The Restful Record: Jaffna, Sri Lanka

Welcome to another soothing episode of The Restful Record, where history meets tranquility. This week, we journey to the vibrant city of Jaffna, Sri Lanka — a land steeped in fascinating ancient history and culture, from its ancient Tamil kingdoms and colonial past to its modern-day revival. We’ll explore Jaffna’s historic Nallur Kandaswamy Kovil, its bustling Jaffna Fort, and the unique legacy of Portuguese, Dutch, and British influences that shaped its identity.

Perfect for a relaxing listen, this episode blends cultural history, Sri Lankan heritage, and stories of overcoming conflict to help you drift into restful sleep or simply unwind.

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Podcast cover art image by Eric Nopanen.

Transcript

Welcome to tonight’s episode of The Restful Record, where we take a gentle journey through time, exploring the stories of different cities around the world. Before we dive into the city of tonight, let's relax for a moment. I invite you to close your eyes, settle into a comfortable position, and take a slow, deep breath in through your nose, hold for a moment, and then exhale slowly through your mouth. Let the weight of your day melt and any worries away as you breathe in calm and breathe out any tension you might be carrying from the day. With each breath, feel yourself sinking deeper into relaxation. Now, as we drift through the history of tonight’s city, let the soothing rhythm of my voice guide you into a deep relaxation or sleep.

 Tonight we travel—ever so gently in our minds—to the northern tip of Sri Lanka, to a place where warm breezes carry the scent of salt and jasmine: the city of Jaffna. But before we settle into the rhythms of this vibrant peninsula, we’ll drift across the broader landscape of Sri Lanka itself—a teardrop-shaped island off the southern coast of India, suspended in the Indian Ocean. Formed through tectonic shifts over 200 million years ago, Sri Lanka was once part of the supercontinent Gondwana. Its ancient central highlands are among the oldest surfaces on Earth, composed mainly of Precambrian rock—which is granite, gneiss, and quartzite—which has shaped both the island’s terrain and its diverse ecosystems. From misty mountains to coral reefs, Sri Lanka is a geological mosaic.

 Over millennia, this island’s position just above the equator has given it a tropical climate marked by steady warmth and seasonal monsoons. Temperatures generally range between 26 to 30°C  with humidity ebbing and flowing in rhythm with the rains. The island's biodiversity is astonishing for its size. It harbors lush rainforests, mangroves, dry plains, and alpine meadows. Elephants, leopards, and hundreds of bird species roam its forests, while ancient species like the purple-faced langur and the elusive pangolin quietly trace their ancestral paths. Sri Lanka’s flora, from towering dipterocarps in the central highlands to coastal coconut palms and tamarind trees, has been shaped by both isolation and migration, resulting in a high rate of endemism, or species being endemic to only that area.

 Now, we narrow our focus to Jaffna—a sun-baked city perched on a coral and limestone foundation, flanked by shallow lagoons and dry palmyra groves. Jaffna’s ecosystem is distinct from the wetter southern parts of Sri Lanka. Here, the climate is drier, with an arid breeze that rustles the palms and keeps the soil sandy and porous. Historically, Jaffna’s landscape has supported hardy crops like millet and chillies, as well as salt production along its coast. Its natural environment is deeply tied to Tamil culture, which has flourished here for centuries. 

 Long before the rise of cities or kingdoms, Sri Lanka was home to early Homo sapiens. One of the most significant archaeological discoveries shedding light on this ancient human presence is the Balangoda Man, whose remains date back over 38,000 years. These early inhabitants left behind stone tools, jewelry made from shells, and evidence of fire use, particularly in caves like the famous Fa Hien Cave—named after a Chinese monk who visited Sri Lanka centuries later. Nestled deep in the forested hills of the country's southwest, Fa Hien Cave has offered some of the oldest fossils in South Asia, helping researchers understand the migration patterns and lifestyles of prehistoric humans in the region.

 As we shift our gaze north to the Jaffna Peninsula, we enter a culturally distinct corner of Sri Lanka that has seen layers of human history unfold. While Jaffna is more renowned for its rich Tamil heritage, Hindu temples, and colonial-era forts, its story is rooted in the same deep past that shaped the rest of the island. Though fewer prehistoric sites have been excavated in the north, the entire island's early human presence is a reminder that long before kingdoms rose and fell, people walked these lands—gathering, hunting, and building lives beneath the stars. So tonight, as we ease into sleep, imagine the flickering firelight inside a cave 38,000 years ago, where early Sri Lankans shaped tools from stone and shared stories of the world as they knew it.

