The Translational Mixer
The Translational Mixer
Episode 4: Dan Kaufman on off-the-shelf cell therapy and Manhattans
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UCSD's Dan Kaufman, an innovator in the field of induced pluripotent cell (iPSC)-derived natural killer cell therapies, talks to Andy and JC about the latest in allogeneic and autologous immune and regenerative cell therapies at the 2024 Keystone symposium on Emerging Cell Therapies.
02:55 Sourcing and expanding NK cells
05:59 Off-the-shelf versus self
09:26. Clinical trials and manufacturing
13:40. Stealth, immune cloaking and protein manufacture
16:51. Safety, cost, availability and standardization
22:00. Stampede into autoimmune disease
28:59. Neurological cell therapies and beyond
33:30. Off the shelf and in vivo engineering
38:13. Commercialization headaches
39:51. Dan’s drink
The Manhattan:
2 Oz rye whiskey,
1 Oz sweet vermouth,
2 dashes aromatic bitters.
DIRECTIONS: Stir on ice for 45 sec and strain over a coupe glass. Garnish with a maraschino cherry.
The Mixer music “Pour Me Another” courtesy of Smooth Moves!
02:55 Sourcing and expanding NK cells
05:59 Off-the-shelf versus self
09:26. Clinical trials and manufacturing
13:40. Stealth, immune cloaking and protein manufacture
16:51. Safety, cost, availability and standardization
22:00. Stampede into autoimmune disease
28:59. Neurological cell therapies and beyond
33:30. Off the shelf and in vivo engineering
38:13. Commercialization headaches
39:51. Dan’s drink
Andy Marshall: Hello everyone, Andy Marshall here, your host on The Mixer, back with my buddy Juan Carlos López.
Juan-Carlos Lopez: Hello Andy, good to be here. Very excited about a new episode of The Mixer. So who is our guest today?
Andy: So our guest today is Dan Kaufman, Dan's a professor in the Department of Medicine, Division of Cellular and Regenerative Medicine, and he's Director of the Cell Therapy Program at UCSD. Dan's been a longtime proponent and innovator in the area of natural killer (NK) cell therapies for blood cancers.
JC: Indeed, he recently organized a Keystone Symposium with Hans-Peter Kiem (Fred Hutchison Cancer Center) and Sonia Schrepfer (UCSF) on emerging cellular therapies. So we're hoping to hear what happened at the meeting and I'm sure we'll hear a lot about advances in NK cells as well as in related areas.
Andy: Great, we should also disclose Dan is a co-founder of Shoreline Bio and advises another company, Therabest, which are both in the area of cell therapy. So let's get started with the conversation.
JC: Let’s go
JC: Dan we're very happy to welcome you. You're fresh from organizing this meeting Emerging Cellular Therapies at Keystone, and looking at the program, we found different things that we thought were very interesting in this field, and hopefully we can touch up on some of them. One of them is this move beyond CAR -T's, which have really dominated the cell therapy field for a long time. It seems that now people are gaining a lot of new insights into B cells and NK cells, an area of your own interest. Hearing a little bit about that would be helpful. Another thing that that we found that would be very useful to discuss would be the expansion beyond cancer and beyond the blood. The advances that people are making in fields like autoimmunity in particular, retinal diseases, even neuroscience, that's a second point. And then the third point, which is even newer, and I think that we're going to hear a lot of surprises in that space, is in vivo cell engineering, as opposed to ex vivo. So to me, those are three areas that are very exciting. And it would be great to hear what was discussed at the meeting, your own thoughts about them. So why don't we start with the work on different cell types, considering that you've done a lot of work in that area , and made some very important contributions to NK (natural killer) cells in particular.
02:55 Sourcing and expanding NK cells
Dan Kaufman: I guess again in terms of background one of the things we wanted to do at this meeting was highlight things beyond CAR-T (chimeric antigen receptor-T) cells right so we had some of that; there is a lot of other interesting work and as you said my area of interest is in NK cell therapies and allogeneic (off-the-shelf) cell therapies in general, right?
And, you know, these can come, especially for the NK cell work, from different sources. All my work has been from human pluripotent stem cells. We started 20 plus years ago using human embryonic stem (ES) cells and then have largely moved to induced pluripotent stem cells (or iPS cells). And both can work quite well for making NK cells (or natural killer cells). And, you know, the advantage for me of using iPS cells is it forms a really excellent platform for gene engineering or modifications, right?
