The Restful Record: Tehran, Iran

In tonight's episode of The Restful Record, we journey through the layered history of Tehran, Iran’s dynamic capital—once a vital hub along the Silk Road and now a geopolitical flashpoint. From the Mongol invasion led by Genghis Khan, which reshaped the Persian plateau, to the strategic role Iran played during World War I, Tehran has long been at the crossroads of empire and resistance.

We explore the roots and ripple effects of the 1979 Iranian Revolution, when decades of monarchy collapsed and gave rise to the Islamic Republic, followed by the dramatic kidnapping of U.S. embassy employees in Tehran—an event that shattered Iran-U.S. relations and still reverberates today.

This episode also unpacks the complex and tense relationship between Iran and Israel, including the latest developments in the 2025 Iran-Israel conflict. With a focus on diplomacy, defiance, and domestic resilience, we highlight Tehran's central role in shaping—and challenging—the balance of power in the Middle East.

💤 Don’t forget to like, subscribe, and hit the notification bell if you enjoy this content! It helps support the podcast and brings more peaceful episodes your way.

Podcast cover art image by Eric Nopanen.

Transcript

Welcome to tonight’s episode of The Restful Record. Whether you're here for relaxation, to de-stress, or to help you fall into a deep sleep, we welcome you. This season we take a gentle journey through time, exploring the stories of different cities around the world. But before we dive into tonight’s city, let's take a moment to relax. Close your eyes, settle into a comfortable position, and take a slow, deep breath in through your nose, hold for a moment, and then exhale slowly through your mouth. Let the weight of your day melt away as you breathe in calm and breathe out any tension that you might be carrying. With each breath, feel yourself sinking deeper into relaxation. Now, as we drift through the history of tonight’s city, let the soothing rhythm of my voice guide you deep into a deep relaxation or sleep.

Nestled at the foot of the towering Alborz Mountains, Tehran’s setting is one of dramatic contrasts—snow-capped peaks to the north, arid salt deserts stretching south, and a high plateau in between that has cradled human life for thousands of years. Long before it became Iran’s sprawling capital, this region was shaped by its geography: a semi-arid climate with hot summers, cold winters, and limited rainfall, mostly in the form of winter snow in the mountains. The melting snow has historically fed rivers and underground channels ingeniously engineered by early settlers to irrigate the plains below (which are called Qanats) creating an oasis in an otherwise harsh environment.

 In prehistoric times, the land around modern-day Tehran was part of the great Iranian plateau, a crossroads for migrating herds and hunter-gatherer communities. Evidence of Neolithic settlements near the southern slopes suggests that the area’s fertile patches and freshwater sources made it a natural place for early agriculture. Wild pistachio and almond trees, native grasses, and hardy shrubs once dominated the landscape, alongside fauna like Asiatic lions, Persian leopards, wild goats, and gazelles—many of which have since disappeared due to urbanization and climate pressures. Even today, remnants of this biodiversity survive in the Alborz foothills and nearby national parks.

 The wildlife of the Tehran region reflects its unique position between mountains and desert, offering a surprisingly diverse range of species adapted to the varied terrain. In the rugged slopes of the Alborz Mountains, Persian leopards—which are now endangered—still roam, along with wild goats, foxes, and golden jackals. Brown bears, though rare, are occasionally spotted in more remote elevations. Closer to the plains and semi-arid foothills, smaller mammals such as hedgehogs, hares, and Persian squirrels are more common. Birds of prey like eagles and falcons soar above the cliffs, while songbirds and migratory species can be found in the greener pockets and parklands. Reptiles such as lizards and snakes thrive in the drier zones, and amphibians inhabit the remaining freshwater springs. Though urban sprawl has significantly reduced animal habitats over time, Tehran’s proximity to protected areas like the Khojir and Sorkheh Hesar national parks continues to shelter some of this fragile and resilient wildlife.

 As centuries passed, human activity began to reshape the environment. Orchards, terraced gardens, and carefully managed groves became a feature of the region, especially during the reign of Persian empires who prized cultivated beauty and water management. Tehran’s environment has always been a balancing act—between nature and civilization, scarcity and ingenuity. From ancient trails carved by shepherds to the modern sprawl of highways and high-rises, the city’s relationship to its geography tells a story of adaptation and resilience. It is in this context—between mountain and desert, past and present—that the story of Tehran begins.