 The story of Sri Lanka’s mythical origins begins with Prince Vijaya, a North Indian noble exiled from his kingdom around 500 BCE. As the tale goes, Vijaya and his followers arrived on the shores of Sri Lanka, where he is said to have founded the island’s first Sinhalese kingdom. While this narrative intertwines myth with historical memory, it marks a pivotal cultural moment—one that introduced Indo-Aryan languages, political structures, and religious practices that would shape Sri Lankan identity for centuries to come.

 In the northern region of Jaffna, however, history also tells of deep Dravidian roots, with early Tamil settlements contributing to the island’s cultural complexity. Long before and after Vijaya’s arrival, Sri Lanka was a crossroads for South Indian and Southeast Asian maritime trade, bringing waves of Dravidian influence, especially from Tamil Nadu. Jaffna emerged as a cultural stronghold of Tamil language, Hindu traditions, and local kingdoms, most notably the Jaffna Kingdom which rose to prominence in the 13th century. This rich interweaving of Indo-Aryan and Dravidian traditions across the island laid the foundation for a diverse society, where myth, migration, and memory continue to echo in Sri Lanka’s landscapes and stories.

 The Anuradhapura  grew into a powerful kingdom renowned for its sophisticated urban planning and engineering feats, particularly its advanced irrigation systems. Massive reservoirs—called wewas—and an intricate network of canals allowed for year-round agriculture, even during dry seasons. These systems not only sustained a growing population but also supported a flourishing economy based on rice cultivation and trade. The kingdom’s hydraulic expertise remains one of the most impressive aspects of ancient South Asian engineering.

Anuradhapura also became a stronghold for Theravāda Buddhism after its introduction from India in the 3rd century BCE.  The Mahavihara monastery in Anuradhapura became a leading center for Buddhist scholarship and practice, influencing religious life across the region for centuries. This spiritual foundation helped shape Sri Lankan identity, linking monarchy with religious legitimacy. Meanwhile, Anuradhapura’s strategic location along Indian Ocean trade routes brought it into contact with distant empires. Roman coins and Chinese ceramics found on the island testify to extensive trade links, suggesting a thriving exchange of goods and ideas between Sri Lanka and the wider ancient world.

 By the 13th century, Jaffna had risen as a significant seat of Tamil power in northern Sri Lanka, culminating in the establishment of the Jaffna Kingdom. This kingdom emerged as earlier South Indian influences and migrations solidified into a structured polity, deeply connected to the Tamil kingdoms across the Palk Strait in southern India. The Arya Chakravarti dynasty, which ruled Jaffna for several centuries, maintained strong cultural, religious, and trade ties with the Tamil regions of the mainland, reinforcing the region's Dravidian identity. Under their patronage, Jaffna became a thriving center of Tamil literature, Hindu temple architecture, and regional commerce, exporting goods like elephants, pearls, and salt. These developments positioned the kingdom not only as a political force but also as a vibrant center of Tamil civilization in the Indian Ocean world.

 The Portuguese first arrived in Sri Lanka in 1505, drawn by the island's strategic position along Indian Ocean trade routes and its rich resources, particularly cinnamon. Over the decades, they gradually extended control over key coastal regions, forging alliances, exploiting rivalries among local kingdoms, and ultimately using military force to dominate large parts of the island. In 1619, the Kingdom of Jaffna in the north fell to Portuguese forces after a brutal campaign. The fall of Jaffna marked the end of Tamil sovereignty in the region for centuries and the beginning of profound cultural and religious upheaval under European rule.

 With their conquest, the Portuguese imposed aggressive missionary policies aimed at converting the local population to Catholicism. Jesuit and Franciscan missionaries, backed by the colonial government, destroyed Hindu temples across the region, replacing them with churches and Christian schools. In Jaffna, centuries-old religious sites were razed, sacred texts were burned, and Hindu priests were expelled or forcibly converted. The colonial administration linked religious conversion with political loyalty, intertwining faith with governance. This period not only disrupted longstanding Tamil Hindu traditions but also set the stage for deep social and religious divisions that would echo throughout Sri Lanka’s later history.

 Under Dutch rule from 1658 to 1796, Jaffna and other parts of coastal Sri Lanka underwent a significant transformation. The Dutch East India Company, or VOC, ousted the Portuguese with the help of the Kandyan Kingdom, only to later dominate much of the island's coastline themselves. While the Dutch had little interest in inland expansion, they focused intensely on controlling trade routes and maximizing profit—particularly from cinnamon, one of the most prized spices in Europe at the time. They established a network of forts, administrative centers, and trading posts, using existing Portuguese structures where convenient but also introducing their own systems of governance and taxation. In Jaffna, they reinforced the fort, introduced Protestant Christianity, and imposed new land and labor policies that shifted local economic patterns toward Dutch interests.