So we can have a standardized cell population that we've expressed CARs, so we have iPS derived CAR-NK cells. We've improved expression of proteins like CD16, which is an Fc receptor, we've done work, which I talked about, to knock out things like the TGF-beta (transforming growth factor beta) receptor, which can be inhibitory to NK cell function. There's a gene called CISH (cytokine-inducible SH2-containing protein or CIS), which is sort of a negative regulator of IL -15 signaling, and we're doing other work to make drug-resistant NK cells. And you can do this all in one population and derive all your cells from that.
So there are other groups—Katy Rezvani (University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center) also presented and she's done excellent work with cord-blood derived NK cells, so they make batches of cells. I think now they're at the point where they can treat dozens or maybe a hundred or more patients with a standardized cell product from what they've seen, but I think whether it's iPS or NK (haploidentical) or cord blood—and this is one of the things I've highlighted which is sort of a challenge for the NK-cell field—is that all the trials are relatively limited in size, right? So a lot of either academic investigator-initiated trials or companies now like Fate Therapeutics that has translated iPS-derived NK cells into clinical trials, but hasn't really gone beyond phase 1. Part of that has to do with the scaling of these cell sources and how they might be best utilized. But, you know, I think the trials that have gone on, whether it's iPS or cord blood or peripheral blood. There are many trials, you know, which is how this really started using NK cells isolated from allogeneic donors.
Again, this was really pioneered by my colleague, Jeff Miller, when I was at University of Minnesota, who used haploidentical donors (parents/siblings) for treatment of relapsed AML (acute myeloid leukemia) and that's been very effective. We've done work for 20 years showing about 30–50% of patients who get these allogeneic NK cells for AML can get into remission, some of them lasting a year or more. But how do we scale that beyond the individual trial , which I think has been sort of the challenge in the field.
05:59 Off-the-shelf versus self
The other part about allogeneic (off the shelf) cells, compared with the autologous (self) CAR-T cells (because they are foreign cells), is the persistence of the cells, right? And how long they maintain. Typically, these are given with lympho-depleting chemotherapy, which suppresses the patient's immune system. For some period of time, the cells survive for typically a few weeks, but then they largely disappear. You can potentially re-dose, which I think a number of these trials have been doing, and try and increase the scale that way. But it's a trade -off from the autologous cell source where patients' own cells can survive for months or years, right?
And this may be important for maintaining that longer-term remission. We just don’t really know at this stage. So it's been an interesting field to see develop, and I think will continue to develop.
Andy: So, Dan, there's essentially, you've mentioned, three sources: the cord blood, peripheral blood, or you know using iPS-cell derived cells. I seem to remember some people were also working on these immortalized cells. Is that still ongoing or?
Dan: I don't think very much so; there is this cell line called NK92, which is essentially as you say an immortalized NK cell line. Very easy to genetically modify. You can do all this stuff. The limit there is they have to irradiate the cells before they give them to the patient, which further decreases their persistence and activity. I don't think there's been a lot of enthusiasm for NK92 cells. I think it was sort of an early trial to move this, and I haven't seen as much of that now as maybe five years ago. And the field seems to moving towards these other cell sources.
Andy: And the early work, I seem to remember that the cancer was AML, which was work by Jeff Miller yeah?
Dan: I mean that's really where I think NK cells continues to show the most activity and even without a CAR. So, NK cells have different activating ligands, inhibitory ligands, tumor cells can express the, sorry, the NK cells express the receptors, the tumor cells express the ligands. AML cells are known to sort of up regulate some of these NK-cell ligands. So again, even without a CAR, they (NK cells) can kill, especially those types of AML, cells quite well. Solid tumors, you know, other tumors then require engineering with a CAR or so on.
Incidentally, one of the short talks at the meeting, May Dayer from MD Anderson, who again works with Katy Rezvani there, actually did very nice work characterizing how patients with AML, their NK cells become dysfunctional, possibly I think through TGF-beta production and other mechanisms. So again, which is why presumably if you give these third-party NK cells that are not dysfunctional, they can take on that activity as well. So I think that's also sort of an additional insight of why the allogeneic NK cells might work well for AML.
But my real bias, I think AML is sort of the CD-19 equivalent for NK cells, and I really wish there's all these companies and stuff developing their products, and they're doing CD-19 and other stuff, and there are some doing AML, but I think that's where we can really gain ground for NK cell-based therapy.
