The Restful Record: Phnom Penh, Cambodia

In this episode of The Restful Record, we explore the layered history and lush geography of Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Settle in as we drift through the city's ancient origins—its rich floodplains, pre-human ecosystems, and early Khmer settlements—before journeying through the rise of the Khmer Empire, the legend of Daun Penh, and the founding of the capital. We reflect on French colonialism, Cambodia’s independence in 1953, the U.S. bombing campaign (1969–1973), and the devastating civil war that led to the Khmer Rouge takeover. Hear about the evacuation of Phnom Penh, the genocide and killing fields, and the eventual liberation by Vietnamese forces in 1979. Finally, we bring you into the present day with stories of Phnom Penh’s urban growth, environmental challenges, and rising tourism industry. Whether you’re a traveler, history lover, or simply winding down, this episode offers a peaceful, factual journey through one of Southeast Asia’s most resilient cities.

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Podcast cover art image by Eric Nopanen.

Transcript

Welcome to tonight’s episode of The Restful Record. I'd like to let you know this episode contains stories of war and genocide. If this is upsetting to you, I would suggest you skip this episode. 

This season where we take a gentle journey through time, exploring the stories of different cities around the world. Before we dive into tonight’s city, let's take a moment to relax. Close your eyes, settle into a comfortable position, and take a slow, deep breath in through your nose... hold for a moment... and then exhale slowly through your mouth. Let the weight of your day melt away as you breathe in calm and breathe out any tension. With each breath, feel yourself sinking deeper into relaxation. Now, as we drift through the history of tonight’s city, let the soothing rhythm of my voice guide you into a deep relaxation or peaceful slumber.

Long before human settlements took root, the land that would become Phnom Penh was shaped by the powerful flow of three great rivers—the Mekong, the Tonlé Sap, and the Bassac. This region formed part of a vast tropical floodplain, where annual monsoons transformed the terrain with alternating cycles of inundation and renewal. During the rainy season, the Tonlé Sap River would famously reverse its flow, expanding the inland Tonlé Sap Lake into one of Southeast Asia’s richest freshwater ecosystems. The geography here was dynamic and ever-shifting, with river channels carving out wetlands, oxbow lakes, and fertile lowlands.

The floodplain was blanketed in lush tropical vegetation. Dense, seasonally flooded forests stretched along the riverbanks, filled with towering dipterocarps, fig trees, and thick undergrowth. In drier areas, wild grasses and groves of sugar palms swayed in the breeze, while stands of bamboo created natural thickets that supported a wide range of life. Aquatic plants such as lotus, sedges, and reeds thrived in the still, nutrient-rich waters. These diverse plant communities formed a crucial foundation for a thriving and complex ecosystem.

The region teemed with animal life. Large mammals, including wild elephants, gaur (a type of wild cattle), and sambar deer roamed the open forests and grassy plains. Leopards and Asian wild dogs were likely apex predators here. Along the waterways, crocodiles, turtles, and fish species such as giant barbs and catfish were abundant. The skies and canopy echoed with the calls of hornbills, eagles, and parakeets, while the wetlands served as seasonal havens for migrating birds. Long before human footsteps pressed into the earth, this low-lying confluence of rivers was already alive with a vibrant, self-sustaining rhythm of nature.

Archaeological evidence suggests that humans have lived in the region surrounding present-day Phnom Penh for thousands of years, likely as early as the Neolithic period. Drawn to the abundance of freshwater, fish, and fertile land, early inhabitants settled near the banks of the Mekong and Tonlé Sap rivers. These communities practiced a mixed subsistence strategy—fishing in the rivers and lakes, hunting wild animals like deer and boar, and gathering edible plants, fruits, and tubers. Stone tools, including spear points, scrapers, and grinding stones uncovered in nearby sites, point to a sophisticated understanding of how to work with local materials to meet daily needs.

As these early societies became more established, they began to build semi-permanent dwellings, often elevated on wooden stilts to protect from seasonal flooding and animals. These homes were likely constructed from bamboo, palm leaves, and hardwoods sourced from nearby forests. Archaeological digs in regions not far from Phnom Penh, such as at the Angkor Borei and Phnom Da sites, reveal remnants of moats, pottery kilns, and brick structures that suggest increasingly complex and organized communities. These settlements were often located near trade routes and river junctions, indicating early connections to regional exchange networks.