 Beneath the bustling avenues and high-rises of modern Tehran lies a quiet but powerful testament to human persistence: traces of prehistoric settlements that hint at life here thousands of years before the city we know took shape. Archaeological discoveries in and around Tehran—particularly in sites like Qeytariyeh, Darband, and the Tehran Plain—have revealed evidence of Neolithic and Chalcolithic communities who farmed, hunted, and crafted tools from stone and clay. These early inhabitants took advantage of the region’s natural water sources, fertile pockets of land, and relative shelter from harsher desert climates to build semi-permanent dwellings. Pottery fragments, burial sites, and simple irrigation remnants suggest that even in prehistory, the area supported a dynamic and organized way of life. This ancient human footprint, largely hidden beneath centuries of expansion, forms the foundation—both literally and figuratively—of Tehran’s long and layered story.

 From antiquity through the Middle Ages, the area surrounding Tehran sat just off one of the key arteries of the Silk Road, the vast network of trade routes that connected East Asia to Europe from around 130 BCE to the mid-15th century. While Tehran itself was a small village during much of this period, nearby Rey and other settlements in the Tehran Plain played a crucial role as stopover points for caravans moving westward from China, India, and Central Asia toward the Mediterranean. The routes crossing the Iranian plateau were vital for traders seeking to bypass the harsher terrain of the north or avoid the political instability that often plagued other corridors. Goods like silk, spices, saffron, glass, ivory, and perfumes passed through the region, as did more illicit items such as opium, which had long been cultivated and used medicinally in parts of Persia and India.

 The Silk Road was more than just a commercial highway—it was a vector of cultural and political exchange, and often of conflict. Caravans traveling through Persia faced threats not just from harsh weather and banditry, but also from warring empires vying for control of these profitable paths. One of the more fascinating aspects of this trade was the movement of early medicines and narcotics: Persian traders were instrumental in introducing opium to the East and later re-importing refined forms from India under colonial influence. During the Islamic Golden Age, the nearby cities became hubs of knowledge where medical texts were translated and improved, many of which included references to substances like cannabis and opium as treatments for pain and insomnia. With the collapse of the Mongol Empire and the rise of new maritime routes in the 15th century, overland Silk Road traffic declined, but its legacy in shaping the economies and cultures of places like Tehran lived on, laying the groundwork for its later political and economic importance.

 The Mongol Empire, originating in the steppes of Central Asia under the leadership of Genghis Khan in the early 13th century, rapidly expanded to become the largest contiguous land empire in history. The Mongols were fierce nomadic horsemen, known for their military discipline, swift cavalry, and sophisticated strategies of siege and intimidation. After unifying the Mongol tribes, Genghis Khan launched a series of invasions that swept across Asia, reaching as far west as Eastern Europe and the Middle East. In 1256, his grandson Hülegü Khan led a campaign into Persia, founding the Ilkhanate—a Mongol-ruled state that included much of modern-day Iran, Azerbaijan, and parts of Iraq and Turkey. The Mongol entry into Iran was marked by extreme violence, including the annihilation of entire cities such as Nishapur and the infamous 1258 sack of Baghdad, which ended the Islamic Golden Age and the Abbasid Caliphate.

 In Iran, the Mongols destroyed the ancient city of Rey, not far from modern Tehran, effectively erasing one of the region’s most important centers of culture and scholarship. However, once their dominance was established, the Ilkhanate shifted from conquest to governance. Under Hülegü’s successors, particularly Ghazan Khan (who ruled from 1295 to 1304), the Mongols converted to Islam and began to assimilate into Persian culture. Ghazan implemented reforms in taxation, trade, and administration, and he patronized scholars, poets, and architects, helping to revive urban life and learning in the aftermath of the invasions. Persian became the language of administration, and local elites regained influence in the court. Though the Mongol era in Iran began with destruction, it ultimately laid the foundation for a cultural and scientific renaissance and helped to integrate Iran more fully into the broader Eurasian world through the Silk Road and other networks of exchange.

