership with Family Dog Productions, which was led by Chet Helms. Helms managed San Francisco band Big Brother and the Holding Company, and he recruited the larger-than-life persona of vocalist Janice Joplin for the band. Holmes's productions caught the ear of Bill Graham, and together, they would organize many of the shows that highlighted the new bands of San Francisco. In 1966, Bill Graham was able to secure the open dates for the Fillmore Auditorium. It would use this contract to promote bands and put on a legendary series of shows that would attract top Bay Area talent, as well as international touring bands. Graham would also use Winterland, an old ice skating rink for concerts where Winterland's 5,400 seat capacity was needed. In the late 1960s and early 70s, Winterland and the Fillmore were the main proving grounds for San Francisco bands. As the 1970s began, music began to change. After the success of Woodstock, another concert was due to be held in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park in December of 1969. But it had to be moved at the last minute to Altamont Raceway in Tracy, California. The idea was Woodstock West, but it turned out to be a chaotic, violent event. The Hell's Angels were used for security, and a man was stabbed to death during the Rolling Stones set. Three others died at the concert from a hit-and-run accident and drowning in an irrigation canal. The violence helped put an end to the psychedelic era, and many groups turned to a more polished rock sound with catchier melodies and shorter solos. Santana, the Steve Miller band, Journey, and the Doobie Brothers all have their roots in San Francisco's psychedelic era, but found more success in radio-friendly singles. San Francisco's funkiest export was Sly and the Family Stone. Formed by DJ Sylvester Stewart, known professionally as Sly Stone, they embraced inclusion, being one of the first major groups to include members of different races and genders. Bringing in aspects of soul, RB, psychedelia, and pop, they created a unique brand of funk that was danceable and melodic. Their early songs were accessible to a wide audience with hits like Dance to the Music, Everyday People, and Thank You for Letting Me Be Myself Again. Their later work was darker and provided more critical social commentary. Drug issues forced the band to break up by the mid 70s. A huge innovation was unleashed by the band's bassist, Blarry Graham, who invented what is commonly known as slap bass, though Graham himself called it thumpin' and poppin'. It's a technique where instead of plucking a string with a Of your finger, you smack the edge of the string with the thumb and alternately pull back and release another string with your index finger, known as popping. This technique was hugely influential in American funk circles. Graham went on to form Graham Central Station, which went on to have its own success. Traveling in the same circles from across the bay were Tower of Power. Based in Oakland, they became well regarded for their catchy hooks and tight horn section, who appeared by request on albums for many other artists, including Santana, Eric Clapton, Bonnie Raid, Aerosmith, and Elton John, just to name a few. San Francisco continued to deliver polished RB and funk through the 80s and 90s, with the likes of the Pointer Sisters, Tony Tony Tony, and N Vogue, who would sell more records than any other female group short of the Supremes. Oakland-based hip-hop was pioneered by Two Short, who helped define West Coast hip-hop and collaborated with many, including Tupac Shakur, the notorious BIG, Jay-Z, Jermaine Dupree, and Lil John. Digital Underground used extensive funk samples and had a major hit with 1990s The Humpty Dance. But it was Stanley Burrell, better known as MC Hammer, that eclipsed all other rap artists' commercial success with his meteoric rise. His dominance of early 90s radio began with 1990s You Can't Touch This. The album that featured the song, Please Hammer Don't Hurt Hem was the first rap album to go diamond. By mid-1990, MC Hammer was everywhere. His string of hits included Pray and Too Legit to Quit, Saturated the Airwaves, and broke in a new means of revenue for the music industry. MC Hammer was one of the first hip-hop artists to take advantage of their own marketing opportunities, flooding the mainstream with everything from an MC Hammer doll to his own Saturday morning cartoon show, Hammer Man. He invested in all sorts of ventures, from thoroughbred racing stables to a line of clothing, to tech and media companies and mixed martial arts management, setting a standard that influences today's hip-hop culture where entrepreneurism often goes hand in hand with chart success. On January 14, 1978, the Sex Pistols played their last show together at Winterland. It would be a profound moment as the band would implode days later. Disillusioned with their management using the band for manufactured propaganda rather than music, Johnny Rotten asked from the stage, ever get the feeling you've been cheated. Everyone in attendance would remember the sound of a band unhinged, and many would go on to form groups of their own. Local groups, the Nuns and The Avengers, opened for the Pistols, and Negative Trend, a precursor to Flipper, was supposed to play afterwards, but it didn't sense most of the crowd had already left. The Pistols show helped ignite the San Francisco punk scene. Existing bands like The Nuns, The Avengers, and Crime were soon joined by a groundswell of bands like UXA, The Offs, and San Francisco's most famous punk export, the Dead Kennedys. The Dead Kennedys fully embraced punk's DIY ethos and released most of their material on the Alternative Tentacles record label, founded by members Jello Biafra and East Bay Ray. The Dead Kennedys in particular would be hugely influential to the punk movement, both in and beyond San Francisco. Along with fellow Californians' Black Flag and Circle Jerks, and DC's Bad Brains and Minor Threat, the Dead Kennedys helped give rise to a new, harder form of punk called hardcore. Another brand of San Francisco punk came from nearby Berkeley in the East Bay. Operation Ivy formed in the spring of 1987 and brought forth an aggressive form of ska that pulled influences not only from bands like the Specials, but also UK punks like The Clash. Although the band was only around for two years, its album's energy and the 180-plus shows the band played would resonate in bands such as Rancid, where bassist Matt Freeman and guitarist Tim Armstrong would go, and Green Day, who opened for Op Ivy's last show. Green Day