 Culturally and spiritually, these early peoples participated in animist practices, venerating the natural world around them. Water, mountains, and forests were believed to be inhabited by spirits, and offerings were likely made to ensure harmony with these unseen forces. Over time, as external influences reached the region—particularly from India—new religious beliefs were adopted and blended with existing traditions. By the early centuries of the first millennium CE, Indian-influenced Hinduism and later Buddhism had begun to shape spiritual life, art, and governance. These early cultural and religious layers laid the foundation for the development of the Khmer Empire and the rich heritage that would follow.

 The Khmer people trace their cultural and historical roots to ancient civilizations that began forming in mainland Southeast Asia over two millennia ago. One of the earliest known Khmer settlements was the kingdom of Funan, which emerged around the 1st century CE near the Mekong Delta and served as a trading hub linking India and China. Funan and its successor, Chenla, laid the foundations for the rise of the Khmer Empire. These early societies built organized city-states, managed irrigation systems, and developed written languages based on Indian scripts. Evidence from archaeological sites, including burial grounds, brick structures, and carved stelae, reflects a culture that was both locally adapted and deeply influenced by Indian cosmology, trade, and governance.

 Religion was central to Khmer identity and statecraft. Initially influenced by Hinduism—particularly the worship of Shiva and Vishnu—the Khmer people incorporated Indian spiritual and cosmological concepts into their daily life and royal rule. Over time, Mahāyāna and then Theravāda Buddhism became dominant, shaping both personal devotion and public monuments. Khmer kings commissioned temples as acts of spiritual merit and political legitimacy, often aligning them with celestial models of the universe. Their beliefs were deeply syncretic; it was not uncommon for Hindu and Buddhist imagery to appear side-by-side in the same temple. Religious rituals were tied to agricultural cycles, celestial events, and the authority of the king, who was viewed as a divine or semi-divine figure.

The pinnacle of Khmer religious architecture is Angkor Wat, built in the early 12th century by King Suryavarman II. Originally dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu, the temple is the largest religious monument in the world and represents the apex of classical Khmer design. Its central towers symbolize Mount Meru, the mythical center of the universe in Hindu cosmology, while the intricate bas-reliefs depict epic tales from the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Constructed with sandstone blocks transported from distant quarries, the temple complex is a testament to the Khmer Empire’s engineering prowess and spiritual ambition. Though Angkor Wat was later adapted for Buddhist worship, it continues to embody the Khmer people’s enduring legacy of sacred architecture, cultural sophistication, and connection to the divine.

By the 9th century CE, the Khmer Empire had emerged as the dominant power in Southeast Asia, and its influence gradually expanded into the region surrounding present-day Phnom Penh. While the empire’s political and spiritual heart lay further northwest at Angkor, the area near Phnom Penh became increasingly integrated into the broader network of trade, agriculture, and religion that defined Khmer civilization. Roads and canals connected inland settlements to larger temple complexes and to the Mekong River, which served as a vital artery for transporting rice, goods, and religious ideas. Archaeological remains near Phnom Penh, including the temples at Phnom Chisor and Tonle Bati, reflect the distinctive architectural style of the Khmer—built of sandstone and laterite, adorned with detailed carvings of Hindu and, later, Buddhist imagery.

 The spiritual life of the Khmer Empire was deeply intertwined with its political structure. Rulers were often seen as devaraja, or god-kings—earthly embodiments of Hindu deities like Shiva or Vishnu—who legitimized their authority through temple-building and rituals. Over time, Theravāda Buddhism began to take hold, especially from the 13th century onward, reshaping religious life across the empire. This shift toward a more personal, less hierarchical spiritual practice aligned with the changes that followed the decline of Angkor. While the empire eventually waned, its cultural legacy endured in the southern regions, where stone temples, religious customs, and Khmer language traditions remained vital. The area around Phnom Penh, rich in water and history, was well positioned to become a new center in the centuries to come.

According to legend, the founding of Phnom Penh is credited to a wealthy widow named Daun Penh in the 14th century. During a particularly heavy flood along the Tonlé Sap River, Daun Penh is said to have discovered a floating koki tree lodged along the banks. Inside the hollow trunk were five sacred statues—four of the Buddha and one of Vishnu. Interpreting this as a divine sign, she organized the construction of a small hill, or phnom, on which a shrine was built to house the figures. This man-made hill and the temple atop it became known as Wat Phnom, or “Mountain Pagoda,” and over time, a small settlement grew around the site. While the story is legendary, it reflects the deep intertwining of Buddhism, nature, and everyday life that has long shaped Khmer spiritual culture.

