The Restful Record: Baghdad, Iraq

In this calming episode of The Restful Record, we journey through the long and layered history of Baghdad, one of the world’s most storied cities. Once the dazzling capital of the Abbasid Caliphate and a center of learning, trade, and culture, Baghdad has endured centuries of transformation; from Mongol invasions to Ottoman rule, colonial entanglements, and the turbulence of the modern era.

You’ll hear about Saddam Hussein’s rise to power, the impact of the Gulf War, and the profound changes brought by the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq, all told at a slow, soothing pace designed to help you unwind. As we bring the story into Baghdad today, in 2025, we reflect on the city’s resilience and the enduring spirit of its people.

Perfect for history lovers, travelers, or anyone searching for a gentle bedtime story, this episode blends Iraq’s history, culture, and politics with a relaxing narration style that makes it easy to drift off to sleep.

💤 Don’t forget to like, subscribe, and hit the notification bell if you enjoy this content! It helps support the podcast and brings more peaceful episodes your way.

Podcast cover art image by Eric Nopanen.

Transcript

Welcome to tonight’s episode of The Restful Record. Whether you're here for relaxation, to de-stress, or to help you fall into a deep sleep, we welcome you. This season we take a gentle journey through time, exploring the stories of different cities around the world. Before we dive into tonight’s city, let's take a moment to relax. I invite you to close your eyes, settle into a comfortable position, and take a slow, deep breath in through your nose, hold for a moment, and then exhale slowly through your mouth. Let the weight of your day melt away as you breathe in calm and breathe out any tension you might be carrying from the day. With each breath, feel yourself sinking deeper into relaxation. Now, as we drift through the history of tonight’s city, let the soothing rhythm of my voice guide you deep into relaxation or sleep.

Long before the founding of Baghdad, the land along the Tigris was defined by its geography. The city lies in central Mesopotamia, the wide plain between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Over countless millennia, these rivers carried nutrient-rich silt down from the mountains of Anatolia and Iran, depositing it across the lowlands. This steady layering of fertile soil gave the region its distinctive character: an expanse of flat, open land bordered by wetlands and river channels, ideal for sustaining life once people eventually arrived.

 The flora and fauna of prehistoric Mesopotamia reflected the diversity of this landscape. Riverbanks supported thick growths of reeds and grasses, while in the drier stretches of steppe, wild grains and desert shrubs took root. Herds of gazelle and wild donkees native to the region moved across the plains. Lions, leopards, and hyenas once hunted here, and the marshes drew flocks of migratory birds, from ducks and geese to cranes and herons. These ecosystems flourished long before humans learned to cultivate crops or settle in permanent communities.

 Climatic shifts shaped the region as well. In earlier ages, northern Mesopotamia was cooler and wetter, with woodlands of oak and pistachio spreading across the uplands. Over time, conditions became warmer and more arid, gradually transforming the environment into the semi-desert we see today. Yet despite this, the combination of river water, fertile soil, and open plains meant the area remained one of the most naturally productive landscapes of the ancient world—laying the groundwork for the rise of civilizations and, eventually, the foundation of Baghdad itself.

 Archaeological evidence shows that humans began inhabiting Mesopotamia tens of thousands of years ago, first as hunter-gatherers moving along the fertile river valleys. Small groups established temporary camps near water sources, relying on fishing, hunting gazelle and boar, and gathering wild plants. The abundance of resources provided by the Tigris and Euphrates made the region especially attractive for early human settlement. By around 10,000 BCE, communities in northern Mesopotamia began experimenting with cultivating wild grains and domesticating animals, laying the foundation for one of the earliest agricultural revolutions in human history.

 As these practices spread southward, villages developed into more permanent settlements. Mud-brick houses clustered together on the floodplains, and people learned to manage the rivers through simple irrigation channels. This control of water allowed fields of barley, wheat, and legumes to thrive, while sheep and goats were raised for food and textiles. By the sixth millennium BCE, the region had transformed from a landscape of scattered camps into a network of farming communities. These early inhabitants not only adapted to their environment but also reshaped it, setting the stage for the rise of city-states and complex societies that would make Mesopotamia the “cradle of civilization.”