09:26. Clinical trials and manufacturing
JC: This last point you made I find very interesting, that companies aren't getting into this space, even though there's data already from phase 1 trials showing that this works.
Dan: I mean, to some extent they are, but I wish it was more, I guess.
JC: Yeah, so I wonder what is the roadblock, right? Is it that it's hard to manufacture these cells? Is it that we still need technological improvements to get higher yields of these cells? Or is it that we still don't understand the biology enough to move them forward? Or is it something more related to clinical development in the sense that maybe you're going to have to show superiority of these versus standard of care? And that just seems quite hard to achieve. So which of these different things do you think is the main roadblock to move these approved NK cells to more successful clinical trials?
Dan: So I mean there's a couple of parts to this. There's one: more successful NK trials in general; and then also why isn't there more being done for AML? And I think there it's maybe a recognition of the clinical need and maybe the company business models and so on, because it is maybe a relatively rare disease, though I think that the need is there. Incidentally, also CAR T -cells, autologous CAR T -cells, I think are not very good—sorry to bias myself — for AML because all the antigens are shared with normal hematopoietic cells. So groups are doing things like knocking out CD33 and hematopoietic stem cells and treating patients and potentially transplanting HSCs after. There's no way to scale that in a great number of cells. So again, NK cells really fit that well.
In general, I think the challenges, as you sort of suggested, a lot of this is in the in the manufacturing and scale of the cells. I'll say maybe especially for iPS-derived cells—I don't know as much about the clinical-scale manufacturing of cord blood or peripheral blood—but each I think has its challenges. One thing we have learned from these trials is we have to get the cell dose up substantially. So Fate Therapeutics, for better or worse, were the first ones on the block to do this. And obviously they started with unedited NK cells and then you'll introduce you know one edit and now multiple edits, whereas company now like Century Therapeutics is doing iPS-derived NK cells, their first product I think has six or eight gene edits.
Fate (Therapeutics) has also started with a relatively low dose (100 million cells times one); and then you have to wait a long time between patients because it's a sort of first-in-human trial. Now we're looking at trials getting up to like 10 to the 9th cells, and multiple doses of 10 to the 9th cells. So that's getting to be a like pretty good number of cells to manufacture and store and make and all that stuff. So you know, I think it can be done and there are groups that are doing this, but it is a challenge. And so I think the manufacturing right now is the biggest issue. And I'm trying to remember sort of the other items you brought up.
JC: If we needed a better technology to increase yield, so that has to do with manufacturing, the other one was how much of the biology do we understand so that we're comfortable moving forward. There's always more biology to learn, but it doesn't sound like that’s the hold up.
Dan: Yeah, I mean, obviously we're pretty good at characterizing the cell populations and there may be subtle differences between these cell sources. I mean, we've done comparison of our iPS-derived NK cells to peripheral blood and cord blood. There's gonna be some differences, but to me they seem to be more alike than different. I've heard people suggest that the iPS-derived NK cells aren't fully mature, but that's not the case in our hands. They mature over time as you expand them in culture and we have ways to do that. So I don't think it's biology or biology that's so important, so it's the manufacturing.
13:40. Stealth, immune cloaking and protein manufacture
Dan: And then it's the immune activity, as I mentioned before, right? So again, Century Therapeutics and others are working on making more of what can be called stealth cells, right? Or less immune reactive. And again, Sonja Schrepfer (UCSF and Sana Biotechnology) talked about this some at the meeting more in the setting of non-immune cells, but the principle holds, right? So can you knock out class I (MHC), class II (MHC), add HLA-E (human leukocyte antigen E) or CD-47 to prevent NK cell killing and so on, because the longer you can make the cells survive, presumably the better their activity. I think that's also a challenge people are trying to focus on.
JC: You know, it would be quite nice to move on to the next issue that we introduced at the beginning, which is the different therapy areas in which people are beginning to try. But before we do that, I wonder if there's anything that you saw at the meeting that is particularly exciting about B cells?
Dan: Yeah, Paula Cannon (University of Southern California) talked about B-cell engineering to make anti-HIV antibodies. But there was also the talk by this company called Be Bio that I thought was quite clever in that they're just engineering the B cells to be protein factories right? So they're not worried about making antibodies but they're very good about making proteins right. So they can make things like Factor IX for hemophilia. And I think they plan to be in trials you know later this year. I thought that was interesting and not necessarily for just immunology purposes right? Again it's sort of a way of delivering gene therapy or whatever protein that you want to have for repair or replacement of what's missing. So yeah, I thought that was an interesting new area.