 In many ways, Tehran's ascent was born from Rey's ashes, inheriting its geographic advantage and eventually surpassing it in influence and scale.

During the 1500s and 1600s, the region around modern-day Tehran entered a new era under the rule of the Safavid Empire, which unified Iran and established Twelver Shi’a Islam as the official state religion—a transformation that still shapes Iranian identity today. The Safavid capital was initially in Tabriz and later Isfahan, but the strategic location of Tehran at the foot of the Alborz Mountains and near key caravan routes made it increasingly important. In 1554, Shah Tahmasp I ordered the construction of a defensive wall around the small town of Tehran, signaling its growing value as a military and administrative outpost. The area thrived on trade, agriculture, and its position as a rest stop for caravans traveling between the Caspian Sea and central Iran. By the late 1600s, European travelers and diplomats passing through described Tehran as a modest but pleasant town, known for its gardens, fresh water, and abundant fruit orchards. Though still overshadowed by older cities like Isfahan and Qazvin, Tehran was slowly planting the seeds of its future prominence.

 Tehran’s transformation from a modest town into the capital of Persia began in 1786, when Agha Mohammad Khan, founder of the Qajar dynasty, designated it as the new seat of power. His decision was both practical and political: Tehran’s central location offered easier access to all corners of the kingdom, it lay along crucial trade and military routes, and its distance from long-established and often rebellious cities like Isfahan and Shiraz gave the new dynasty a fresh start. Additionally, its proximity to the Qajar tribal base and the north made it easier to maintain control. Though still small and relatively undeveloped, Tehran was quickly fortified and expanded to reflect its new status. The Qajars began building palaces, administrative centers, and military barracks, setting the stage for the city’s rapid urban and political growth over the following century. 

 Tehran’s role as the political heart of Iran became even more pronounced in the late 19th century, culminating in one of the city’s most dramatic and consequential events: the assassination of Naser al-Din Shah Qajar in 1896. After nearly five decades on the throne, during which he modernized aspects of the military and administration while also indulging in personal extravagance, Naser al-Din Shah was fatally shot at the Shah Abdol-Azim Shrine in Rey, just south of Tehran. His assassin, Mirza Reza Kermani, was influenced by the radical ideas of Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and broader nationalist and constitutionalist movements sweeping the region. The killing shocked the nation but also crystallized growing dissatisfaction with autocratic rule, corruption, and foreign interference. Seen as a spark for the Iranian Constitutional Revolution that would erupt a few years later, the assassination marked a turning point in Iran’s political awakening—and Tehran, as the capital, would become the main stage for this transformative struggle.

 In the early 20th century, Tehran became the epicenter of a groundbreaking movement that would reshape Iran’s political landscape: the Iranian Constitutional Revolution (from 1905–1911). Sparked by widespread frustration with royal corruption, economic hardship, and increasing foreign influence—particularly from Russia and Britain—protesters from all walks of life, including merchants, clerics, students, and intellectuals, took to the streets of Tehran demanding reform. The movement reached a critical point in 1906, when mass demonstrations and strikes led to the establishment of Iran’s first national assembly, the Majles, marking a bold step toward constitutional monarchy and democratic governance. The revolution introduced a constitution, laws limiting the Shah’s power, and greater public engagement in national decision-making—ideals that electrified the capital and inspired future generations.

 However, the promise of the revolution quickly ran into resistance. Mohammad Ali Shah, who succeeded his father in 1907, opposed the constitutional limits on royal authority and, with the backing of Russian Cossack forces, bombarded the Majles in 1908, effectively dissolving it and arresting key reformists. Tehran again became the battleground for political control, as revolutionaries regrouped and fought to restore the parliament. Though the Majles was reinstated in 1909 after constitutionalists regained power, the broader goals of the revolution were undermined by factionalism, foreign intervention, and the looming influence of imperial powers. Still, the revolution left a lasting legacy: it introduced the concept of representative government to Iran, elevated Tehran as the nerve center of national politics, and planted the seeds for future movements advocating for democracy and justice.