The settlement that formed around Wat Phnom eventually grew in significance due to its strategic location at the junction of the Mekong and Tonlé Sap rivers—a natural hub for trade, travel, and communication. Though not officially established as the capital until centuries later, the area around Phnom Penh began to emerge as an important center following the decline of Angkor. As internal strife and external pressures weakened the Khmer Empire, rulers began relocating southward toward more secure and accessible regions. The legend of Daun Penh’s discovery, preserved through oral history and temple inscriptions, helped sanctify the new city’s founding and still resonates today. Wat Phnom remains a spiritual heart of the city, where locals continue to make offerings and seek blessings, connecting modern life to the sacred origins of Cambodia’s capital.

By the 15th century, the once-mighty Khmer Empire was in decline. Angkor, the imperial capital for centuries, had begun to falter under a combination of internal instability, shifting religious dynamics, and external invasions—most notably from the Siamese kingdom of Ayutthaya. In 1431, after a prolonged siege, Ayutthaya forces sacked Angkor, marking a symbolic and strategic turning point. Though the city was not entirely abandoned, its political and religious prominence diminished. Environmental factors also contributed: centuries of intensive irrigation and deforestation had degraded the land, and shifts in monsoon patterns strained the elaborate water management systems that had supported Angkor’s population and agriculture.

 In the aftermath, Khmer rulers sought a more defensible and economically viable location to reestablish their seat of power. Phnom Penh, situated at the crossroads of the Mekong, Tonlé Sap, and Bassac rivers, emerged as an ideal choice. Its riverside position offered improved access to trade routes and maritime commerce, especially with growing regional powers like China and Vietnam. By the mid-15th century, King Ponhea Yat formally moved the royal court to Phnom Penh, establishing it as the new capital. He is credited with expanding the settlement, building fortifications, and commissioning several temples, including a more prominent shrine at Wat Phnom. This marked the beginning of Phnom Penh’s transformation from a sacred riverside outpost into the political and cultural heart of the Khmer kingdom.

From the 16th to the early 19th century, Phnom Penh remained an important regional center, though the Khmer kingdom underwent frequent periods of instability and decline. The capital itself was moved multiple times during this era, as successive kings sought refuge from foreign invasions, internal power struggles, and the growing influence of neighboring kingdoms. Phnom Penh was periodically abandoned and then reoccupied as the royal seat shifted between cities such as Longvek, Oudong, and even regions closer to the Vietnamese frontier. Despite these disruptions, Phnom Penh’s location at the confluence of major rivers ensured it remained a hub for commerce, particularly in rice, timber, and fish, and a gateway for interaction with regional powers and European traders.

During this period, the Khmer kingdom found itself increasingly caught between the ambitions of Siam (modern-day Thailand) and Vietnam, both of which sought to expand their control over Cambodian territory. Vietnamese influence grew particularly strong in the southeastern region, leading to cultural and political entanglements that shaped Cambodia’s borders and internal affairs. Meanwhile, the area around Phnom Penh remained agriculturally rich and populated with small farming and fishing communities, many of which practiced Theravāda Buddhism and maintained traditional Khmer customs. Though Phnom Penh was not the political capital for much of this time, its spiritual significance endured through the continued reverence for Wat Phnom and its role as a center for monastic learning and local pilgrimage.

In 1863, Cambodia became a French protectorate, and by the 1880s, the French had firmly established administrative control over the country. Phnom Penh, once a modest riverside town, was chosen as the colonial capital in 1866 due to its strategic location along the Mekong River and proximity to the Tonlé Sap. French urban planners began reshaping the city, introducing European-style boulevards, villas, and administrative buildings alongside traditional Khmer structures. Drainage canals were constructed to manage the annual floods, and a modern port was developed to facilitate trade along the Mekong. The city’s layout reflected colonial priorities—separating administrative zones from traditional Khmer neighborhoods—and brought with it new institutions such as schools, hospitals, and Catholic churches.

For the local population, these changes brought both opportunity and hardship. Some Cambodians found employment in colonial administration or benefited from improved infrastructure and access to education. However, many more experienced displacement and marginalization as land was seized for development or repurposed for French use. Traditional Khmer architecture and cultural practices were often devalued or sidelined in favor of European aesthetics and norms. French authorities imposed new taxes and labor requirements, deepening social inequalities. At the same time, Phnom Penh became a center of cultural exchange, with an emerging educated Khmer elite engaging with ideas of modernity, nationalism, and reform. These tensions and transformations laid the groundwork for Cambodia’s eventual push for independence in the mid-20th century.