Andy: So this is a kind of new modality, yeah, where we're able to produce, for example, I think Be Bio, and there was another example of a company that I came across, ImmuSoft, where they're producing an enzyme in vivo. It's a really exciting new modality. Did they talk at all about the advantages of this compared with traditional enzyme replacement therapies where you're injecting the recombinant enzyme itself?
Dan: Not specifically for those areas. I think the advantage is that these would be engrafting cells, right? And the advantage for a lot of these things is you don't need real high levels of these proteins or enzymes, right? If you get like 5–10% of normal levels, people do pretty well.
The other area, and maybe we can come back to at the end because it's a little bit different, again, comparing to gene replacement, was Don Cohen's talk at the end for immunodeficiencies, right, in HSC (hematopoietic stem cell) gene engineering. And there he did talk about, because some of these are done for storage disorders or so on where they do give enzymes as sort of standard of care, and now they're trying to do the HSC gene engineering, which I think is fantastic. So there they did talk a little bit more of he talked about one versus the other, but not as much necessarily for these other conditions.
16:51. Safety, cost, availability and standardization
Andy: Before we leave NK cells though, I have a couple of questions. First is you know one of the advantages of NK cells was the fact that compared with CAR-Ts, you're not really suffering from the same kind of issues with cytokine storm and immune rejection (for T cell disorders) because they're (NK cells) are allogeneic cells to an extent (when you're using haploidentical sources). So given the fact that all the time this is going on. The CAR-T cell field is finding ways of dealing with cytokine-storm issues. Do you see that kind of advantage of NK cells now kind of falling behind, or do you still think that they're the kind of gentle giants, aren't they, compared with T cells?
Dan: Well, so yeah, we didn't get into sort of the advantage why we want to do allogeneic cell therapy in general, whether it's NK or T cells. Part of it is the cost, right? So the autologous products that are made on a patient-specific basis that cost—about a half a million dollars just for the manufacturing —is significant. And when these ever do expand into solid tumors or things where the market might be 10x, that could be an even bigger issue compared to, say, the CD19 T cells. So cost; availability, right? So that autologous therapies take about three weeks to manufacture, not every patient has that amount of time before their disease progresses. So again, if you can have a ‘quote-unquote’ off -the -shelf cell therapy product that's there where the patient needs it, those are the type of things that we want to move to. I do think the CAR -T cell field is moving towards shorter manufacturing periods.
The toxicity, I mean, it is an issue that's probably also an issue why autologous CAR T -cells have to be done at a tertiary specialty medical center because patients do get the cytokine release syndrome, or neurotoxicity is the other major issue. NK cells don't seem to cause that, and even though they're allogeneic cells, they don't cause graft-versus-host disease. And, and maybe it's... getting somewhat better for the CAR-T cells. And without taking this the wrong way, it is part of the effectiveness of the cells and the proliferation of the cells. A little bit of these immune reactivity and stimulation is not necessarily a real bad thing. And maybe I wouldn't mind seeing a little bit more in the NK cells to show that they're getting activated a little bit more up until a point. We are definitely getting better at managing these type of toxicities. I mean, it's an important consideration. I don't think that's the major differential between autologous and allogeneic therapies.
I think it's more the cost and the availability and the standardization of the product because for an autologous therapy, everybody's getting something different. And if it works or doesn't work, is it because the difference in the tumor is a difference in the cell product and so on? But if you have a standardized allogeneic product, you can better understand what is important for efficacy and not, because everybody's getting the same thing. I always use the example, you know, I want this like my blood-pressure medicine. When I get it, it's standardized, everybody gets the same thing, I go to the pharmacy and pick it up and it's ready to go. It's not made on a one-off basis. You know, I think that's eventually where we want to go for these cell therapies.
So the other analogy is like antibody therapies, right? So again, when I was in training and rituximab (Rituxan) came out 2025 years ago, this is the first CD20 monoclonal antibody for cancer treatment, was effective, there were some side effects, people would get some immune reactivity against this, and as a protein product, people are like, how are we going to make enough of this? How is this gonna be used? And now there's what dozens of monoclonal antibodies that you can get for cancer therapy and non -cancer therapy. And you can get them basically anywhere in the world and this is very standardized. So you know we're not obviously there yet for the cell therapy but 20 years from now or so on maybe that's hopefully where we can get.