 Following the turbulence of the Constitutional Revolution, Tehran entered a period of uneasy modernization and deepening foreign entanglement from the 1910s through the 1950s. Although Iran declared neutrality during World War I, its strategic location and natural resources made it a target for imperial ambitions. Russian, British, and Ottoman forces occupied different parts of the country, turning Iran—despite its official stance—into a de facto battleground. The war devastated much of the population, with famine, disease, and displacement affecting millions. Tehran itself, though not the site of direct combat, suffered from economic instability, political intrigue, and the looming presence of foreign troops. The capital became a hub of espionage and diplomatic maneuvering, with local elites and foreign agents vying for influence amid the broader collapse of central authority. This chaotic environment deepened public frustration with both foreign powers and Iran’s weak Qajar monarchy.

 Out of this turmoil emerged a new force: Reza Khan, a military officer in the Persian Cossack Brigade who capitalized on national discontent and power vacuums. After leading a coup in 1921, he quickly consolidated power and was crowned Reza Shah Pahlavi in 1925, founding the Pahlavi dynasty. Under his rule, Tehran underwent a dramatic transformation as he pursued an aggressive modernization agenda. Old city walls were demolished, European-style boulevards and buildings were erected, and key institutions—including a national railway, Tehran University, and a centralized bureaucracy—were established. Reza Shah imposed secular reforms, curbed clerical influence, and even banned traditional dress in favor of Western attire. These efforts aimed to align Iran with modern nation-states, but they also marginalized large segments of the population and restricted political reforms. 

 This growing tension reached a breaking point in 1953, when Tehran became the stage for one of the most pivotal—and controversial—episodes in modern Iranian history: the overthrow of Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadegh in a coup orchestrated by the CIA and Britain’s MI6, known as Operation Ajax. Mossadegh had risen to power with broad popular support, especially after he nationalized Iran’s oil industry, which had long been under British control through the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. His move was seen as a direct challenge to Western interests and sparked a political crisis. The coup, executed through a mix of propaganda, bribery, and engineered street protests in Tehran, successfully removed Mossadegh and reinstated the Shah’s authority. Though the operation was initially kept secret, it eventually became a symbol of foreign interference and betrayal for many Iranians. The aftermath saw Tehran under tight control, as the Shah expanded his authoritarian rule with support from Western powers, particularly the United States. This event not only reshaped the city’s political climate but also planted deep seeds of mistrust that would later explode in revolution.

 From the 1950s to the 1970s, Iran—and particularly Tehran—experienced rapid modernization, economic growth, and Western influence under the rule of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi. Fueled by oil revenues and backed by the West, the Shah launched ambitious development projects and reforms known as the White Revolution, which aimed to industrialize the economy, expand education, and modernize society. Tehran became a gleaming symbol of this progress: its skyline grew with new high-rises, cinemas, universities, and shopping centers, while Western music, fashion, and art flourished in elite circles. Women in urban areas, especially in Tehran, gained access to education and employment, and many adopted European-style clothing—short skirts, styled hair, and makeup became common among the middle and upper classes. Legal reforms granted women the right to vote and increased their presence in public life. Yet beneath the surface, this cultural shift was uneven and often alienating to more traditional and religious communities, who saw these changes as forced, elitist, and disconnected from Iranian values. The gap between rich and poor widened, and political dissent was harshly suppressed by the Shah’s secret police, SAVAK. This era, though often romanticized as a golden age by some, was marked by growing tension between modernity and tradition, setting the stage for the social unrest that would soon erupt into revolution.

 The Iranian Revolution of 1979 marked a seismic shift not only in Iran’s history but in the geopolitics of the Middle East. In the years leading up to the revolution, public dissatisfaction with Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi’s authoritarian rule had reached a breaking point. Despite the modernization and relative affluence seen in urban centers like Tehran, many Iranians felt alienated by the Shah’s close ties to Western powers, widespread political repression, and the glaring social and economic inequalities. Massive protests began in 1978, led by a broad coalition of religious leaders, leftists, students, and everyday citizens. These protests intensified despite violent crackdowns by the regime. By February 1979, the Shah fled the country, and the exiled cleric Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Tehran to widespread support. Soon after, Iran was declared an Islamic Republic, ushering in a theocratic government that fused religious authority with political power—an unprecedented model in the modern world.