 By the fourth millennium BCE, farming villages along the southern reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates had grown into the world’s first true cities. This was the era of Sumer, when city-states such as Uruk, Ur, and Eridu emerged from the fertile plains. These centers developed monumental architecture, including temples known as ziggurats, and created some of the earliest systems of writing to record trade, laws, and religious rituals. The innovations of the Sumerians—writing, irrigation, and organized government—became the foundations of urban life throughout Mesopotamia.

 The centuries that followed saw waves of new powers shaping the region. The Akkadian Empire under Sargon of Akkad, around 2300 BCE, united much of Mesopotamia for the first time. Later, Babylon rose as a political and cultural center, leaving behind legacies such as the Code of Hammurabi, one of the earliest known legal codes. The Code of Hammurabi, was created in the 18th century BCE under King Hammurabi of Babylon. Inscribed on a large stone stele in cuneiform script, the code contained nearly three hundred laws that covered daily life—ranging from trade agreements and agricultural practices to marriage, inheritance, and criminal justice. Its principle of “an eye for an eye” is well known, but the code also established protections for the vulnerable, including widows and orphans, and sought to regulate fairness in contracts and wages. Although justice was not applied equally across all social classes, the Code of Hammurabi stands as one of the earliest written attempts to create a consistent legal framework, influencing later legal traditions throughout the region and beyond.

 To the north, Assyrian cities like Nineveh and Ashur became renowned for their military strength and vast libraries. Together, these civilizations not only advanced agriculture, science, and governance but also established Mesopotamia as a crossroads of exchange, influencing lands from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf.

 After the decline of Babylon and Assyria, Mesopotamia became a prized territory for larger empires that swept across the ancient Near East. In the 6th century BCE, the region was absorbed into the Achaemenid Persian Empire under Cyrus the Great. The Persians valued Mesopotamia’s fertile plains and strategic location, linking it into a vast network of provinces that stretched from the Indus Valley to the Mediterranean. Cities along the Tigris and Euphrates flourished as centers of administration and trade, while the Persians introduced new systems of governance that allowed local cultures to endure under imperial rule.

 The conquest of Mesopotamia by Alexander the Great in 331 BCE brought another wave of influence. Under his successors, the Seleucid dynasty, Hellenistic culture mixed with Mesopotamian traditions, blending Greek language, art, and architecture with long-standing local practices. Later, the Parthian and Sassanian Empires, both Persian in origin, controlled the land for centuries. During this time, Mesopotamia remained a crossroads of commerce, faith, and learning, with its cities connecting the Roman world in the west to India and Central Asia in the east. By the 7th century CE, when Arab Muslim armies advanced into the region, Mesopotamia was already a land layered with centuries of cultural exchange—ready to enter yet another new era of history.

 In the early 7th century CE, the armies of the newly formed Islamic Caliphate swept into Mesopotamia. At that time, the region was under the rule of the Sassanian Persian Empire, which had long contested territory with the Byzantine Empire to the west. Exhausted by decades of war, the Sassanians were unable to withstand the rapid expansion of Muslim forces. By the 630s, key cities had fallen, marking the beginning of Islamic rule in Mesopotamia.

 Under the Rashidun and Umayyad caliphates, the region became a central province of the expanding Muslim world. Its fertile land provided grain and resources, while its cities grew into hubs of trade and scholarship. The mixing of Arab, Persian, and older Mesopotamian traditions created a uniquely rich cultural landscape. Yet it was in the mid-8th century, under the Abbasid dynasty, that Mesopotamia reached a new height of importance.