Cambodia gained full independence from France on November 9, 1953, under the leadership of King Norodom Sihanouk, who had skillfully negotiated with the French while fostering national unity at home. Phnom Penh became the political and symbolic heart of the newly sovereign nation, hosting government ministries, universities, and royal institutions. The 1950s marked a period of optimism and relative stability, often referred to as Cambodia’s “golden age.” Under Sihanouk’s vision of “Buddhist socialism,” the capital saw expanded infrastructure, a flourishing arts scene, and the growth of a middle class. French-style cafés and cinemas dotted the boulevards, while Khmer architects such as Vann Molyvann pioneered a new architectural movement that blended modernism with traditional aesthetics—exemplified by buildings like the National Sports Complex and the Independence Monument.

However, beneath this surface of prosperity, social and political tensions were building. By the 1960s, Sihanouk’s increasingly authoritarian rule, suppression of dissent, and alignment with China and the Non-Aligned Movement alienated parts of the population, particularly the educated elite and rural poor. The Vietnam War also deeply affected Cambodia: Between 1969 and 1973, the United States conducted a covert and later overt bombing campaign in Cambodia as part of its broader strategy during the Vietnam War. Targeting North Vietnamese troops and Viet Cong supply lines that had crossed into Cambodian territory, the U.S. dropped an estimated 500,000 tons of bombs—more than were dropped on Japan during World War II. While the official goal was to weaken communist forces, the bombings devastated rural communities, killed tens of thousands of Cambodian civilians, and displaced hundreds of thousands more. The destruction and trauma created deep resentment and instability, helping to radicalize the countryside and fueling support for the Khmer Rouge, who capitalized on the chaos to expand their influence. The campaign, initially kept secret from the American public, remains one of the most controversial chapters of U.S. foreign policy in Southeast Asia.

 Meanwhile, communist insurgents—who would later form the Khmer Rouge—began gaining support among rural communities. By 1970, General Lon Nol staged a coup while Sihanouk was abroad, declaring the Khmer Republic. The new government, backed by the United States, struggled to maintain control as the Khmer Rouge—supported by North Vietnam and capitalizing on rural discontent—rapidly expanded its influence. The war devastated the countryside, displacing millions and crippling the nation’s economy. U.S. military aid and bombing campaigns intensified the conflict, but Lon Nol’s regime remained weak and unpopular. As violence escalated, basic services collapsed, and much of the country descended into chaos. 

On April 17, 1975, the Khmer Rouge entered Phnom Penh, effectively ending five years of civil war and beginning one of the darkest chapters in Cambodia’s history. Led by Pol Pot, the Khmer Rouge—a communist movement with Maoist ideological roots—had grown in strength during the Vietnam War, gaining rural support through promises of equality and independence. The U.S. bombing campaign in Cambodia, meant to root out Vietnamese forces, killed tens of thousands of Cambodians and pushed many survivors into the arms of the Khmer Rouge. The movement framed the war, foreign interference, and urban elites as sources of corruption and suffering, setting the stage for a radical social revolution. Once in power, Pol Pot and his inner circle sought to erase all traces of capitalism, modernity, and foreign influence, attempting to remake the country into a classless agrarian society.

Within days of seizing the capital, the Khmer Rouge forcibly evacuated Phnom Penh’s two million residents—among them the sick, elderly, and children—on foot into the countryside. The regime shut down schools, hospitals, markets, and religious institutions, and Phnom Penh became a ghost city, its empty boulevards eerily silent under strict control. Across the country, citizens were assigned to agricultural labor camps, where they endured grueling conditions, forced collectivization, starvation, and constant surveillance. Intellectuals, monks, doctors, teachers, and anyone associated with the former government or foreign institutions were targeted as enemies of the revolution. Even wearing glasses or speaking a foreign language could be enough to warrant execution.