in particular would ride the wave of alternative underground music in the 90s to become a stadium-filling act, taking melodic punk to millions worldwide and begging the question: is selling millions of records selling out? At the same time, bands like the Dead Kennedys were forming, a group of friends began making experimental noise collages with a cynical edge, often parroting American society. Negative LAN released several albums on their own before finding success with Escape from Noise. The album's opening announcement was a satirical pitch to radio programmers that the album had been constructed based on state-of-the-art marketing analysis technology instead of intangibles like taste and intuition. The following track, Quiet Please, blended typical mid-80s synth grooves and drum machines with cartoon noises, vocal clips, and loops. Negative Land helped to pioneer an almost fully sample-based approach to music, albeit in the form of strong parody on American culture. When the album found unexpected success, Negative Land received offers to tour. Without the financial or physical means of supporting a tour, the band issued a false press release, stating that law enforcement had prevented the group from touring due to the track Christianity is stupid inspiring teen David Brahm to murder his family. This was, of course, completely false. Even so, later in the same press release, the band denied the connection with Brahm. This purposefully caused controversy, and the hoax was even picked up by the local news stations. In another somewhat antagonistic move, Negative LAN released the U2 EP. The packaging included the letters U2 in large type and Negative LAN in very small type. It included soundscape parodies of the band U2, including a rant by Casey Kasom, which had accidentally gone out over the air in some cities. As the 1980s brought on a new wave of heavy metal, the Bay Area continued to produce bands that escaped the conformity of larger scenes in Los Angeles or New York. In the 1970s, San Francisco would produce catchy rock acts like Night Ranger and Sammy Hagar. But its biggest contribution to heavy metal was in the thrash scene. Exodus was formed in nearby Richmond, California, and started mixing in their own songs with covers of songs by Iron Maiden, Motorhead, and Saxon. In the fall of 1982, Exodus played the old Waldorf with Los Angeles' Metallica, who are not yet well known. Metallica would soon relocate to San Francisco and recruit trauma bassist Cliff Burton and Exodus guitarist Kirk Hammett, who replaced original guitarist Dave Mastain. Mastain would return to Los Angeles and form Megadeth, another pillar of thrash metal. Metallica released Kill Em All in 1983, followed by Ride the Lightning and Master of Puppets, creating a hugely influential body of work that would influence American metal for generations. Following several lineup changes, including Hammett's departure to join Metallica, Exodus would release Bonded by Blood in 1985, proving to be another influential album for Thrash Metal. The scene would create a tight-knit community of thrash bands, including Testament, Death Angel, and Possessed. As the scene grew, it became a necessary stop for thrash bands to gain exposure. In the mid-80s, San Francisco was also a breeding ground for bands that would help spearhead the alternative movement in the early 90s alongside Nirvana, Pearl Jam, and others. One band that helped bring Alt Rock to the mainstream was Faith No More. Formed in 1979 as Sharp Young Men, by 1985 the band had changed its name, gone through shifts in personnel, and released its first album, We Care A Lot. The band broke big in 1989 with the release of The Real Thing. The song Epic was released as a single in January of 1990. It was picked up by MTV and received heavy rotation. At the end of the video, a fish is seen flopping around on the ground gasping for water. This caused controversy with animal rights groups and gave the band even more publicity. Their next album, Angel Dust, was hugely influential on a generation of bands such as Korn, Slipknot, and System of a Down. The album was much darker in subject matter and took influence from hip-hop, including the use of samples. Driving this evolution was the band's lead singer, Mike Patton, who replaced Chuck Mosley before the release of The Real Thing. Patton had been recruited from another Bay Area band called Mr. Bungle, whose eccentric mashup of ska and metal and sick sense of humor brought the band local notoriety. Leveraging his success with Faith No More, Patton helped convince Warner Brothers to sign Mr. Bungle, who had released three albums in the 1990s. Bungle continually added elements of other genres such as ska, avant-garde, doo-wop, funk, and even Italian cinema. Their albums proved challenging and often addictive listening for fans. Primus was another harbinger of alternative heavy music. Bassist Les Claypool's percussive bass technique, paired with Larry Lalon's King Crimson-inspired guitar work, was odd enough, but Claypool's redneck style, quirky vocals brought a sense of humor that endeared them to fans. Primus found initial success with Suck on This, a live album debut initially released on Claypool's own prawn song records. Primus gained national attention with the release of Sailing the Seas of Cheese on Interscope Records in 1991. The album spawned two landmark music videos: Jerry was a Race Car Driver and Tommy the Cat, which featured Tom Waits as the main character. They would go on to have success with songs like My Name is Mud and Winona's Big Brown Beaver, despite their complete lack of conventional pop appeal. In the 1990s, San Francisco's penchant for generating chart-topping hits surged with acts like Papa Roach, Third Eye Blind, Counting Crows, and Four Non Blondes, whose lead singer Linda Perry would go on to write and produce songs for Christina Aguilera, Pink, and Gwen Stefani, among others. San Francisco's dedication to nonconformity seemed to be waning, but just below the chart-topping surface, a steady stream of excellent left-of-center music continues to be exported. From the Brian Jonestown Massacre to Black Rebel Motorcycle Club to Bay Area bands today, such as Foxtails Brigade, San Francisco's nonconformist legacy continues. I appreciate you joining me on our journey through San Francisco's unique musical history. Next time we will be diving into the rich musical traditions of Memphis, Tennessee. I invite you to check out other cities and episodes by searching Music Scope wherever you enjoy your podcast. Thanks for listening. I'm Mike Greff.