 In 762 CE, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur founded Baghdad as his new capital, strategically located on the west bank of the Tigris. The city was designed as a “Round City,” with concentric walls and gates leading into a carefully planned urban core. From its beginning, Baghdad was envisioned not only as a seat of political power but also as a center of learning and culture. Within decades, it grew into the heart of the Islamic Golden Age, drawing scholars, poets, and scientists from across the world and establishing a legacy that would define the region for centuries.

During the height of the Abbasid Caliphate, Baghdad became one of the most influential cities in the world. Its markets thrived with goods from India, China, Africa, and Europe, while its palaces and mosques reflected the wealth and sophistication of the empire. The city’s most enduring legacy was its role as a center of knowledge. At the House of Wisdom, founded in the early 9th century, scholars gathered to translate works of Greek, Persian, and Indian origin into Arabic, preserving and expanding upon mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy. Figures such as al-Khwarizmi, whose work laid the foundation for algebra, and the physician al-Razi advanced fields that would later influence both the Islamic world and medieval Europe. In this period, Baghdad stood as a beacon of intellectual and cultural achievement, often described as the jewel of the Islamic Golden Age.

 Yet the city’s fortunes did not last. Political fragmentation, internal rivalries, and the weakening of central Abbasid authority left Baghdad vulnerable to outside powers. By the 13th century, the once-great capital had entered a period of decline. This decline reached its catastrophic climax in 1258, when Mongol forces under Hulagu Khan laid siege to the city. After weeks of resistance, Baghdad fell, and the invaders unleashed one of the most devastating sackings in history. Thousands of lives were lost, its libraries and institutions—including the House of Wisdom—were destroyed, and the Tigris was said to have run black with the ink of discarded manuscripts. The Mongol invasion marked the end of Baghdad’s role as the unrivaled heart of the Islamic world, though the city would endure in new forms in the centuries that followed.

In the centuries after the Mongol invasion, Baghdad never regained its former glory, but it remained a city of strategic importance. Control of the region shifted frequently, passing through the hands of Mongol successors, local dynasties, and later the Persian Safavids. By the 16th century, Mesopotamia had become a contested frontier between the Safavid Empire of Persia and the rising Ottoman Empire. In 1534, the Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent captured Baghdad, bringing it firmly under Ottoman rule. For nearly four centuries, until 1917, the Ottomans governed the city as a provincial capital. Though Baghdad did not return to its earlier status as a global intellectual center, it remained a vital hub of trade, connecting the Persian Gulf with the Mediterranean. Under Ottoman administration, the city saw new mosques and markets built, while its diverse population of Arabs, Persians, Turks, Jews, and Christians gave it a layered cultural identity that reflected its long, complex history.

 The end of Ottoman rule in Baghdad came during the upheaval of the First World War. In 1917, British forces captured the city as part of their campaign in Mesopotamia, marking the start of a new chapter in its history. Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the region was placed under British administration, and in 1921 the Kingdom of Iraq was established under a British-backed monarchy. Baghdad was chosen as the capital, symbolizing both its central location and its long-standing role as a seat of power in Mesopotamia. The city grew rapidly in the decades that followed, blending traditional neighborhoods with new institutions, roads, and government buildings. This period laid the groundwork for the modern state of Iraq, while also setting the stage for the political struggles that would shape the city throughout the twentieth century.

 Iraq gained formal independence in 1932, with Baghdad confirmed as its capital. In the decades that followed, the discovery and exploitation of vast oil reserves transformed the city and the country. Oil revenues funded modernization projects, from highways and schools to hospitals and housing, and Baghdad grew into a modern metropolis with a population that expanded rapidly through migration from rural areas. Yet prosperity was uneven, and the city also became a stage for political turbulence. Coups and revolutions shook Iraq throughout the mid-20th century, culminating in the rise of the Ba’ath Party and, eventually, the rule of Saddam Hussein in 1979.