The Khmer Rouge implemented a ruthless system of purges and internal paranoia. Political prisons such as Tuol Sleng (S-21) in Phnom Penh became centers of torture and forced confessions. Victims—many of them innocent—were transported to killing sites outside the city, including the now-infamous Choeung Ek Killing Fields, where they were executed and buried in mass graves. Between 1975 and 1979, it is estimated that at least 1.7 to 2 million people—nearly a quarter of Cambodia’s population—died from starvation, disease, overwork, or execution. The genocide decimated families, erased centuries of cultural and religious heritage, and traumatized the survivors. Entire communities vanished, and basic social bonds were torn apart in the regime’s effort to enforce total ideological conformity.

 The Khmer Rouge regime was deeply shaped by Cold War geopolitics. Although it adopted a distinctly Cambodian form of radical communism, it was influenced by Maoist China and initially tolerated by both China and, indirectly, by the United States and other powers who opposed Vietnam’s growing influence in the region. Meanwhile, tensions escalated between the Khmer Rouge and neighboring Vietnam, eventually erupting into open conflict. In December 1978, after repeated border clashes and the massacre of Vietnamese civilians by Khmer Rouge forces, Vietnam invaded Cambodia.

On January 7, 1979, Vietnamese forces and Cambodian defectors from the Khmer Rouge overthrew Pol Pot’s regime and entered Phnom Penh, effectively ending nearly four years of terror. The Vietnamese-led invasion, launched in response to repeated cross-border attacks and mass killings of Vietnamese civilians, was swift and decisive. When their troops arrived in the capital, they found a devastated, nearly empty city—its infrastructure collapsed, its buildings abandoned, and its people either dead or scattered in the countryside. While the Khmer Rouge leadership fled west toward the Thai border, the new government, backed by Vietnam, began the difficult task of rebuilding the city and country from near-total ruin. Though the invasion was politically controversial and led to Cambodia’s international isolation, many Cambodians remember it as a moment of liberation that brought an end to one of the most brutal regimes of the 20th century.

 Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Cambodia remained deeply scarred by war, political instability, and the lingering threat of the Khmer Rouge, which continued to wage guerrilla warfare from border regions. Under Vietnamese occupation, Phnom Penh slowly began to recover—its population returned, basic services were restored, and a new government, the People’s Republic of Kampuchea, was installed. However, international sanctions and the ongoing civil conflict left the country largely isolated throughout the 1980s. It wasn’t until the 1991 Paris Peace Accords and the arrival of the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) that the path to peace and reconstruction began in earnest. With democratic elections in 1993 and increasing political stability, Phnom Penh saw an influx of international aid, investment, and interest. By the late 1990s, tourism—especially to the temples of Angkor—began to rise significantly, bringing new life to the country’s economy and reintroducing Cambodia to the global stage after decades of turmoil.

Since the early 2000s, Phnom Penh has transformed rapidly from a war-scarred capital into a bustling urban center and economic hub. Fueled by foreign investment, garment manufacturing, construction, and tourism, Cambodia’s economy grew steadily, with Phnom Penh at its core. New hotels, shopping malls, office towers, and luxury condominiums began to reshape the city’s skyline, while infrastructure projects—such as upgraded roads and expanded electricity grids—improved urban life for many residents. Tourism surged, particularly to cultural landmarks like the Royal Palace, Wat Phnom, and nearby Killing Fields memorials. However, economic growth has also led to stark inequality. Informal settlements expanded along riverbanks and lakes, and forced evictions made way for real estate developments. Still, Phnom Penh retained its vibrant street life, rich culinary culture, and a growing arts and youth scene that helped redefine the city’s post-conflict identity.

Yet the city has faced significant challenges along the way. Environmental degradation, including unchecked construction, pollution of the Tonlé Sap and Mekong rivers, and the infilling of Boeung Kak Lake, have sparked concern among residents and environmental groups. Rapid urbanization has strained public services and increased traffic congestion and air pollution. Politically, Cambodia has remained under the long-standing leadership of Prime Minister Hun Sen, whose government has been criticized for limiting press freedom and political opposition, while still promoting economic development and regional integration. Despite these tensions, Phnom Penh has continued to attract both foreign visitors and investors. As of 2025, the city stands at a crossroads—balancing modernization with heritage preservation, and economic opportunity with the urgent need for more equitable and sustainable growth.

Thank you for joining me on this journey through the rich and complex history of Phnom Penh—from its ancient riverbanks and sacred legends to the shadows of conflict and its vibrant modern-day revival. As always, I hope this quiet reflection offered you not only a sense of place but a sense of peace. Wherever you are listening from, may the stories of resilience, culture, and transformation lull you into rest. Until next time, thank you for listening to The Restful Record.