 The VOC also left a distinct architectural and urban legacy in Sri Lanka’s coastal cities. Towns like Galle, Colombo, and Jaffna saw the construction of sturdy fortifications, churches, and grid-like street plans reflective of Dutch colonial ideals. These changes were not just cosmetic—they signaled a new order centered on trade efficiency, military control, and administrative oversight. The Dutch were meticulous record-keepers, and their detailed surveys of land and population offer some of the earliest comprehensive documentation in Sri Lankan society. However, their rule was also exploitative, with strict controls on agriculture and commerce, and an economy geared almost entirely toward the export of goods like cinnamon, areca nut, and elephants. While they were more bureaucratically organized than the Portuguese, the Dutch era in Sri Lanka was still a period of colonial extraction, setting the stage for the British who would take over at the end of the 18th century.

 As Dutch power waned and Europe reshaped itself through war and empire, the British moved in, taking control of Dutch-held coastal areas by 1796 and formally claiming the entire island as a Crown colony by 1815. This marked the first time Sri Lanka—which then called Ceylon—was unified under a single foreign power. The British brought with them a different colonial model: one of bureaucratic centralization and economic modernization, at least in the interests of the Empire. They introduced English as the language of administration and education, setting up schools and institutions that would create a new class of English-speaking elites. British rule extended deeply into the island’s interior, breaking the sovereignty of the Kandyan Kingdom and reshaping governance into a centralized colonial apparatus.

 Economically, British colonization was transformative. Following the failure of cinnamon as a sole export crop, the British launched a plantation economy that began with coffee and, after a blight in the 1860s, transitioned to tea. The central highlands were cleared, terraced, and planted, and thousands of Tamil laborers were brought from South India under often exploitative conditions to work the estates. Coffee, then tea, became the backbone of the colonial economy, turning Ceylon into one of the world’s largest tea exporters. The physical landscape changed—railroads were built to connect plantations to ports, and towns grew around estate economies. These developments created lasting social and economic divisions that still resonate today, even as Sri Lanka has moved beyond colonial rule into independence.

 During British colonial rule in Sri Lanka, Jaffna emerged as a vibrant center of Tamil education and intellectual activity. British missionaries, particularly from the American Ceylon Mission, established a number of schools and printing presses in the region beginning in the early 19th century. Institutions such as Jaffna College and the Jaffna Hindu College became known for their academic rigor and emphasis on English-language instruction, helping to produce a generation of educated Tamils who were well-versed in both Western and local knowledge systems. The spread of print culture, including newspapers, journals, and Tamil literary works, enabled the formation of a literate public sphere where political and social issues could be debated, and ideas circulated widely.

 This educational infrastructure laid the foundation for a strong Tamil middle class in Jaffna, many of whom went on to occupy civil service positions, particularly in administration and education across Sri Lanka and even abroad. The region also became a cradle of early Tamil political consciousness. Educated elites in Jaffna were among the first to engage in constitutional reform movements and campaigns for greater representation under colonial rule. Their activism—rooted in both Western liberal ideals and Tamil cultural pride—would later influence broader nationalist movements and shape the trajectory of ethnic politics in Sri Lanka for decades to come.

 Following independence from Britain in 1948, Ceylon entered a complex era of nation-building that quickly exposed deep ethnic divisions. Although the country began as a parliamentary democracy with a diverse population, including Sinhalese, Tamils, and Muslims, post-independence policies began to privilege the Sinhalese majority. One of the most controversial steps was the Ceylon Citizenship Act of 1948, which effectively rendered many Indian Tamils stateless, denying them citizenship and the right to vote. This was followed by the Sinhala Only Act in 1956, which made Sinhala the sole official language, marginalizing Tamil speakers in education, public service, and government. These laws sent a clear message that the state was aligning with Sinhalese nationalism, alienating Tamil communities and eroding the pluralistic hopes of the early independence period.

 By the 1970s, Tamil political frustration had deepened into demands for autonomy. Peaceful protests and parliamentary negotiations gave way to growing calls for a separate Tamil homeland, particularly in the north and east, where Tamils formed a majority. Jaffna, the cultural and political heartland of Sri Lankan Tamils, became a focal point for dissent. Government crackdowns on Tamil activism, combined with systemic discrimination in university admissions and employment, intensified a sense of exclusion. The state's unwillingness to accommodate Tamil grievances through meaningful reforms helped sow the seeds of separatist sentiment that would eventually erupt into decades of civil conflict.