 Saddam Hussein, who would dominate Iraq’s political life for more than two decades, was born in 1937 in a small village near Tikrit. Raised in poverty and marked by a troubled childhood, he became involved with the Ba’ath Party as a young man, embracing its ideology of Arab nationalism and socialism. After participating in a failed attempt to assassinate Iraq’s prime minister in 1959, Saddam fled abroad, but he later returned to rise through the party ranks. By 1979, he had consolidated power as president of Iraq, ruling through a mixture of patronage, fear, and ruthless suppression of dissent. In the West, Saddam was initially viewed as a pragmatic leader who could serve as a counterweight to revolutionary Iran, especially during the Iran–Iraq War, when he received tacit support and even military assistance from Western powers. Over time, however, his image in the West shifted dramatically—from that of a regional strongman to a symbol of authoritarian brutality and defiance, particularly after his invasion of Kuwait and subsequent confrontations with the United States and its allies.

 In 1980, Saddam Hussein launched an invasion of Iran, hoping to seize disputed border territories and assert Iraq’s dominance in the region following Iran’s Islamic Revolution. What was expected to be a quick campaign turned into one of the longest and bloodiest wars of the 20th century. Both sides used trench warfare, heavy artillery, and chemical weapons, leading to enormous casualties. Baghdad, though far from the front lines, felt the impact through air raids, military mobilization, and the strain of sustaining a war economy.

 The toll on Iraqi society was immense. Hundreds of thousands of lives were lost, and the financial burden drained the country’s resources. To fund the war, Iraq borrowed heavily, particularly from Gulf states like Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. By the time a ceasefire was reached in 1988, neither side had achieved decisive victory, and Iraq emerged deeply in debt despite its vast oil wealth. The hardship left the country economically weakened but militarily experienced.

 The Gulf War of 1990–1991 began after Iraq  invaded neighboring Kuwait in August 1990. Saddam justified the invasion by claiming Kuwait had historically been part of Iraq and accused it of overproducing oil, which kept prices low and strained Iraq’s economy in the aftermath of the costly Iran–Iraq War of the 1980s. The move alarmed the international community, as Iraq suddenly controlled a significant share of the world’s oil reserves and posed a threat to Saudi Arabia. In response, a U.S.-led coalition, backed by the United Nations, launched Operation Desert Storm in January 1991 to drive Iraqi forces out of Kuwait. Within weeks, the coalition’s superior air power and military technology overwhelmed the Iraqi army, forcing a retreat and leaving Baghdad vulnerable to aerial bombardment.

 For the people of Baghdad, the war brought widespread destruction and fear. Coalition bombing campaigns targeted military infrastructure but also hit bridges, factories, and parts of the city’s power grid. Residents endured nights of air raids, shortages of electricity, and disruptions to basic services. While Saddam Hussein remained in power, the defeat severely weakened Iraq’s economy and international standing. In the years that followed, sweeping United Nations sanctions further strained everyday life, limiting access to food, medicine, and trade. The once-vibrant capital suffered from crumbling infrastructure, rising poverty, and isolation from much of the outside world.

 The end of the Gulf War in 1991 left Iraq weakened but not transformed. Saddam Hussein remained in power, though his regime faced new challenges from both within and beyond its borders. In the immediate aftermath of the war, uprisings broke out among Shi’a communities in the south and Kurdish groups in the north, encouraged in part by calls for rebellion from abroad. Saddam’s forces brutally suppressed these revolts, leading to mass displacement and humanitarian crises. In response, Western powers established no-fly zones over northern and southern Iraq to limit government attacks on civilians. While these measures curtailed Saddam’s control in some regions, they also deepened Iraq’s isolation on the world stage.

 Throughout the 1990s, Iraq endured strict United Nations sanctions intended to pressure Saddam into dismantling weapons of mass destruction programs. These sanctions restricted imports of vital goods, including food and medicine, and their impact on ordinary Iraqis was severe. Malnutrition, deteriorating healthcare, and crumbling infrastructure became part of daily life in Baghdad and beyond. The government attempted to maintain control through rationing systems and propaganda, but resentment grew. For many Iraqis, the decade was defined less by international politics and more by the grinding difficulty of survival.