Andy: So one last question because we need to move on. Where do you see the killer apps for NK cells compared with T cells?
Dan: AML. I mean, I think that really should be the focus. I think autologous CAR-T cells don't work that well, or they have again complications. We know NK cells will work. You might be able to make them even better. There is still a tremendous clinical need for better treatments for relapse AML. When we first started doing this, I mean, I hear things like, "Oh, there's eight new drugs that have just been approved for AML." They all target individual sort of gene mutations. None of those are curative, whereas, you know, I think in the right scenario for NK cells, they can be. We've done some work to make these even more effective. Again, if people are out there listening to interest in this, go after AML. I think that's the best application for this.
22:00. Stampede into autoimmune disease
JC: The other area we were trying to get some insight into was the new therapeutic areas where cell therapy is going to claim wins, right? And people have been talking about autoimmunity for a while, the retina. There were some talks at the meeting on neuroscience applications. What's happening in that area? Where do you see the low -hanging fruit?
Dan: No, these are all very... interesting. Getting back to the CAR-T cells, there was a speaker from a company who's, I actually don't think they are in clinical trials yet for the CD19 CAR-T cells, but they talk primarily about work that's been done in Germany that first did some of these trials or continue to do and has published some of this on CD19 CAR T -cells for primarily lupus and maybe moving into autoimmune disease.
Andy: Was that the work by Fabian Muller?
Dan: I believe so.
Andy: Right, University Hospital Erlangen, is that right?
Dan: Yes, I believe so. Really fantastic results, right? For lupus it's like 10 out of 10, or 12 out of 12 patients, all-in CRs (complete responses), going out two years or more. No disease activity, like gone. It's very early stages, but very exciting. exciting. Everybody's jumping on the bandwagon. So, you know, every T -cell, auto-allo, everybody says, oh, we're gonna be an autoimmune company. It's a lot of enthusiasm over a dozen patients. And it is a little bit different in how we think about the pathogenesis or pathophysiology of autoimmune disease which has been typically thought of largely T -cell mediated, but these are knocking out B cells, which for lupus probably makes sense because you get a lot of autoantibodies produced and so on. Whether it's the same thing for other autoimmune disease I don't know if it'll work the same but I think very interesting and I think that's in the to be seen.
The other thing that was brought up and I think is important because we started treating a few patients for multiple sclerosis would consider the standard autologous amount of cell transplants, not a CAR-T. But what I saw from those patients and what was mentioned here is treating these patients, collecting the cells, manufacturing the cells and so on from non -cancer patients seems to be much easier than from cancer patients. And these are patients who have not seen chemotherapy before. Their bone marrow is not as beat up from previous therapies. So they collect a lot of cells. Their immune cells are very healthy. The patients do very well with this. And so while we would like to move towards allogeneic cell products for these things. And there's obviously going to be the logistics and the cost for the autoimmune disease.
You know, the toxicity and then the patient health may be easier to manage at least at this point. And the long -term persistence of those cells may be important. We don't know. So again, the autologous T cells will persist for months or years. Allogeneic cells probably not so much, whether you can just give one big knockout punch and reset the immune system, which is kind of what people also claim that these do. And there's a lot of hand waving around that because nobody's entirely clear what that means, but it does seem to help. So early stages, everybody's again jumping on the bandwagon there.
Andy: Obviously cancer, there's this kind of risk-benefit ratio, yeah? And the toxicity of the treatment that you will be prepared to endure to fight the cancer. Autoimmune disease is a slightly different risk-benefit ratio. So I'm just wondering if you could talk to two aspects. So obviously there's been a lot of chatter quite recently about these lymphomas that have been discovered in a tiny, tiny fraction of patients who have received these CAR -T, was it for six approved CAR -T therapies they found roughly 14 cases among 27,000 doses given? Vanishingly small, and yet, if you're fighting cancer, compared with fighting an autoimmune disease that may seem to be an issue. And then the other thing I wanted to ask about obviously you know lymphodepletion is an important part of the pre-treatment and so do you think that we're gonna get around lymphodepletion for autoimmune indications?
Dan: Well we also don't know how much that (lymphodepletion) is part of the therapy right? That's good treatment for autoimmune disease, and that's actually one of the questions is how much of the cells helping versus just chemotherapy?