 The revolution radically altered Iran’s relationship to the West. Diplomatic ties with the United States and Israel were severed, and Iran became openly hostile toward both nations. One of the most dramatic episodes of the 1979 Iranian Revolution was the U.S. Embassy hostage crisis, which began on November 4, when a group of Iranian students stormed the American embassy in Tehran and took 52 diplomats and citizens hostage. The students, aligned with the ideals of Ayatollah Khomeini, claimed the embassy was a den of espionage and demanded the extradition of the exiled Shah, who was receiving medical treatment in the United States. The crisis lasted 444 days and plunged U.S.-Iran relations into a deep freeze that persists to this day. Amid the chaos, a lesser-known but equally daring operation unfolded: six American diplomats had escaped capture and were hiding in the Canadian ambassador’s residence. With CIA assistance, a covert mission was launched to extract them from Iran by posing as a Canadian film crew scouting locations for a fake sci-fi movie titled Argo. This real-life mission, kept secret for years, was later dramatized in the 2012 film Argo, which brought renewed attention to the hostage crisis and highlighted the dangerous political climate in post-revolutionary Tehran.

 Israel, once a close economic and military partner of Iran, became an ideological enemy, with the new government supporting anti-Israel groups across the region. Internally, the post-revolutionary government imposed strict Islamic codes on society. Women were required to wear the hijab, gender segregation was enforced, and many of the rights gained during the Pahlavi era were rolled back. While some women continued to pursue higher education and professional careers, their dress and behavior in public were heavily policed. Dissent was met with imprisonment, exile, or worse, and Tehran’s once-vibrant cultural and intellectual life was reshaped to fit Islamic values. Still, over the decades, resistance simmered beneath the surface, often led by students, women’s rights activists, and reform-minded clerics.

 By the early 2000s, tensions between Iran and the West had shifted to focus heavily on Iran’s nuclear ambitions. Iran insisted its nuclear program was for peaceful energy purposes, but Western powers—particularly the United States and Israel—feared it was a cover for developing nuclear weapons. Sanctions were imposed, and diplomatic efforts vacillated between pressure and cautious negotiation. Meanwhile, inside Iran, the struggle between conservative hardliners and reformists intensified. The election of President Mohammad Khatami in the late 1990s had sparked a brief period of social and political openness, but this momentum was curtailed by a conservative backlash. The disputed 2009 presidential election, which returned Mahmoud Ahmadinejad to power amid allegations of fraud, triggered the Green Movement—mass protests led by young people and urban middle classes demanding civil liberties and democratic reforms. Tehran once again became the epicenter of resistance, with millions taking to the streets in peaceful demonstrations, only to be met with violent repression. By the end of the decade, Iran stood at a crossroads: increasingly isolated on the international stage, fractured at home, and grappling with the complex legacy of a revolution that continued to shape every aspect of its society.

 From 2010 onward, Tehran and Iran more broadly have faced a complex and often turbulent political landscape shaped by tightening international sanctions, internal dissent, and strained global relationships. The 2015 Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, commonly known as the Iran nuclear deal, briefly offered a glimmer of hope. Brokered between Iran and six world powers—including the United States—the deal required Iran to significantly curb its nuclear program in exchange for sanctions relief. In Tehran, this led to a short period of economic optimism, with foreign investments returning and hopes rising for broader international reintegration. However, that window slammed shut in 2018 when U.S. President Donald Trump unilaterally withdrew from the agreement and reimposed harsh sanctions. The Iranian rial plummeted, inflation soared, and ordinary citizens in Tehran began to feel the weight of renewed economic isolation, with rising prices, unemployment, and limited access to international goods and financial systems.