 The Sri Lankan Civil War, which raged from 1983 to 2009, was a deeply tragic conflict with profound roots in ethnic tensions between the Sinhalese-majority government and the Tamil-minority population. The Tamils, concentrated in the northern and eastern parts of the island, including Jaffna, felt marginalized and discriminated against by the government, particularly in terms of political representation, language rights, and access to resources. This led to the formation of the Tamil Tigers, or the LTTE (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam), which sought to establish an independent Tamil Eelam in the north. Jaffna, the cultural and political heart of the Tamil community, became a focal point of violence, military occupation, and resistance throughout the war.

 The war saw devastating battles, especially during the 1980s and 1990s, with Jaffna as one of the epicenters. The Sri Lankan military and the LTTE both engaged in brutal tactics, including bombings, assassinations, and civilian massacres. One of the most significant moments came in 1995, when the government launched Operation Riviresa, a military offensive to recapture Jaffna from the LTTE after it had been under their control for several years. This battle caused massive destruction to the city and led to the displacement of tens of thousands of civilians. The conflict also exacerbated the human toll, with widespread suffering, hunger, and the loss of countless lives. The war was marked by its cruelty, particularly towards civilians caught between the two forces, and led to long-term psychological, social, and physical scars for many who lived through it.

 The aftermath of the war, which officially ended in 2009 with the defeat of the LTTE, left Jaffna and the broader northern region deeply scarred. The legacy of displacement, broken families, and devastated communities remains. While the end of the conflict brought peace to Sri Lanka, the healing process is slow, and the wounds of the war still influence Tamil-Sinhalese relations. Many Tamils, especially in Jaffna, continue to seek justice for wartime atrocities, and questions surrounding accountability and reconciliation remain unresolved. The war also left a legacy of trauma and rebuilding in Jaffna, with efforts focused on revitalizing the local economy and infrastructure while addressing the deep psychological and cultural impacts of the conflict.

 The Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora has played a pivotal role in shaping global perceptions of the country's conflict and advocating for justice and reconciliation in its aftermath. Spanning across countries such as Canada, the UK, and Australia, the diaspora became a vocal force in raising awareness about the human rights violations during the civil war, particularly during the final stages of the conflict. Through protests, lobbying efforts, and media campaigns, they pushed for international intervention, greater scrutiny of Sri Lanka's actions, and accountability for war crimes. In addition to these efforts, many in the diaspora have supported the long-term process of healing and post-war justice, advocating for the rights of Tamil communities in Sri Lanka, the recognition of the suffering endured by civilians, and the need for truth and reconciliation processes to ensure lasting peace. Their involvement has kept the global spotlight on Sri Lanka, urging both the international community and the Sri Lankan government to address the unresolved wounds of the past.

 In the years following the end of the civil war, Jaffna has faced significant challenges in rebuilding both its physical infrastructure and its societal fabric. Efforts to revitalize the region have focused on reconstruction and economic development, but militarization remains a pervasive issue, with the Sri Lankan military retaining a strong presence in the North, which some see as a continued barrier to peace and autonomy. Land rights disputes have also been a source of tension, particularly with regard to the displacement of Tamil families during the conflict, leading to complex issues surrounding ownership and resettlement. At the same time, there has been a concerted effort to revive Tamil culture and heritage, with initiatives aimed at restoring monuments, language, and traditional practices that were undermined during the war. The reintegration of displaced people, many of whom were forced to flee their homes, remains a delicate process, as families seek to rebuild their lives amidst the remnants of a painful past. Despite these efforts, the region continues to grapple with the emotional and political scars left by decades of conflict.

 The island's Tamil-majority region of Jaffna, once at the heart of a brutal civil war, is now navigating a delicate balance between its rich cultural heritage and the growing demands of national unity. The economic crises that have rocked the country in recent years have placed immense pressure on all regions, including Jaffna, which has faced high unemployment and infrastructure challenges. Political unrest, often fueled by tensions between the Sinhalese-majority government and minority groups, has further strained efforts to foster genuine reconciliation. Despite these challenges, there are ongoing efforts to rebuild trust between communities, with initiatives aimed at addressing long-standing grievances, promoting dialogue, and fostering inclusive governance.

 In the face of these obstacles, the evolving identity of Sri Lanka—both in Jaffna and across the island—is one of resilience and renewal. As the country continues to grapple with the repercussions of its past, there's a growing recognition of the need for unity while respecting diversity. The younger generation in Jaffna, often more focused on economic progress than the political divisions of the past, is contributing to a renewed sense of national identity that transcends ethnic boundaries. Sri Lanka's future will depend on how it navigates these challenges, with the hope that reconciliation efforts, alongside economic recovery and political reforms, will create a more inclusive and prosperous future for all its people. Thank you for joining us on tonight's episode of The Restful Record; rest well.