When we do this for MS, it is really an autologous hematopoietic cell transplant. It's essentially just giving a big slug of cyclophosphamide, which is very immunosuppressive. The cells are incidental, they're just a way to rescue from the toxicity. So, it is really the immunosuppression that benefits that. And again MS is now accepted by the American and European BMT (Bone Marrow Transplant) societies as you know autologous transplants being an effective therapy.
Some of these autoimmune diseases are just as lethal as cancer. So the mortality of somebody with severe lupus, those curves can look very similar to some malignancies and some types of lymphoma and so on. So I think that the clinical need is there. The risk benefit in terms of toxicity and secondary malignancies is very much the same. I agree. I mean, the amount of consternation that's come up about these T-cell lymphomas from the CAR-T cells, we don't know if that's from the tumor, we don't know if it's from the cells. Again, it gets into why having a standardized allogeneic product could be better if it's just as effective, right, because you want wouldn't presumably have some of these integration effects or stuff that might cause that.
So that's going to be a concern, but there's still a lot of other treatments for the autoimmune disease. It's not like everybody's going to get it, and so it's for these very refractory cases where you want to do it, and so I think the risk-benefit becomes more neutral when these patients have a central and equivalently lethal disease. And then there's just the toxicity of the treatment itself right as you mentioned the CRS (cytokine release syndrome) and the neurotoxicity and maybe you accept a little bit more of that in in a cancer therapy than an autoimmune disease but again the patients may be healthier they may be able to better tolerate these things. Hopefully, there's not some untoward event that sort of sets back this whole area.
JC: Sometimes it's not only what the patient is willing to accept in terms of risk, right? It's what the regulators think would be a good risk. And that's where some of these therapies end up meeting an unsurmountable obstacle, the regulatory concern, more than what the patient is willing to accept. Yeah, we should move on to, oh, so you were about to tell us about the other areas like retina and neuro.
28:59. Neurological cell therapies and beyond
Dan: So yeah, the other area I wanted to highlight is the neurologic disease. Lorenz Studer from Memorial Sloan-Kettering, who's really pioneered human ES (embryonic stem) cell-derived dopaminergic neurons and is now working with a company called BlueRock that's treated a dozen patients with these dopaminergic neurons for Parkinson's disease. I don't know how much efficacy data they've presented, but certainly safe and exciting to see that in trials and seemingly going well.
The other was a talk from a company called Neurona, which have done at least one of their patients here at UC San Diego for epilepsy; so they have a way from ES or some other early stem cell source, of making inhibitory neurons, I believe. So they're actually using this to treat patients with refractory epilepsy. They've presented six or seven patients. Again, these are early phase results, but these are patients who have seizures and even in these early trials have gone away to a large part. Early stages, but really interesting and exciting to see these things getting in the clinic.
Those are all interesting areas and great to see the field progress. You know, a lot of the comments you hear about sort of the stem cell field is like, well, you know, it's a lot of hype, but what are you... really doing? And now all these different diseases are getting into the clinic.
I don't think we had a speaker from Vertex, but we wanted somebody to talk about IPS-derived pancreatic islet cells, which are in trials. Sonja Schrepfer talked about that to some extent. You know, other groups working on liver; I think there was even a short talk of biliary cells. So those are maybe a little further behind. But islet cells are certainly in clinical trials. Cardiac cells continue to get worked on and so on. More and more getting into the clinic, I think, is great.
JC: It's interesting to hear about the experience with the Parkinson's patients and the epilepsy patients. As you may know, there's a literature that goes back 34 years ago when people were doing these kind of transplant from embryonic cells, and it was similar to this. The initial experiments came up positive and people were very excited. But when people did the more rigorous trials, it was like one third of the patients would get better, one third would show no effect, and one third would get worse. So hopefully in these cases, we're finding a better success rate, but it's a very difficult area in which to get results. And then there's a concern about generating tumors; again, 30 years ago, when people were talking about these kind of transplants, there were a lot of concerns, some of which actually were very legitimate. So it will be very good news if these new generation of therapeutics are more successful.
Dan: Yeah, yeah, I followed this field for Parkinson's, Curt Freed (University of Colorado) and such did these trials with fetal cells, right? I mean, but now the advantage is, again, we have a standardized cell source, right? So if these are ES- or iPS-derived in those early trials, do people do better or worse? Because everybody was getting something different and very hard to standardize. So now having the standard cell source makes it easier to understand who would benefit and who might not. So that's going to be an advantage going forward for any of these treatments. They seem to be having efficacy very early, even though they don't think these cells necessarily integrate or are really active for maybe a month or two. Patients seem to get better, whether it's placebo or something else, soon after they get the treatment or the immunosuppression or something else. So a lot unknown.