 Alongside economic pressure, political repression within Iran has intensified. Tehran has remained a hub for both resistance and control—home to reformist movements as well as the powerful Revolutionary Guard. Journalists, activists, and dual nationals have frequently been arrested under vague national security charges. Outlets such as BBC Persian and international reporters face severe restrictions, and Tehran’s notorious Evin Prison continues to house many political prisoners. Major protests in 2017–2018, and again in 2019 after a fuel price hike, were met with brutal crackdowns, with internet blackouts and hundreds of protesters killed or detained. The 2022 death of Mahsa Amini, a young Kurdish woman detained by morality police for allegedly wearing her hijab improperly, ignited nationwide protests under the banner “Woman, Life, Freedom.” The movement, largely led by young women in Tehran and across Iran, was met with international support but violent domestic suppression. Despite the state’s efforts to quell dissent, the protests signaled a generational shift in attitudes toward the Islamic Republic and further exposed the widening gap between the ruling elite and much of the population.

 By June 2025, Iran’s geopolitical tensions have escalated to dangerous levels. Tehran has deepened its alliances with Russia and China while maintaining its support for proxy groups throughout the Middle East, including Hezbollah and armed factions in Iraq, Syria, and Yemen. Relations with Israel and the United States have sharply deteriorated following a series of tit-for-tat attacks and covert operations. In spring 2025, a deadly Israeli airstrike targeted an Iranian military installation in Syria, prompting a missile barrage from Iran-backed forces across the region. In retaliation, Iran launched drones and cruise missiles toward Israeli territory, leading to direct exchanges between the two states for the first time in years. The United States, citing defense of its regional allies, has increased its military presence in the Gulf and imposed new layers of sanctions on Iranian military and financial institutions. Tehran’s hardline leadership remains defiant, accelerating uranium enrichment and refusing international inspections, raising fears of a potential nuclear threshold. Inside the city, anxiety hangs heavy—Tehranis are caught between rising authoritarianism, economic stagnation, and the looming threat of regional war, with hope resting largely on the resilience of civil society and a growing underground push for reform.

 In mid‑June 2025, the Iran–Israel conflict escalated into direct military confrontation. On June 13, Israel launched “Operation Rising Lion,” a coordinated airstrike campaign targeting over 100 Iranian nuclear and military sites — including Tehran — using drones, F‑35s, and Mossad‑enabled covert strikes. Iran responded with ballistic missiles and more than 100 drones launched toward Israeli territory; some missiles struck hospital infrastructure, including Soroka Medical Center, injuring civilians. Israeli reports indicate the strikes eliminated several top IRGC generals and nuclear scientists, significantly impacting Iran’s military command. The U.S. has backed Israel’s actions and increased its military presence by deploying additional carrier strike groups to the region. Meanwhile,  U.S. President Trump is reportedly pushing plans for further strikes on Iran’s nuclear facilities — though no authorization has been granted yet. 

 Domestically, Tehran has been hit hard. Hundreds of casualties have been reported from Israeli strikes, prompting panic and evacuation. Hundreds of thousands – mostly families and young people – are leaving the city for safer regions. Internet services dropped by up to 97% during the crisis, signaling a nationwide blackout aimed at controlling information and stifling unrest. Officials are warning of possible closure of the Strait of Hormuz in retaliation — a move that could disrupt global oil flows and spike prices amid an already severe economic crisis, which has pushed inflation past 40% and over 50% of the population into poverty.

 Amidst airstrikes and an exodus, Iran’s human rights activists continue to appeal for peace. Nobel laureate Narges Mohammadi, temporarily released on medical grounds, has publicly called for an immediate ceasefire and urged international pressure to prevent further escalation. However, with the U.S. ramping up sanctions and weighing military options, and Israel striking hard, Iran finds itself cornered politically, economically, and militarily. Tehran’s resilience is being tested like never before, as ordinary citizens struggle under war, repression, and international isolation — all while observers worry that a miscalculation could ignite a wider regional war.

 From its ancient roots beneath the Alborz foothills to its rise as the capital of a vast empire, Tehran’s story is one of resilience, transformation, and constant reinvention. Through centuries of conquest, revolution, and modernization, the city has been shaped by the forces of geography, culture, and politics—reflecting the broader history of Iran itself. Today, as Tehran stands at the crossroads of deep internal challenges and volatile international tensions, its people continue to navigate a delicate balance between tradition and change, hope and hardship. Understanding Tehran’s layered past helps illuminate not only the complexities of this vibrant metropolis but also the enduring spirit of a nation that has long been a pivotal player on the world stage.