 At the same time, tensions between Iraq and the West persisted. Inspections by the United Nations sought to verify the destruction of Iraq’s weapons programs, but disputes over access fueled mistrust. Sporadic clashes between Iraqi forces and U.S. or British aircraft in the no-fly zones kept the region unstable. By the early 2000s, the September 11 attacks in the United States dramatically reshaped global politics, and Saddam Hussein’s Iraq once again became a focal point of international concern. U.S. leaders accused Iraq of hiding weapons of mass destruction and of posing a threat to regional and global security. Despite widespread debate and opposition, a U.S.-led coalition launched an invasion in March 2003. Within weeks, coalition forces advanced into Baghdad, toppling Saddam’s regime and marking the start of a turbulent new era in Iraq’s history.

The fall of Baghdad in April 2003 was swift and dramatic. Images of coalition forces entering the city, and of Saddam Hussein’s statue being pulled down in Firdos Square, spread quickly around the world. Yet for residents of Baghdad, the collapse of the regime did not bring stability. In the days following the invasion, looting and lawlessness swept the city. Government offices, museums, and hospitals were stripped of equipment and artifacts, while basic services such as electricity and clean water broke down. The sudden absence of state authority created a vacuum that would shape daily life for years to come.

 As the occupation continued, Baghdad became the center of Iraq’s unfolding turmoil. Armed insurgencies arose, targeting coalition forces as well as civilians. Sectarian divisions, long suppressed under Saddam’s rule, erupted into open conflict, and neighborhoods of the city often became divided along ethnic and religious lines. Bombings, kidnappings, and assassinations became grim features of daily life. For many Baghdadis, ordinary routines—going to school, visiting the market, commuting to work—were shadowed by constant danger. Families who had lived side by side for generations were displaced as violence escalated.

 Despite these hardships, Baghdad also witnessed efforts to rebuild and adapt. International aid programs sought to restore infrastructure, and Iraqi cultural life persisted, with universities, writers, and artists striving to keep traditions alive amid the chaos. Still, the years after 2003 left deep scars on the city. Baghdad was transformed from the heart of a proud nation into a symbol of Iraq’s struggles with occupation, insurgency, and sectarian violence.

 In the years following the U.S. invasion, Baghdad remained at the center of Iraq’s struggles. Sectarian violence escalated in the mid-2000s, as militias and insurgent groups fought for power. Entire districts of the city were reshaped by conflict, with families displaced and communities divided along sectarian lines. Daily life was marked by checkpoints, curfews, and the fear of car bombs. While coalition forces gradually transferred authority to an elected Iraqi government, instability persisted, and many residents struggled to reconcile the city’s proud history with the harsh realities of occupation and civil strife.

 The 2010s brought new challenges. The rise of the so-called Islamic State, or ISIS, threatened Iraq’s stability, though Baghdad itself did not fall to the group. Instead, the capital became a refuge for those fleeing violence in other provinces, swelling its population and straining already fragile infrastructure. At the same time, Iraq’s oil wealth fueled reconstruction projects, and cultural life began to reemerge. Markets reopened, universities expanded, and artists, writers, and musicians reclaimed spaces for creativity. For many Iraqis, Baghdad symbolized both resilience and loss—a city scarred by war, yet still beating with the rhythm of daily life.

 By the 2020s, Baghdad had entered a new phase. Security improved compared to the darkest years of violence, though political corruption, economic hardship, and demands for reform continued to spark large-scale protests in the city’s streets. Younger generations, born during or after the U.S. invasion, have come of age with hopes of rebuilding a city worthy of its long history. In 2025, Baghdad stands as a complex place: still facing challenges of governance, infrastructure, and stability, yet alive with the determination of its people. From the banks of the Tigris, the city that has endured Mongol invasions, imperial rule, and modern wars continues to evolve, carrying forward its legacy as one of the world’s most storied capitals.