JC: Yeah. 34 years ago when people were doing those transplants, they found a similar thing. And people were wondering, so what is the mechanism whereby these transplants work? And they didn't know if it was a paracrine effect. I don't think that people felt that those transplants really integrated in a meaningful way at restoring the previous network. I don't think that was the mechanism people were thinking about.
Dan: One of the key things about this meeting was the diversity of cell therapies that are out there now and how much of this is getting into the clinic and that was the comment I think I heard from a lot of people there: “ I didn't know all this was going on everybody's kind of focused on their area so it was was really good to kind of get this.”
33:30. Off the shelf and in vivo engineering
Andy: We've talked about autologous and allogeneic. It seems like we are moving into a new era. Is this one of the themes that you would take away from the meeting Dan? That off the shelf cell therapies which really is very much an important development if we're going to turn these into commercial therapies where you can distribute these effectively, manufacture them effectively. That leads to this question of, do you have a feeling that we're entering a new era in which off-the-shelf cell therapy is becoming a reality?
Dan: So, I guess, again, that's whether you're doing it talking about cancer therapy or non -cancer, right? I mean, I think it's clearly moving ahead in both areas. We talked about, again, the advantage for the allogeneic CAR-NK cells compared with the autologous. And these other diseases, again, are by-and-large allogeneic cells. There are companies, and again, there's one here in San Diego, Aspen Neuroscience, that's actually doing autologous dopaminergic neurons for Parkinson's, more challenges there, but maybe less issues with immune reactivity.
The last thing I think we talked about we want to touch on in the last few minutes is the in vivo therapy, right? I think that's really the next evolution of whether it's off the shelf or standardized or easier to deliver therapies, right?
Andy: So what do you see as the technological developments that are going to allow in vivo therapy compared with what we've really seen so far, which is ex vivo modified cell therapy?
Dan: This is an area where my group has gotten into a little bit just because of the scale -up challenges with the allogeneic products. What if we could engineer patients' own cells to be the CAR -T cells or the NK cells to kill tumor cells? Or, it's also being done for gene correction for things like sickle cell disease or so on, right? So instead of taking the cells out or making the cells in the lab, engineering them, giving them back, give some sort of vector to repair or engineer patients' own cells.
So the issues there are specificity, right, and safety and efficacy. How do you target just the cells that you want and others, and then how do you do this safely? So there's a few different technologies that people are using either viral vectors. I mean, this is obviously classically been done sort of with lentiviral or AAV (adeno-associated viral) vectors. But now moving beyond that, a big area of interest are LNPs, lipid nanoparticles. So this is what billions of people have now been treated with for COVID vaccines. That's a very large number. So these can be scaled up quite effectively. Our first speaker, I'll just highlight from the meeting, you know, keynote was Drew Weisman, who just won the Nobel Prize for development of this mRNA technology with LNPs that's been used for the COVID vaccine.
So he's very much getting into other areas of LNP delivery. There are different ways you can use this, and I'm learning about as well, you can change lipid formulations to target different types of cells to some degree if they have a positive charge or negative charge. You can also link to conjugate them to antibodies, right? Which is what we're doing so you can target different immune cells or different cells of interest.
The other area that my group has gotten interested in is so-called virus-like particles. So instead of having sort of infectious lenti or AAV, we can use a stripped down version of this as essentially a membrane delivery vehicle for mRNA to target specific cells. And again, those can be engineered in different ways with scFvs or DARPins to target different immune cells.
Another way I thought was interesting to change or improve the specificity of this effect. So there's a company called Orna, which is for circularized RNA, which is another way to improve the persistence. And they've done this all with supposedly a charged LNP that can target T cells, NK cells, and macrophages. By changing sort of the composition of the RNA with different IRES (internal ribosome entry sequences) or different regulatory sequences, you can change how this is expressed or not in different immune cells. You might hit a lot of cells, but if you only get the RNA expressed in your cell type of interest that's another way of adding specificity.
We're interested in doing this for essentially engineering CAR cell therapies and more effectively. Others again like my colleague Hans-Peter Kiem or others are trying to do HSC gene engineering for gene repair for sickle cell or beta thalassemia that'll see our you know immunodeficiencies potentially could be used. So early stage, but I think a lot of interest moving into this area.
38:13. Commercialization headaches
JC: We have one final question for you Dan,
Dan: Before we get to the last thing, the last speaker who I really wanted is Don Kohn (UCLA). He has 30 plus years of work for HSC gene engineering. He's been doing this for treatment of immunodeficiencies. These are essentially bubble boy disease, right? Which they can now cure through this engineered hematopoietic stem cells. They've treated and, you know, his group at UCLA and they collaborate with groups in Europe, treated 50 or so patients with this and maybe more worldwide with fantastic results, 90+ percent, long -term success. They've tried to commercialize this. So there's a company (Orchard Therapeutics) that sort of licensed this technology and then they found they couldn't make enough money because they're just not enough patients. So they actually got the technology back into the academic setting and they're trying to figure out how to move forward. So it's unfortunate when these business interests supersede the patient's interests. It's been a great success and hopefully an area to continue to highlight and move forward from. So it was very fitting to have him conclude the meeting as well.
JC: Yeah. I visited his lab about a year ago. So we talked a little bit about this experience that you're sharing with us that he had licensed therapeutics, but then there's no commercial model that might be successful. And then they have to go back to square one. It's quite unfortunate. And I completely agree that that's something that we need to address because the science is quite mature in that space.
Dan: Yeah, there needs to be some commercial solution for these things.
39:51. Dan’s drink
JC: The last question Dan, as we have said the podcast is called The Mixer, and that's because we always try to combine our interest in science with our interest in cocktails. So our last question to you is, what is your go-to drink?
Dan: I'll say I'm more beer than wine. If I'm having something mixed. If I'm making it 'cause it's easy, it's probably gin and tonic. Manhattan would be the other... other sort of I've tried to learn how to make good Manhattan, but it's challenging.
JC: Well, practice makes perfect, right? And Manhattan is very, very easy. The area code of Manhattan is, you know, it's 212. So it's two ounces of whiskey, one ounce of sweet vermouth, and then two dashes of angostura bitters; very straightforward drink. I encourage you to practice Dan, and hopefully next time you join us in the Mixer, we can share a glass with you.
Dan: I’ll keep that in mind.
JC: Very good. Well it's been a great conversation. Thank you very much Dan.
Dan: Yeah okay good thanks hope this turns out well.
Andy: So clearly a lot of excitement in adoptive immune therapy, whether it's T cells or NK cells, and this move out of cancer to autoimmune indications. I was particularly interested in his comments about the quality of cells you can harvest from autoimmune patients, rather than cancer patients. It's also going to be interesting to see whether these regenerative stem cell therapies pan out. They've been a long time coming, it's been many decades and still many questions of unsettled science I think, how the cells implant integration into existing tissue structures, issues such as immune stealth that Dan touched upon a little and persistence, I think, are still quite up in the air. Then, of course, we've had the recent news that Vertex, which is the most advanced clinical trial of these ES cell derived pancreatic beta cells, was stalled. So, a lot of excitement, J .C., yeah?
JC: Yeah, I'm glad we have this episode. I think it's an area of great interest. I'm particularly interested in in the regenerative medicine aspect of this because as we talked during the episode, it's an area where we've been getting results for decades and yet progress has been somewhat limited. I was very struck by Dan's comment that one advantage that we have now is that we can characterize the cells much better than we could in the past. And I think he's right, the fact that a lot of these new transplants and new experiments involved iPSC-derived cells is actually a promising advantage. So I look forward to the results because the proof is in the pudding. Also this thing about moving away from cancer towards other indications, I think it's very interesting. And if I were a betting man, I would bet for autoimmunity as the area where we're going to see exciting results in the near future.
Andy: What about Dan's choice of cocktail?
JC: Yeah, Manhattan. Very elegant drink. I love a good Manhattan. I didn't mention during the episode that the official whiskey for a Manhattan is rye whiskey. You can just use bourbon or other varieties, but the official one is rye. And the other thing that I failed to mention is the final ingredient in it. the cocktail, which is a maraschino cherry. So that is what adds some element of elegance and there's some sweetness to the cocktail that is quite welcome. So hopefully we can share one one of these days.
Andy. Absolutely. Look forward to it, JC. We'll put all of the ingredients down below in the description. Thanks everybody for listening. Thanks, Dan, for participating. and see you all next time. Cheers!